Oak Ridge National Laboratory

VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 SPRING 1978

2 State of the Laboratory-1977 - A Longer-Range View By HERMAN POSTMA THE COVER PHOTOS: Director Herman Postma, on the cover, and Henry Inouye, opposite page, take turns peering into an environmental test chamber in which new Long Range Ordered Alloys will be tested later this year. The tests will demonstrate the alloys' increased strength with main­ 22 How Deep Is the Burn? tenance of ductility at temperatures up to By JEFF McKENNA 950°C. This is one of the metallurgical achievements at the Laboratory in 1977 described by Postma in the State of the Laboratory address he delivered early this year. 30 Stopping Biological Time Editor By CAROLYN KRAUSE BARBARA LYON

Staff Writer CAROLYN KRAUSE Consulting Editor 46 Regional Impacts of the Energy Plan ALEX ZUCKER Art Director BILL CLARK

Publication taff: Technical Editing/ DEPARTMENTS LaRue Foster; Typography/ Betty Little­ ton; Makeup/ Betty Jo Williams; Repro­ Take a Number 21 duction/ Bill West Awards and Appointments 28 Letters 38 Information Meeting Highlights 39 Books 45

The Review is published quarterly and distributed to employees and others asso­ ciated with the Oak Ridge National Lab­ oratory. The editorial office is in Building 4500-North, Oak Ridge National Labora­ tory, P.O. Box X, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830. Telephone: (615) 483-8611 , Exten­ OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY sion 3-6900 (J.<'TS 850-6900). OPERATED BY UN ION CARBIDE CORPORAT ION • FOR THE DEPARTMEN T OF ENERGY :ritv/-- state of the Laboratory-1977 -A Longer-Range View

By Herman Postma

hile the State of the Labora­ This year I not only will review with respect to energy-particu­ W tory address itself is a tra­ what has characterized ORNL in larly during this year with respect dition at ORNL, there is little in 1977, but also will place it in the to nuclear energy. the past year (or in previous context of occurrences since the That evolving energy policy, years) that can be characterized Arab oil crisis of 1973 prompted a along with environmental and as being traditional. Externally, new look at energy policy and gov­ economic constraints, is affecting important changes in govern­ ernment action. Since then, the the Laboratory. I will highlight ment energy policy and in its Laboratory has passed through those turns, twists, and oppor­ organization, as well as internal several phases. We've had re­ tunities in the perspective of the changes in an institution dedi­ placements in rapid succession of last four years with particular cated to creating change, make our sponsoring agency, from the examples of what culminated the word "transition" more AEC, to ERDA, and now DOE. during 1977. appropriate than "tradition" in There have also been important Most of my talk will be con­ describing ORNL activities. changes in government policy cerned with the science and tech-

2 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review nologies and the innovations that strong motivation to solve crucial ral gas. This should allow us once are the core of the Laboratory and energy problems of the country, again to maintain temperatures constitute its most important and and to contribute to a vibrant that are comfortable and to pro­ essential function. Finally, I will R&D atmosphere. vide a productive work environ­ conclude with a view of the future However, that growth in people ment during the heating season. that may characterize the way our at the Laboratory has itself We also hope in another few years programs will move in response to brought problems. New programs to get approval for a sizeable addi­ national needs and to the new and the changes in old programs tion to the Laboratory. energy look. require different laboratory and A crucial indicator of what's office utilization. There has been happened at the Laboratory is the lnd'cators of Change too little money to relieve over­ growth in R&D support in dollars. crowding, to bring crucial labora­ The Laboratory budget has dou­ There are many numerical indi­ tory space up to date, and to bled over the last four years, far cators of change at the Labora­ allow grouping of disciplines for exceeding the cost ofliving during tory. I will restrict myself to three the best interaction among the that period, as well as outpacing areas-the growth in people, in people. The money to relieve those the growth in people. facilities, and in dollars of R&D constraints is not here, and to Responsible for that difference support. The past four years have all those who are putting up with is the fact that we have money, seen a recognition that solutions inadequate facilities and sur­ aloP-g with program management to energy problems throughout roundings, I apologize. responsibilities, and this in the country will require an exten­ Yet there have been important tum means that we now are sive commitment to research and changes in facilities during the subcontracting more research development. The result has been last four years. Soon we will and development. On the one a growth in the number of people be occupying the Environmental hand, spending more extramu­ that work at the Laboratory, Sciences Division building. Con­ rally allows us to utilize other almost a 30% increase over the struction of the Holifield Heavy national resources-universities 1974 level-although really only Ion Research Facility is progress­ and industries-and enlarge our bringing us back up to the level of ing, and some much needed addi­ capability; on the other hand, it 1968. We have found it easy tions to buildings, offices, and gives us more flexibility in re­ to recruit and attract some of labs have been made. We are also sponding to changing program the finest people throughout the converting the steam plant to directions at the Laboratory. In United States and the world with bum coal instead of oil and natu- four years, our R&D subcon­ tracting has grown sixfold. This is in addition to the monies that 6 .------, we normally spend for equipment and capital construction and for buying material to carry on the intramural R&D of the Labo­ ratory. We cannot expect the recent rapid growth of the Laboratory to continue at the same rate. Obvi­ PEOPLE ously, it will slow down and (IN 1000's) perhaps plateau until a consoli­ dation of direction and policies is reached.

