Chapter 28 New Directions for a Nation (1977-2008)

Chapter 28 – New Directions for a Nation (1977-2008) Vocabulary: Key Terms:

1. violate - to break a rule or law; to disrespect; to disturb

2. alter - to change in some way; to make different

3. critic - someone who makes judgments, especiallly negative ones

4. intermediate - happening in between; part way from one extreme to another

5. deprive - to withhold; to take away

6. pursue - to follow; to chase; to attempt to gain

7. confine - to keep within an area; to shut in or imprison

8. crisis - turning point or deciding event in history

9. balanced budget - government spends only as much money as it collects

10. deregulation - scaling back federal rules for businesses

11. deficit - results when the government spends more money than it collects

12. recession - a temporary economic slump

13. surplus - the government has collected more money than it is spending

14. glasnost - speaking openly about Soviet problems

15. apartheid - racial separation and inequality

16. sanction - penalties applied against a country in order to pressure it to change its policies

17. westernization- the adoption of ideas, culture, and technology from Western regions such as the US and Europe

18. Moral Majority- religious organization that backed conservative political causes in the 1980s

19. Reaganomics - President Reagan’s economic program that cut taxes, cut federal spending on social programs, and increased military spending. 20. downsizing - reducing a workforce

21. Contract with America- 1994 legislative package that included trimming social welfare programs and slashing taxes

22. mediator - agent who helps conflicted parties iron out their differences

23. Dayton Accord- 1995 peace agreement among Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia

24. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty-1991 treaty signed by the US and Soviet Union to reduce nuclear weapons

25. OPEC - (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) multinational organization that sets a common policy for the sale of petroleum

26. Camp David Accords- 1979 peace treaty between Israel and Egypt in which Israel agreed to recognize Israel

27. PLO - (Palestine Liberation Organization) Palestinian-Arab organization founded in 1964 to destroy Israel, mainly through the use of armed force

28. Persian Gulf War - 1991 war in which the US and its UN allies drove invading Iraqi forces out of neighboring Kuwait

29. terrorism - deliberate use of violence to spread fear and achieve political goals

30. NAFTA - (North American Free Trade Agreement) treaty among the US, Canada, and Mexico to gradually remove tariffs and other trade barriers

31. environmentalist- person who words to reduce pollution and protect the natural environment

32. EPA - (Environmental Protection Agency) federal government agency that works to reduce pollution

33. renewable resource- resource that can be quickly replaced by nature

34. global warming- the slow but steady rise in the world’s average temperature

35. internet - series of interconnected computers that allow users to access and exchange computerized information

36. e-commerce - business and trade over the internet 37. refugee - person who flees his or her homeland to seek safety elsewhere

38. illegal alien - immigrant who enters a country without permission

39. Immigration Reform and Control Act –law that allowed people who arrived illegally in the US before 1982 to apply for citizenship

40. American Indian Religious Freedom Act – 1978 law that directed federal agencies not to interfere with Native American religious practices

41. mainstreaming - placing children with special needs in regular classes

42. Americans with Disabilities Act – law passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination in hiring people with physical or mental impairments

43. AARP - (American Association of Retired Persons ) organization that monitors issues of concern to older Americans

Key People:

Ronald Reagan - republican California governor who ran for president against Jimmy Carter and won in 1980

George H.W. Bush - Reagan's VP; became the 41st president winning the 1988 election

Bill Clinton - democrat governor of Arkansas won a three-way presidential contest in 1992, against Texas billionaire Ross Perot and G.H.W. Bush

George W. Bush - republican Texan governor, son of former President George H W. Bush became president after the state of Florida’s paper ballots were misleading. Al Gore (VP to Clinton) lost by a paper-thin margin, but won the popular vote.

Mikhail Gorbachev -became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985; reformed the Soviet system of government

Yasir Arafat - Palestinian Arab leader of the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

Ruholla Khomeini - Iranian, Muslim leader (the Ayatollah) who wanted Iran to return to a very strict form of Islam.

