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(E-Waste): Material Flows and Management Practices in Nigeria

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(E-Waste): Material Flows and Management Practices in Nigeria Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Waste Management 28 (2008) 1472–1479 www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman Review Electronic waste (e-waste): Material flows and management practices in Nigeria Innocent Chidi Nnorom a,*, Oladele Osibanjo b a Department of Industrial Chemistry, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria b Basel Convention Regional Coordinating Center for Africa for Training & Technology Transfer, Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Accepted 29 June 2007 Available online 20 September 2007 Abstract The growth in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) production and consumption has been exponential in the last two decades. This has been as a result of the rapid changes in equipment features and capabilities, decrease in prices, and the growth in internet use. This creates a large volume of waste stream of obsolete electrical and electronic devices (e-waste) in developed countries. There is high level of trans-boundary movement of these devices as secondhand electronic equipment into developing countries in an attempt to bridge the ‘digital divide’. The past decade has witnessed a phenomenal advancement in information and communication technology (ICT) in Nigeria, most of which rely on imported secondhand devices. This paper attempts to review the material flow of secondhand/scrap elec- tronic devices into Nigeria, the current management practices for e-waste and the environmental and health implications of such low-end management practices. Establishment of formal recycling facilities, introduction of legislation dealing specifically with e-waste and the confirmation of the functionality of secondhand EEE prior to importation are some of the options available to the government in dealing with this difficult issue. Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Contents 1. Introduction . 1473 2. E-waste: Composition and generation . 1473 2.1. Material composition of WEEE . 1473 2.2. Trends in e-waste generation . 1474 2.3. E-waste trade: Nigeria a case study. 1475 3. E-waste management practices . 1475 3.1. E-waste management in developing countries. 1475 3.2. Environmental and health implications . 1476 4. Material recovery from e-waste . 1476 4.1. Component reuse and recycling . 1476 4.2. Issues in e-waste management . 1477 4.2.1. Product take-back (Extended producer responsibility) . 1477 4.2.2. Product self-management . 1477 5. Recommendations . 1478 5.1. Recommendations to developing countries . 1478 5.2. Recommendations to developed countries . 1478 * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I.C. Nnorom), [email protected] (O. Osibanjo). 0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2007.06.012 I.C. Nnorom, O. Osibanjo / Waste Management 28 (2008) 1472–1479 1473 5.3. Recommendations to the OEMs . 1478 6. Conclusion . 1478 References . 1478 1. Introduction growing most rapidly. PCs also contain the largest amount of printed wiring board (PWB) among electronic products. From past records, it seems certain that new problems The cathode ray tubes (CRTs) in computer monitors and of physical, biological and social change, not now widely televisions contain about 8% lead by weight (Li et al., anticipated, will arise sooner than later. This is because 2006); amounting to about 2–4 kg of lead each (Powel, our scientific knowledge of each of these systems is 2002). Computer CRTs present a disposal problem because incomplete, the mass of human population and its of their growing magnitude in the waste stream and their demands are increasing relentlessly and the possible role as a major source of Pb in MSW (Musson et al., human adjustments and adaptations, including technol- 2000; Lee et al., 2000). Consumer electronics account for ogy, are multiplying (White, 1996). Only a few years 27% of Pb discards in MSW in 1986 in the US and are pro- ago, some of the environmental issues of concern included jected to comprise 30% of lead discards by 2007. By 2000, the trio: acid rain, stratospheric ozone layer depletion and CRTs were projected to contribute 29.8% of all Pb in MSW global warming. Today, waste electrical and electronic or approximately 98.7% of all Pb from electronics (Musson equipment (WEEE) or electronic waste (e-waste) genera- et al., 2000). The composition of different kinds of CRT tion, trans-boundary movement and disposal are becom- glass is given in Table 1. ing issues of concern to solid waste management Lead is used for various reasons in the CRT manufac- professionals, environmentalists, international agencies ture, among which is providing shield necessary for x-rays and governments around the world (Musson et al., (Lee et al., 2000). The basic functions of Pb in CRTs are 2000; Cui and Forssberg, 2003). shown in Table 1. Apart from Pb used in CRTs, another The useful life of consumer electronic products is