There has been substantial g rowth in the numbers of ORN L employees.

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 FISCAL YEAR

SPRING 1978 3 If all goes as expected, the new Environmental Sciences Building will selves have become more com­ gies. The drama lies in the shifts be occupied before the end of spring. plex. In particular, we've seen an that have occurred within re­ increasing number of economists, search areas. Perhaps the most social scientists, and information pervasive change has been in the Evolutions in R&D Approach specialists. basic studies related to nuclear Many factors contribute to the Another evolution at the Labo­ and radiation effects, both in the uniqueness of this institution and ratory, and the theme of my physical sciences and in the its ability to innovate and solve address last year, has been the biomedical and environmental crucial problems. Changes in broadening of our work with other sciences. The shift to studies of those factors have been evolu­ institutions and users' groups. chemicals is most notable. In tionary and not revolutionary contrast with the insults caused over these four years. We ex­ by radiation, the biological and panded greatly our multi program CHANGING PROGRAMS environmental impacts of chemi­ nature that began during the The trends in dollar level over cals are more numerous, more AEC, that was broadened during these years indicate obvious complex, and less well under­ the formation of ERDA, and that changes in what we do, but I stood. has endured with the formulation need to provide some insight Our research concerns the of DOE. Since the Laboratory into the fundamental changes carcinogenic, mutagenic, terato­ remains an institution that is taking place within the trends genic, and toxic effects of these national in scope, we continue to and programs themselves. I will chemicals. From lessons we work for many agencies in those divide it into two broad areas: the learned in the nuclear business, areas where we can effectively put sciences and the technologies. we carry over studies on the together the resources needed to movement of trace contaminants solve national problems. ORNL through the terrestrial and The Sciences cherishes its ability to mobilize aquatic food chains where they many disciplines to attack com­ While we have seen growth in may be concentrated and passed plex problems. During the last the sciences during the last few on to humans. We have now four years, growth has occurred in years, the amount of money spent evolved to a point where our the number and mix of disciplines in the sciences has not increased research on environmental and used, since the ·problems them- dramatically as in the technolo- biological effects for various non-

4 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review Late in 1976, the pressure vessel was installed and welded in place at the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility. It is scheduled for completion in late 1979.

angle neutron scattering capabil­ ity along with the related small­ angle x-ray scattering facility.

The Technologies The largest areas at ORNL are the applied sciences, our large engineering tasks, and the early demonstrations and pilot plants. These stages are necessary to show engineering practicability and economic competitiveness of many processes and techniques discovered in the more basic areas. During the last few years, the technologies have grown more rapidly than the sciences. But growth here, too, hasn't been the dominant change. We've seen basic shifts in the nuclear tech­ nology area, which now accounts for 35% of our work. Because ofthe outside pressures, changes in government policies, and new initiatives, the nuclear technol­ ogies have changed substantially during the last four years. We have become far more in valved in nuclear fuel reprocessing, a re­ vival of an area that was turned nuclear fuel cycles exceeds our user facility as well. This is best over to industry for commercial­ involvement with nuclear. That exemplified in the preparation of ization in the 1950s. During the same characteristic shift holds for the Holifield Heavy Ion Research last four years, we've seen the the changes in physical sciences Facility for operation next year. passing, the return, and the where our programs have moved This facility will be used by more passing again of the Molten Salt from nuclear to the catalysis of than 500 people in the national Reactor; a revived interest, wan­ coal, the cleanup of waste, and and international physics and ing, and renewed interest in the materials for conservation. chemistry community. Another HTGR; a strong push on the Another emerging shift is from event this year reinforced that LMFBR, and now an eleventh being the primary investigator to role when a recent NSF grant hour waning of interest; and a being the custodian of a national came for the utilization of small- new concern for non proliferating