Saddam Hussein - Iraq's brutal dictator

Norman Schwarzkopf- general; commander of the US military operations during G.H. Bush and Clinton presidencies Chapter 28 – Section 1 - A Conservative Surge Obj: to understand how the New Deal and Great Society increased the size and scope of the federal government; to identify how later presidents sought to reverse this trend and bring a conservative approach to government.

Jimmy Carter:  became president in 1976  had high hopes  his inexperience proved a disadvantage  could not get Congress to support him in his first year in office  they rejected 10 reform bills  faced economic woes  inflation  by 1979, annual inflation rate was more than 10%  at the same time, taxes also rising  faced an international crisis  the Shah of Iran overthrown by revolutionaries  Shah a longtime ally of the US  1979, Carter allowed exiled Shah to enter US for medical treatment  angry revolutionaries seized American embassy in Tehran; took 53 American hostages  hostage crisis continued for 14 months  crisis eroded American's confidence in Carter

As Carter struggled, new political movement strengthening (conservative movement) It would reshape American politics. What is a conservative? What is a liberal? by the late 1970s these parties emerged Liberals:  generally favored federal government action to regulate the economy and solve social problems  supported large-scale federal programs  Roosevelt's New Deal  Johnson's Great Society

Conservatives:  two main categories (political and social)  Political - wanted to shrink "big government" (too powerful) , more power to state and local, lower taxes and curb government regulation of business  Social - concerned with "traditional values" (family, patriotism, religion) (Rev. Jerry Falwell-Moral Majority) Election of 1980 - Conservatives in control of the Republican Party Their strategy:  shrink government  slash expensive social programs  cut taxes  balance the federal budget (balanced budget)  curb regulations of business (overregulation)  nominated Ronald Reagan to run against Jimmy Carter  Reagan wins election with a clear victory.  Republicans regain control of the SEnate for the first time since the election of Eisenhower in 1952.

Ronald Reagan: Unique background:  movie star (1940s & 50s)  president of the screen actors' union  elected governor of California in the 1960s  1980 entered White House promising to achieve conservative goals at home  foreign policy - vowed to strengthen military to counter the Soviet Union  known as the "Great Communicator"  presented ideas in terms that ordinary people could understand  convinced Americans problems would be solved (optimism)  Reaganomics - his economic program  reducing government spending and taxes  sliced more than $40 billion from the federal budget  trimmed social programs and cut federal jobs  persuaded Congress to lower taxes by 25%  is was said that he had done more to "alter" the economic direction of the country than any President in 50 years.  served two terms  one of the nation's most popular Presidents  Mixed record (Negative and Positive)  N - did not succeed in balancing budget  N - his tax cuts and increase in military spending led to record federal deficits  N - critics charged that cuts in social programs and taxes hurt the poor and favored the rich  P - did limit government by slowing its growth  P -policies helped expand economy and shrink inflation  P - major breakthroughs in ending the Cold War  P - restored faith in the presidency Election of 1988 - Victory went to Reagan's Vice President, G.H.W. Bush

George H.W. Bush:  pledged to continue "Reaganomics"  catch phrase "read my lips!" promised "no new taxes"  promise broken due to economic problems  national debt continued to increase  to cut deficit - reduce spending and raise taxes  called for new taxes  conservatives outraged  1991 - deep economic recession (lasted more than a year)  businesses laid off workers  umemployment soared  some businesses went bankrupt  people blamed tax hike for recession

By the end of Bush's term, voters were upset with deficits, joblessness, and Washintgon deadlock. Many agnry with Bush for vioating his no-tax pledge.