rela- main source of Pb in WEEE is the lead solder. The elec- tively short, and decreasing as a result of rapid changes tronics industry is currently facing significant international in equipment features and capabilities (Kang and Scho- legislation and market pressure to phase out the use of tin– enung, 2004). This creates a large waste stream of obsolete lead solder and switch to lead-free alternatives. Concerns electronic equipment. Due to their hazardous material con- over lead in electronics derivable from lead solder are tents, WEEE may cause environmental problems during now limited to older electronics. This is because most elec- the waste management phase if it is not properly pre-trea- ted. As a result, many countries have drafted legislation to improve the reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of Table 1 such wastes in order to reduce disposal. Composition of different kinds of CRT glass Nigeria is currently undergoing a rapid advancement in Item Composition Basic function information and communication technology (ICT). A very Panel 0–4% lead oxide Optical quality glass; significant proportion of ICT users in Nigeria rely on sec- Alkaline/alkaline earth X-ray attenuation; ondhand equipment from developed countries, primarily Aluminosilicate Color and tint control from Europe and North America. In the present communi- Funnel 22–28% lead oxide high X-ray resistance; cation, we review the material flow of secondhand and Alkaline/alkaline earth Viscosity control scrap EEE into Nigeria, the current management practices Aluminosilicate for such wastes in the country and the environmental and Neck 30% lead oxide Thermal expansion match health implications of such low-end management practices. Alkaline/alkaline earth to funnel composition; Material recovery (component reuse and bulk recycling) as Aluminosilicate X-ray absorption an option in the sound end-of-life (EoL) management of Stem 29% lead oxide Expansion match to metal e-waste is also reviewed. Alkaline Wire feed through; X-ray aluminosilicate absorption 2. E-waste: Composition and generation Gun Potassium Crystallization mount aluminosilicate 2.1. Material composition of WEEE Sintering Frit 70–80% lead oxide Low temperature Personal computers (PCs) constitute the second largest Zinc borate component next to CRTs in the e-waste stream and are Source: Lee et al. (2000). 1474 I.C. Nnorom, O. Osibanjo / Waste Management 28 (2008) 1472–1479 tronic manufacturers are now using lead-free solder. How- Table 3 ever there are concerns that the lead-free solder(s) may also Waste personal computer generation in selected countries be of environmental and health concern sooner than later. Country Year Volume (units) Reference For example, the 96.35Sn/3.2Ag/0.7Cu alloy has been China – 4 million/year Greenpeace (2005) shown to potentially leach silver in concentrations greater Korea 2003 1.2 million Oh et al. (2003) than those deemed acceptable (Masanet, 2002). North America 1996 79 million Musson et al. (2000) Taiwan 1998 300,000 Lee et al. (2000) USA 1998 20 million Powel (2002) 2.2. Trends in e-waste generation The growth of the PC industry started in the early 1980s and by 1989, an estimated 21 million PCs were sold world- The level of obsolete PC generation in some countries is wide; in 1998 this figure reached 93 million. This exponen- shown in Table 3. The production of PCs in Taiwan in tial increase in the sale of PCs can be partly attributed to 1998 accounted for 13% of global personal computer three factors: (1) the decrease in the PC price, (2) the emer- (PC) production. By 2000, it was estimated that about gence of the internet in the early 1990s, and (3) the rapid 300,000 scrap PCs are generated each year in Taiwan increase in the raw processing power of desktop computers (Lee et al., 2000). In China, the total sales of computer (Campbell and Hasan, 2003). In 2001, there were over 300 are more than 10 million sets every year. Meanwhile, a million internet users worldwide and this, was estimated to total of 5 million sets of computers and 40 million sets of increase to more than 500 million users by 2003 (Fichter, CRT monitors have had to be discarded so far in China 2003). (Ecoflash, 2003). E-waste is growing at a rapid and uncontrollable rate The questions of how much e-waste is generated, from and is the fastest growing portion of the municipal solid where and to where it is moving are difficult to answer. This waste stream. Currently WEEE constitutes 1% of munici- is worsened by the current system of gathering information pal waste in the US (Li et al., 2006) and 4% in the EU in which secondary and waste products are by large invis- (Yla-Mella et al., 2004). As these PCs become obsolete, ible to national statistics in production, sale and trade-in they are replaced and the old PCs are disposed. WEEE goods. Williams (2005) observed that few if any statistical generation in some countries is shown in Table 2.In categories are designed to distinguish new goods from used 1996, there were over 300 million existing CRTs (TVs or waste ones.
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