SPRING 1978 5 2-40

200

160 There has been substantial g rowth $IN in R&D support. MILLIONS 120 fuel cycles which has been an 80 especially important undertaking this past year. And the yo-yoing in the nuclear technologies seems -40 destined to continue for the next few years. 0 The technologies associated 1968 1970 1972 197-4 1976 1978 with proving and perfecting the FISCAL YEAR fusion process have progressed dramatically during these past four years. Budgets have in­ creased more than four times desires, its capabilities, its back­ our activities have remained during that period. Large and ground, and its record of accom­ small, wehavedirectedourefforts very productive experimental plishment as it sought to become and entered into those areas devices have been built, have involved with crucial areas in the where we felt we could make a yielded important data, and have national energy program where specific contribution. We now closed down. the unique capabilities of the envision a fairly constant level The Laboratory has been as­ Laboratory would be of particular of involvement with geothermal signed increased responsibilities importance. There was, for some resources. The waiting for and es­ for development of beams and time, an initial reluctance in tablishment of the Solar Energy superconducting magnets, both Washington to have any national Research Institute (a new na­ very large technological under­ laboratories move into these non­ tional laboratory) has, of course, takings. Impressive contributions traditional areas. But gradually, precluded much involvement of have been made throughout the based on performance, we've be­ any national laboratory in the fusion community-and particu­ come involved in new and major solar programs. Those relation­ larly in Oak Ridge- during this ways in coal and conservation ships with SERI over the next few period. research. In the industrial com­ years will determine whether we Major new growth has occurred munity, there were, and still are, can undertake much solar re­ in the nonnuclear technologies at doubts about having a national search. ORNL. In two cases, coal and laboratory involved. But as our There have been less publicized conservation, efforts that four scientists and technologists make changes. We all are conscious- in years ago were mere fledglings discoveries that improve the pro­ part as a result of the reorgani­ are now thriving and are major cesses, we are accepted increas­ zations of energy agencies and programs. We are contributing ingly within those communities. programs- of a heavy increase in in important ways to the tech­ A greater receptiveness on the the administrative detail associ­ nology, to studies and evalua­ part of program managers in ated with our work. Unfortu­ tions, to process development and Washington now is becoming nately, many of these new admin­ refinement. apparent, and we can remain istrative requirements have an But these four years have been cautiously optimistic about being adverse effect upon the precious particularly difficult for those even further involved. scientific and technological ca­ involved in leading us into non­ Our involvement in geothermal pabilities of the Laboratory, and nuclear areas. The Laboratory and solar energy technologies has it is difficult to remain optimistic was aggressive in declaring its been more restrained. Although about the reversal of this trend.