Election of 1992 - Democrats nominated Arkansas governor William Jefferson Clinton (Bill). It was a three-party election  Democrat - Bill Clinton  Republican - G.H.W.Bush  Independent - Ross Perot (Texan billionaire)

Clinton won election with 43% of the popular vote Bush - 38% Perot - 19%

For the first time in 12 years, a Democrat occupied the White House Clinton described himself as a "New Deomcrat" who would steer a middle course towards liberalism and conservatism Bill Clinton -  vowed to "reinvent" government by slashing its size and its deficits  vowed to work with businesses  vowed to reduce welfare spending  vowed he would not abandon the needy  convinced Congress to raise taxes on higher income groups  reduced some spending  by 1996 - deficit was cut in half  worked with Congress to overhaul welfare  abolished direct federal spending on welfare  replaced it with grants to states for antipoverty programs  encouraged jobless to find work  law limiting how long benefits could be paid  stock market surged  unemployment dropped to a 30-year low  growing economy  tax receipts produced federal budget surpluses from 1998-2001  first in 29 years  served two terms  second term was dogged by scandal  improper relationship with young White House intern  Monica Lewinsky  when questioned, lied under oath  December 1998 - House voted to impeach him  only the second president in history to be impeached  Andrew Johnson in 1868  Senate did not convict  Clinton remained in office  despite scandals, he was still popular with many Americans

With Clinton's term nearl over, Republicans hoped to win back the White House

THE ELECTION OF 2000 WOULD BECOME THE MOST CONTROVERSIAL IN HISTORY A Disputed Election (2000) -

Democrats nominated Vice President Al Gore for president (Joseph Lieberman from Connecticut, his running mate) Republicans nominated Texas governor George W. Bush (son of former President Bush, Richard Cheney his running mate)

Gore won popular vote by a paper-thin margin. Bush led electoral votes.

Florida key state:  Bush held advantage  Democrats claimed paper ballots misleading (causing voters to choose wrong candidate)  also charged that many votes for Gore had been improperly rejected (especially in heavily Africann American precincts)  Challenge of the Florida results was taken to court.  Florida Supreme Court ordered a recount  Republicans appealed to the US Supreme Court  Court majority stopped the recount  Bush was declared the winner

After the disputed election, some doubted whether the new President could govern effectively Bush quickly proved to be a strong leader and a powerful conservative voice Some of his actions also sharply divided the country.

George W. Bush -  a time a budget surpluses  tax cuts high on his agenda  budget surplus "peoples' money"  critics claimed his tax cuts favored wealthy and would lead to more deficits  Congress enacted the biggest tax cuts since Reagan  Education another key issue  No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act  Schools more accountable (standardized testing)  Liberals supportd NCLB  Educators worried (little room for anything but "teaching for the test"  critics pointed out that state and federal governments pay the costs of implementing the program Chapter 28 – Section 2 - End of the Cold War Obj: to describe how Nixon changed course of American foreign policy; to explain why new Cold War tensions emerged after 1979; the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, and how it affected American society.

President Nixon pursued a policy of detente , easing tensions with the Communist nations.(in particular, a general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the US, and thawing of the Cold War, occuring from the late 1960s until the start of the 1980s) This section will show you how the collapse of detente brought new tensions (it would not have assumed the fomr it did without the rift that developed between the world's two primary communist regimes; the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China) Also how the Cold War came to an end.

The End of Detente: At first, President Carter continued the policy of detente. Then in 1979:  Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan  Carter joined world opinion in condemning the invasion  in protest, withdrew from the Senate a pending arms agreement with the Soviet Union  pulled US from Olympic summer games in Moscow in 1980  imposed restrictions on trade with the Soviet Union  The invasion ended the era of detente

After Carter, Ronald Reagan took an even harder line.  denounced the Soviet Union as an "evil empire"  sent millions of dollars in arms to the government of Afghanistan and Islamic rebels fighting against the Soviet Union  this helped rebels inflict heavy casualties on the Soviets  One of Reagan's top priorities: strengthen the military posture of the US  spending on defense projects jumped by more than 50%  the development of the B2 stealth bomber (invisible to radar)  boldest arms proposal: laser-guided defense system - Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) would shoot down enemy missiles from space  cost billions  critics called in an "expensive fantasy"  dubbed "Star Wars" after the popular science-fiction movie