6 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review 2S [ Flexibility is enhanced through subcon· kinds of changes, nuclear and tracting research and development. nonnuclear, that have taken place 20 at the Laboratory during the past four years. Such a selection is emphasis on technologies is nec­ always very difficult. Out of more essary at this time. What is of than 600 separate projects at the .. .. ::10 0 0 concern, however, is that if the Laboratory, and out of several ~.:: 0 growth in technologies is at the thousand employees, a selection expense of the sciences, it erodes of any one example automatically 1974 1f7S 1976 1977 1971 the very base that supplies the FISCAl YU.I precludes equally valid examples essential ingredients for future of equally high quality work success. That imbalance has been throughout the organization. On the more positive side, articulated by the Presidential however, we have seen that many Science Advisor and by the Presi­ of the services and support activ­ dent himself. Our greatest local Life Sciences ities supplied by our machine concern is in the basic biological In the biomedical and environ­ shops, medical groups, industrial sciences, where we must take hygienists, and safety groups mental sciences, perhaps the steps to ensure support for single most striking example of a during the last four years have this research, which provides adapted creatively to new under­ large, new, integrated, multidi~­ the underpinnings essential for ciplinary activity is the synthetic takings. They have been remark­ discoveries about the effects of ably adroit in their ability to fuels program. Eight different carcinogens, mutagens, and other ORNL divisions now participate anticipate, and to come up with, energy-related insults to biolog­ timely solutions to very difficult actively in life sciences research ical systems. on synthetic fuels. practical problems. To these During these last four years, many unsung heroes, I offer Our work in this area, particu­ the seriousness of our near-term larly in relation to coal conver­ special thanks for their outstand­ energy situation has led to a cur­ ing contributions, not only in sion reflects the philosophy that rent emphasis on short-term re­ atte~tion to health and environ­ 1977, but over the preceding three search payoffs. As a result, the years. mental impacts of energy produc­ long-term technologies- whether tion and utilization must go hand breeders, fusion, or central­ in hand with the development of Balances station-solar electric- are all new energy technologies. A number of balances must be being slowed in order to supply The major activities include maintained if the Labora tory is to more money for technologies that (1) chemical and physical charac­ function at maximum effective­ could yield more rapid returns. terization and monitoring of coal­ ness. One of those, of course, is the This cannot long continue for derived products and effluents, interrelations among all disci­ this would eventually preempt (2) biological characterization plines important to our primary the range of alternatives open to and health effects of these sub­ mission- that of energy produc­ future decision makers. There is stances, (3) environmental trans­ tion, conservation, and related not at present a serious imbalance port and effects, (4) environ­ environmental concerns. We need at the Laboratory, for ORNL has mental control technology, and a diversity and strength across contributed strongly in the short­ (5) assessment. disciplines that matches the com­ term areas to problems of con­ This new program, I believe, is plexity of the problems we're siderable importance. My concern an outstanding example of the called upon to solve. We need also at this point, however, is that we Laboratory's ability to deal com­ remain strong and active in long­ to maintain the strength ·'1 the prehensively and imaginative~y sciences necessary to support the term, high-risk technologies that with an emergingtechnology- m technologies. We recognize the the private sector cannot afford to this case, the projected use of coal problem not only of slower growth finance or be involved with. as a source of synthetic crude oil in the sciences, but also of the and substitute natural gas. Al­ fact that the shifts from nuclear EXAMPLES ready there have been important to nonnuclear in these areas I tum now to examples of accomplishments. have taken place basically within technical accomplishments in Using many of the same pro­ nearly constant budgets. The 1977 that are indicative of the tocols designed for their work on

SPRING 1978 7 In the Biology Division, Bobbie Brewen and Donna Moore (left to right) study ~ the biological effects of coal conversion byproducts.

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Support has shifted from nuclear to nonnuclear in the physical sciences.

tobacco smoke and carcinogen­ esis, teams led by Jim Epler in Biology and Mike Guerin in Analytical Chemistry are now collaborating in tests of the biological activity of coal-derived products. They have identified agents responsible for this activ­ The carcinogenic potential of icity of the leachate has been ity using a microbial mutagenesis synthetic materials derived from examined. The data are impor­ system and a variety of analytical coal is being tested in mammalian tant not only to be able to use techniques. Among their conclu­ systems by Mike Holland and landfill techniques successfully sions, based on the data shown coworkers in Biology. Collabo­ for disposal of ash from coal here, are that rating with chemists, they have conversion processes, but also to looked at the production of tumors meet new requirements of the • coal-derived oils generally are in a model skin-carcinogenesis Resource Conservation and Re­ more biologically active than system in the rodent. covery Act. shale oil or petroleum crude oils; • biological activity is concen­ In Environmental Sciences, the Ultimately, the effectiveness of trated primarily in neutral and chemical characteristics of an environmental control systems basic fractions; and aqueous effluent from the Solvent will determine the acceptability of • biological activity in individ­ Refined Coal process are being coal conversion processes. In ual fractions can be added to­ studied. The finding that there are Chern Tech, we have completed gether to calculate the activity similar levels of toxicity in the an assessment of aqueous wastes of the original material. unfractionated and reconstituted from the hydrocarbonization pro­ effluents means that the whole cess at a considerable scale-up These results on bioactive com­ effluent and its fractions can be from our own 10 lblhr process­ ponents are also being extrapo­ studied rather than identifying development unit. The data have lated to higher organisms using a all the chemicals and studying shown that a tapered, fluidized­ variety of experimental systems, each separately. bed "bioreactor" can reduce con­ including yeast (Frank Larimer), Solid wastes from coal conver­ taminant levels in waste streams Drosophila (Carroll Nix and sion facilities pose problems of some 40 times as fast as con ven­ Bobbie Brewen), and mammalian disposal. In Environmental Sci­ tional biological systems. cells (Abe Hsie). Comparative ences, the leaching characteris­ Current coal con version pro­ studies in the mouse are being tics of ash from U.S. coals gasified cesses may subject plant workers conducted by the Russells and in a Westfield, Scotland, facility to various chemical and physical Walderico Generoso. have been defined, and the tox- stresses, including polynuclear

8 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review 110 .SCilNCU

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Technologies have grown fa ster than the sciences.

Chuck Hancher works at the scaled-up bioreactor that is now cleaning up 1rr.. aqueous wastes from coal conversion I' processes.

aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols and creosols, sulfur compounds, toxic trace elements, coal dust, and noise and heat. The Health Division, under Tom Lincoln, Newell Bolton, and coworkers, developed an industrial hygiene and medical surveillance pro­ gram for ORNL workers involved in coal conversion R&D. These methods led to two ORNL con­ ferences involving interested in­ dustrial and other groups, for which proceedings have now been published. Dick Gammage and coworkers in the Health and Safety Re­ search Division are looking at ways to increase the sensitivity of monitoring measurements in coal conversion workers. Prototype devices based on second-deriva­ tive ultraviolet-absorption spec­ trometry and on phosphorescence are being built to detect aromatic compounds in work areas and to measure surface contamination. Under a new program, Gasi­ fiers in Industry, DOE is sponsor­ ing development of six low-Btu gasification demonstration proj­ conversion facility. Sampling and These various efforts reflect ects. One of them, at the Uni­ monitoring requirements have the multidisciplinary nature and versity of Minnesota at Duluth, is been specified by a team from the the breadth and cohesiveness providing the setting for 0 RNL to Chemical Technology Division to of the synthetic fuels activity. develop an integrated compre­ evaluate the efficiency of envi­ Their goal is early identifica­ hensive health and environ­ ronmental control devices and to tion and control of potential mental plan for an operating coal characterize the process. problems so that coal con version

SPRING 1978 9 At the hydrocarbonization plant, D. J. Christian "sniffs" for vapor emission~; uf aromatic compounds, which can be identified by a second-derivative UV­ absorption spectrometer. technologies can be implemented safely, with minimum impact on human health and environmental quality.

Physical Sciences In our physical research pro­ grams-now called "basic energy sciences"- a very substantial effort is directed toward acquir­ ing the fundamental knowledge needed for development of non­ nuclear energy technologies. The physical research effort also re­ flects a dimension which, if not unique to multidisciplinary in­ stallations such as our own, is certainly an outstanding charac­ teristic-and one difficult to du­ plicate elsewhere. This is the synergism that exists between performed at the Bulk Shielding of tokamak-type fusion experi­ pure and applied science, between Reactor, where the thermal neu­ ments which would not be pos­ fundamental research and our tron spectrum is soft, and the sible with present diagnostic technological mission as an en­ neutrons produce little radiation methods. To make this measure­ ergy laboratory. Examples are damage. ment, Don Hutchinson, Percy many; I will mention a few. A key achievement this year, Staats, and Ken Vander Sl uis of Physicists in the Solid State related to solar cell fabrication, the plasma diagnostics group Division have been exploring has been the use of high-energy have developed the world's most methods to improve the efficiency ruby laser pulses to anneal the powerful sub millimeter laser. One and fabrication economy of solar lattice damage created by ion megawatt of deuterium oxide cells made from silicon -which is implantation of boron in silicon. laser radiation with a wavelength expected to be the most commonly This work shows that it is possible of 0.385 mm is generated by the used photovoltaic material until to remove virtually all damage oscillator-amplifier system. Scat­ at least the end of this century. due to the ion implantation. The tering of this radiation by the In one extensive study, neutron result is a p-n junction with plasma will result in a nanowatt transmutation doping of silicon excellent response in both the red spectrally broadened signal. Its has been used to introduce an and blue parts of the solar frequency profile provides a mea­ extremely uniform distribution of spectrum. Ion implantation fol­ sure of the plasma ion temper­ phosphorus dopant in the silicon. lowed by laser annealing holds ature. This method almost completely promise as a relatively inexpen­ Also in the Physics Division, eliminates the nonuniform distri­ sive method for producing high­ theoretical and experimental bution which is characteristic of efficiency solar cells. studies have been made on doping done by chemical means. Two recent Physics Division impurity-atom cross sections that A lack of homogeneity, in tum, developments illustrate basic­ contribute to the cooling and may explain why the maximum science support for the fusion heating of fusion-type plasmas. efficiencies attained in these de­ energy program. One involves The data indicate that the heavy­ vices are lower than theoretically measurements of plasma ion tem­ atom impurity level in plasmas expected. The irradiations are peratures for the next generation must be extremely low to achieve