Reagan determined to stop spread of communism  involvement in Central America  Nicaragua (after Sandinistas overthew Somoza)  set up government with close ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union  supported the Contras (guerrilla army of anti-communist opponents of the Sandinistas)  some Americans opposed aid to the Contras (brutality)  secretly ordered CIA to train annd supply the Contras  involvement in Central America ignited heated debate in US  when Congress heard of secret aid - lawmakers banned all money and military assistance to the Contras  Ban led to scandal  1985 - Iranian-backed militants in Lebanon too seven Americans hostage  Officials agreed to sell arms to Iran, but secretly sent aid to the Contras  Iran, in exchange, pressured militants to release some hostages  US officials used money from arms sale to buy weapons for the Contras, in Nicaragua  Americans stunned by "Iran-Contra deal"  seven government officials convicted of lying to Congress and destroying evidence  Reagan denied of knowing anything about the "deal"  Deal threw a shadow over Reagan's last years as President

1980s - Soviet Union in decline  grip on Eastern Europe weak  movements toward democracy  opposition to communism growing in Soviet Union  Afghan war hurt Soviet economy  1989 - Soviets accept defeat and withdraws from Afghanistan  severe shortages  found store shelves nearly empty after waiting in long lines

1985 - Mikhail Gorbachev became the bold new leader of the Soviet Union

Mikhail Gorbachev -  threw energies into reforming the system  restructured the economy (more freedom)  adopted new policy of glasnost  setback:  reforms led people to demand more changes  tried to improve relations with the West  1987 - met with Reagan  two leaders agreed on an arms control treaty  both would destroy short-range and intermediate-range nuclear missiles  first time two superpowers agreed to give p entire classes of weapons Freedom for Eastern Europe - Soviet Union controlled most of the Communist government of Eastern Europe Some examples:  1956 - Hungary  1968 - Czechoslovakia Gorbachev ended interest in leading Eastern Europe. One by one communist governments fell to demands of democracy  1989 - Poland

 Soon after:  Hungary  Romania  Czechoslovakia  Yugoslavia (one country the Soviet Union did not dominate)  1989 (November) - students and workers in East German tore down the Berlin Wall with sledgehammers, pickaxes and bare hands.  within a year East and West Germany reunited as a single nation.  Fall of Communism in 1989 caused a shift in some national borders:  Germany reunited, but Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia  Yugoslavia became several loosely joined republics

The Cold War Ends - A change in Eastern Europe; independence movements arose in several Soviet republics Late 1991 -  Soviet Union dissolved  each republic became an independent state  Russia, biggest state  New President, Boris Yeltsin, vows to continue strive toward democracy and strong economy Under Gorbachev:  reforms failed to solve problems of shortages  shoddy goods  unemployment  high prices  crime and corruption thrived  many Russians began to question the "democratic" system (could it make their lives better?) Yugoslavia -  fall of communism led to civil war  Croatia (1991 - declared independence)  Serbia (wanted to remain part of Yugoslavia)  Bosnia-Herzegovina (1991 - declared independence)  more than 250,000 died in four-year civil war  November 1995 - US peace talks, Dayton, OH- Clinton sends about 20,000 American troops(with Russian and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) peacekeepers) to Bosnia to restore order.(Dayton Accord) Dayton Accord:  did not end trouble in former Yugoslavia  Ethnic Albanians in Kosovo (in Serbia) wanted greater independence  Serbs v. rebels  1999 - American and NATO forces bombed Serbia until Serbian troops left Kosovo

The dissolution of the Soviet Union put an end to the 45 years of the Cold War. US leaders expressed hope that Russia would become a democratic and stable nation US pays heavy price for Cold War:  more than 100,000 Americans died fighting "hot" wars in Korea and Vietnam  taxpayers spend more than $6 trillion on defense  divided the nation (especially during the Vietnam War) Still, 1990s perspective - end of Cold War worthy of celebration Chapter 28 – Section 3 - A New Role in the World Obj: to identify that for nearly 50 years, the Cold War had defined US foreign policy; to describe the collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of that period; and, to understand the changing role of the US in the world.