10 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review NEUTRON NUCLEAR FLUX CHEMICAL --- _. --- -4- -- _. _.___,.---e: -- ...... -­ --4--- ____. ~------...... --e_------.....:..----- . _., -_...-- -...... ------4~------.... -----

Dick Wood, Woody White, Rosa Young, and Jagdish Narayan (left to right) ~ stand at the laser of the ISX where Nuclear doping achieves more uniform ~ they developed the process of anneal­ distribution of phosphorous in silicon ing the silicon to repair it after the for solar cells. damage of boron-ion implantation to make solar cells. Advanced and isotopic tracer techniques. Energy Systems This knowledge of chemical bond­ ing in coal compounds, itself In the Laboratory's Regional an important discovery, leads Studies, the tools of the social fusion. Experiments also confirm toward the ability to break link­ sciences and economics have been theory to a degree that allows ages at low pressure and temper­ successfully integrated with our many hundreds of cross sections ature. Vernon Raaen and Howard more traditional "hardware" dis­ or reaction rates important in Roark have shown that carbon­ ciplines. The result has been to plasma physics to be computed to carbon bonds can be broken at greatly strengthen and expand a high level of confidence. 400°C with vitrinite as the hydro­ the capability for assessment of A fourth example from the gen donor. Many coals, in fact, are energy systems. The fact that en­ physical-research area involves better hydrogen donors than such vironmental impact statements contributions to the understand­ classic donors as tetralin. The for energy facilities now routinely ing of coal chemistry by the total percentage of hydrogen include analysis of socioeconomic organic chemistry group under which can be removed from the effects on the communities in Clair Collins in the Chemistry coals when they are used as which the facilities are to be Division. This group was estab­ donors (for the reaction benzophe­ located is due in no small measure lished in 1946 to prepare carbon- none ~ diphenylmethane) has to pioneering contributions at 14 labeled compounds and stimu­ been measured. It is highest (up to ORNL during these past four late the use of radioisotopes in 34%) for bituminous coals, less years. organic research. As the Labora­ (22%) for the subbituminous coals, These techniques have been tory's mandate has broadened and becomes minimal (4%), as modified and refined with the aid beyond nuclear energy, most of expected, for anthracite, which is of a very sophisticated computer­ this group's effort has shifted to more aromatic in nature. based graphic analysis capability coal. The conclusions we may de­ developed by Bob Honea of the Perhaps the most significant rive from these observations are Energy Division and Dick Durfee result has been the identification (1) added catalysts are not neces­ of Computer Sciences. of the cleavage of carbon-carbon sary for the dehydrogenation of Such tools are being extended bonds as an important structural coal; and (2) it should now be to deal · with other facets of re­ change in coal liquefaction. Eas­ possible, by a simple test, to gional energy demands, economic ily cleavable bonds have been classify coals according to their growth, and environmental ef­ identified through model studies hydrogen donor ability. fects and to incorporate a greater

SPRING 1978 11 Cross-section studies are contributing to the understanding of the role of impurities in the cooling and heating of fusion-type plasmas. Here a beam of neutral hydrogen crosses a beam of 0 5 • at kilo-electron volt energies ~ to determine the probability that such a collision will ionize the hydrogen. This result is important to the understanding of the injection heating of the plasma. Hee Kim monitors the experiment. variety of data bases, including earth satellite imagery, transpor­ tation systems, and basic geolog­ ical and land-use data. This year, as part of the National Coal Utilization Assess­ ment, we have also looked broadly at the social, economic, and envi­ ronmental effects of coal develop­ ment and use in the South. The analyses cover effects anticipated over a 40- to 50-year period from development of coal-fired power plants, synfuel plants, and strip and underground mining of coal. Another contribution of Regional Because of our expertise devel­ monitoring handbook to help Studies related to national energy oped in nuclear work, we have DOE contractors fulfill their envi­ policies had been the analysis of been called upon more recently by ronmental obligations, and this is the impacts of President Carter's ERDA and DOE to assist in being used in work on two pipeline National Energy Plan on nation­ preparation of impact statements gas demonstration plants. wide water availability. and assessments for coal gasifi­ Our work on environmental In summary, it is fair to say cation demonstration plants and statements has also identified that these regional-analysis tools, for a wide variety of geothermal needs for additional research. themselves the product of a major projects. These activities last year Examples of this work include new direction in the Laboratory's led to several important results. the extensive work done on the programs, already have provided One was the decision by DOE to effects of thermal discharges on an important regional and na­ move the location of a geopressure fish and on entrainment and tional benefit in terms of in­ test-flow well to avoid impacts impingement; models of striped creased power to predict and to on a nearby resort community bass populations, developed for adjust to the consequences of in Texas. Chuck Boston of the the Indian Point licensing case; various energy futures. Energy Division has completed a and a variety of environmental

12 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review and the resulting substantial changes in our own programs, 14 truly make it proper to discuss the I I 1 !CONTROL HOUSE fuel cycle in the context of new 12 : J r. directions at ORNL. That change, ~ I I hasten to add, can best be 10 ;' ~~,:~ ~ .. I described as a resurgence in the ~ I I I f I .,, Ah ~~ I POWER 1l1 I 141.'1 I l l level of our fuel-cycle work, even CONSUMPTION '~ ~ ,, I I I I 8 though at the same time it (kW) I ~~· I ,,1 I! ~· II l ~ 1I J1 1 • ~ I•1 f 1 ~ I 11 • h 1 1 "''11 1 1 represents a departure from many 6 f1 : I I ~~ ~. a~ ~~~1~t,J1 ~ 1; traditional assumptions. In the III I I1.. I 'jl hJf 'Ill111111 'r• t ~I I late 1960s, this work had gone 4 1 r-..,.,., __..,.1 I f ACES ~ \f from the stage of being the major effort of several divisions to a 2 rather small fraction of the work of one division.

TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUN MON The last two years, however, WEEK OF JANUARY 9, 1978 have seen increased emphasis on the Advanced Fuel Recycle and the HTGR Fuel Recycle programs The A CES House uses less power than tinue to influence program devel­ and the advent of the Alternate the control house and eliminates load opment within DOE as well as Fuel Cycle Technology Program "peaking, " thanks to better insulation policy formation by the Executive for the LWRs, carried out in and an efficient heat pump which support of work at Savannah extracts energy from an insulated tank Branch and the Congress. There of water. are now, for example, 13 DOE and River. With theexpansionofthese privately sponsored applications efforts, about 12% of the Labora­ tory staff is now engaged in fuel transport models, including the of ACES under way throughout cycle R&D. Unified Transport Approach de­ the country. veloped by Arsev Eraslan. In are­ Very significant new data on In the Advanced Fuel Recycle lated area, our electricity-demand the conservation performance of Program, a notable accomplish­ models on the state level now are our own ACES house derives from ment this year has been the pro­ being adopted by the Nuclear a comparison of its energy use curement and installation of a Regulatory Commission as the during the extreme cold last half-ton per day rotary dissolver standard methodology in the winter with that of the conven­ and the development of shears "need for power" sections of tionally heated control house. Not for cutting fuel assemblies into impact statements. only did ACES show a much acceptable discrete fragments. In Closely allied with energy im­ lower level of average power con­ the HTGR program, continuous pacts is energy demand. Our role sumption-3 kW vs 8 to 10 kW­ loading of ion-exchange resin as an energy laboratory involves but also the twice-a-day peaking microspheres with uranium at not only energy development, but of that load was eliminated. 1 kg/ hr has been demonstrated, also analytical and experimental We also have assumed respon­ together with an automated pneu­ efforts to reduce demand through sibility for the management of a matic system for transport of conservation. DOE effort to determine the loose coated fuel particles without Some of the main characteris­ thermal efficiency of insulating damage to coatings. tics and results of our conserva­ materials used in the residential Both of these recycle programs tion work were elaborated at some and commercial sectors. Our in­ now are focusing on fuel types length in last year's address, in­ house R&D seriously questions that may evolve from current cluding the Annual Cycle Energy present testing methods. studies of alternative, more pro­ System (ACES) development, our liferation-resistant fuel cycles. applicance-efficiency studies, and Nuclear and Engineering These studies are part of the Non­ energy-demand models for the Technologies proliferation Alternative Systems residential and commercial sec­ The important policy changes Assessment Program (NASAP), tors. These achievements con- this year on fuel-cycle matters, in which ORNL has a leading

SPRING 1978 13 Energy and aerospace needs haue accel- erated the increase in yield strength of structural steels.