Democracy and Peace - After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the US was the only remaining superpower. President G.H.W. Bush said that it was the responsibility of the US to shape the world, and do it wisely. Under Bush Sr. and Clinton, the US stepped up calls for democracy and peace.

South Africa -  apartheid had held democracy in check for decades  1986 - Congress approved economic sanctions over a veto by Pres. Reagan  US companies were forbidden to invest in South Africa or import South African products  other countries also applied sanctions  1991 - South Africa's white government ended apartheid.  Nelson Mandela released from prison  1994 - free elections put black leaders in office

The Philippines -  1986 - first free election in 14 years after rule of dictator Ferdinand Marcos  US sent economic and military aid (as it had to Marcos)

Northern Ireland -  British-ruled  Protestant majority  Catholic minority  1998 - Good Friday - US government helps arrange an agreement for the two groups to share power

China -  May 1989 - Tiananmen Square, Beijing (China's capital) - thousands of people demand democracy.  one week later, Chinese army bare down on demonstrators  Pres. G.H. Bush wanting to maintain good relations with China, pursued a policy of persuasion rather than punishment.  President Clinton continued this policy (1998 visit to China) Cuba -  1991 - fall of Soviet Union deprived it of chief source of trade and economic aid.  1994 - Pres. Clinton allowed more Cuban refugees to enter US.  US lawmakers began to debate resuming trade with Cuba  1960 - US banned trade in an effort to oust Communist dictator Fidel Castro  Pres. G.W. Bush - pursued a policy of pressure against Cuba  refused to relax bans on American trade with and travel to Cuba

Arms Race -

In 1972, US signed its first arms control treaty with the Soviet Union.  The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) curbed the number of nuclear warheads and long-range missiles that each side built. 1979 - US and Soviet Union worked out another arms reduction pact  SALT II  President Carter withdrew the treaty in protest after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1991 - George H. Bush and Gorbachev agreedto a path-breaking arms agreement  The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)  Under START, the powers agreed to destroy about 20% of their nuclear weapons  When Soviet dissolved, Russia inherited most of the nuclear arms 1993 - US and Russia negotiated START II  revised in 1997, pact required both countries to cut back long-range nuclear weapons by an astounding two thirds.

Economic and political instability in former Soviet Union worried US planners  Russia along had some 30,000 nuclear weapons  3 other republics also had some  all four pledged to honor existing treaties  in return, Congress sent $400 million per year to help them safely store or destroy their nuclear arms.

Another concern: nuclear proliferation (the spread of nuclear weapons) Britain, France and China had such weapons The dangers of the spread of nuclear weapons grew:  US intelligence reported other countries that could be suspect to having them are:  Israel  Iran  Iraq  North Korea  India  Pakistan

The thought that many countries might one day possess nuclear arms was cause for worry

Chapter 28 – Section 4 - Conflict in the Middle East Obj: to understand why the end of the Cold War did not lessen American involvement in world affairs; and to identify how the US became increasingly involved in the complex region called the Middle East.

Middle East -  term first used by Europeans to describe Southwest Asia  extended to include Egypt, and Afghanistan  also linked to  societies in Europe, Asia and Africa  three major religions - Judaism, Christianity and Islam  today, Islam the dominant religion in the Middle Eastern nations  throughout history, religious tensions have often led to conflicts in this region  vast reserves of petroleum  Saudi Arabia  Kuwait  both supply the US and other industrial nations with oil  1961 - Arab nations form OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)  has become a key player in world affairs by setting level of oil production, raising or lowering the price of oil.  US trying to balance conflicting interests  strong supporter of the Jewish nation of Israel  tries to maintain ties with Arab state that oppose Israel

Arab-Israeli Conflict - Jews and Arabs are fighting for a land known as Palestine.  Jews want to create a Jewish state there  Arabs already live there and do not want Jews there  after WWII, Jewish migration increased in the Arab states  1948 - Jews formed their own state called Israel  The US and other nations recognized Israel  Jews prospered in Israel and created a democratic society amidst Arab states  Arab states refused to recognize the "new state" and declared war  Israeli victory led to more than half a million Palestinian Arabs homeless  they fled to refugee camps in nearby Arab countries

Further wars followed:  1956 - Israel invaded Egypt, but withdraws due to pressure from United Nations and US  1967 & 1973 - between Israeli and Arab nations  Arab nations launched a surprise attack  In both wars, Israel seized parts of Egypt, Jordan and Syria  Arabs called these lands "occupied territories"  Tensions rose as Israeli settlers moved into the territories

1977 - Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat attempted to break the cycle of war.  first Arab leader to visit Israel in order to seek peace  peace talks faltered  1978 - President Jimmy Carter brought Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to Camp David (Maryland retreat)  it was at Camp David that both leaders signed the Camp David Accords  Egypt recognized the state of Israel in exchange for return of the Sinai Peninsula

Yasir Arafat, along with an organization he created, the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) refused to accept Israel's existence. PLO claimed the right to an independent state under a Palestinian government in Palestine, including the West Bank and Jerusalem. 1987 - the Intifada - protest of the Palestinians in the occupied territories  this uprising focused world attention on the Palestinian issue.  the US and other nations tried to facilitate a peace agreement between the Israelis and Palestinians  1993 - Clinton hosted ceremony in Washington  Isreal and PLO signed pact  limited Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and part of the West Bank  Arafat promised to give up violence and accept Israel's existence.  many hoped agreement would start new era  disputes developed  militant groups on both sides refused to accept peace process  Arab extremists launch suicide bombings in Israeli cities  Israel responds with military force, accusing Arafat of support extremists  moderates on both sides continue to seek a solution

Many Arab and Muslims have resented American support for Israel. Tensions between US and the Muslim world have only increased.

Iran and Lebanon -  Shah of Iran  strongly anti-Communist during the Cold War  Iranians opposed his harsh, undemocratic rule  devout Muslims opposed his effort at westernization  1979 - a revolution forced him to flee (American hostage crisis) US became involved in a long, bloody civil war in Lebanon.  Pres. Reagan sent American marines as part of a UN peacekeeping force.  1983 - forces withdrew after hundreds of American and French troops were killed in suicide bombings Force behind Iranian revolution - Muslim religious leader, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini  wanted Iran to return to a very strict form of Islam  banned all western influence  laws limited the rights of women Over the next decades, Islamists (extremists of Islam) formed  saw American culture and Western values as threats to their own beliefs.  resented US economic power and presence in nations such as Saudi Arabia  some committed acts of violence

The Persian Gulf War - Iraq - led by brutal dictator Suddam Hussein 1990 - Hussein sent troops to invade Kuwait (one of the richest oil-producing countries in the Middle East) G.H. Bush feared this could be a start of Iraq planning to seize control of Middle Eastern oil. To block move, Bush sent troops to Saudi Arabia and persuaded UN to impose economic sanctions of Iraq Bush built a coalition of more than 30 nations including Arab nations of Saudi Arabia, Syria and Egypt. Demanded Iraq withdraw from Kuwait Iraq ignored demands

1991 (January) - air attacks on Baghdad, followed by ground attack (led by US General Norman Schwarzkopf and head of Joint Chiefs of Staff, Colin Powell. Persian Gulf War lasted only six weeks. 1991 (February) - Hussein forced to withdraw troops from Kuwait. UN imposed strick economic and military restrictions on Iraq Hussein still remained in power, and was viewed by many Americans as a threat to peace in the Middle East and the world. Special concern was the suspician that he was attempting to develop nuclear and biological weapons.