2400

300 2000

1600 YIELD YIELD STRENGTH 200 STRENGTH 3 {10 psi) 1200 (MN/m2J

800 100

400

O L-~~~--~~~~~~~~~~--~~~ 0 1850 1900 19SO 2000 role. Irv Spiewak and Andy U-233 producers and denatured complishments. This year we Frankel of the Engineering Tech­ U-233-fuel advanced converters. developed irridium spheres that nology Division are responsible contain the isotope fuel for the for technical oversight and inte­ TRADITIONAL AREAS thermoelectric generators used in gration of results from these What is new and exciting in the space program, including the studies, which in tum contribute ORNL programs is, of course, not two Voyager planetary probes to the International Nuclear Fuel limited to what happens in the launched this fall; the develop­ Cycle Evaluation effort that was new and rapidly evolving areas of ment of a radiation-resistant initiated in May 1977 by Presi­ our activity. You have heard me stainless steel, or low-swelling dent Carter. mention frequently in the past alloy, for the fast breeder reactor Results from N ASAP indicate that one of the Laboratory's great program (incidentally, fuel-pin there may be definite advan­ strengths is the continuity it wrapper cans have been fabri­ tages in the thorium cycle. Pre­ represents in what sometimes cated from the modified alloy for liminary conclusions suggest a seems to be a sea of turbulence test in the Fast Flux Test Facility high level of optimism about the represented by the changing polit­ at Hanford); and a ferritic steel, long-term future of the nuclear ical and programmatic winds in being developed jointly by ORNL option, including, of course, the Washington. and Combustion Engineering, for fuel cycle. The principal issues are I would like now, therefore, to potential use in piping liquid (1) whether breeder reactors and document some outstanding tech­ metal in breeder reactors instead advancedconvertersoperatingon nical accomplishments this year of the more expensive and diffi­ the denatured thorium cycle can in our more traditional areas, cult to fabricate conventional be economically viable, although although time again imposes a stainless steel. less attractive than U/ Pu-cycle severe limit. These activities reflect the tre­ reactors; (2) whether the thorium Materials mendous world-wide importance cycle can be incorporated without given over the past 30 years to extensive new reactor develop­ ORNL's development of new developing high-strength alloys ment programs, such as PWRs alloys for special structural ser­ for specialized structural applica­ with spectrum-shift control modi­ vice has justifiably gained wide tions- many of them involving fications and fast breeders; and recognition in the past. Recent advanced energy systems. Much (3) the possibility of moving the developments indicate, I believe, of the progress in achieving fuel cycle from the present stow­ that this will continue to be an greater yield strength has been away cycle to a symbiotic dena­ area of some of the Laboratory's made possible by advances in the tured thorium cycle involving fast most significant technical ac- basic theory of alloys.

14 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review opment now is the largest single ... ,~.--· )\.... \ ::: program area at the Laboratory­ funded at a level of more than $30 mo :: STIINGTH ~·~---~...... _..._ J: .,::~·:,.11o- ,. .. 1 million annually. The strength I M'•I , 00 HASUHOT X •-·-...... \' )0 and uniqueness of the ORNL pro­ • '• :ro 100 gram, I believe, lies in the degree 0 0 200 •oo •oo 100 1000 to which it brings together and nMruaruu 1·<1 keeps in constant interaction at New LRO alloy gets stronger at higher the working level every signifi­ temperatures. cant area of the magnetic fusion energy effort-from plasma the­ Hank Inouye and Chain Liu have ory and experiments, through been able to develop LRO alloys development of beams and mag­ that maintain ductility- a major nets to reactor technology and breakthrough! Control of the design studies. This ordered structure by adjusting adv~nced year, I want to focus particularly electron/ atom ratios and heat on physics results in the tokamak treatment produces an alloy program and in our principal with these enhanced properties­ backup effort, the ELMO bumpy increased strength and corrosion torus. LROs differ from conventional super· resistance, better thermal conduc­ Oak Ridge National Labora­ alloys in regular ordering of atoms. tivity, and improved ductility and tory's pioneering role in the radiation resistance. I want to mention the most Tensile tests of the LRO alloys physics and technology of neutral recent and very promising mate­ at elevated temperatures indicate injection heating of tokamak rials development in the Metals an unusually attractive mechan­ plasmas has made this proven and Ceramics Division. This is a ical behavior. Their strength, supplemental heating technique series of alloys, based on an iron­ instead of decreasing as with a major element in most of nickel-cobalt-vanadium system, conventional alloys, actually in­ the world's fusion programs. which exhibit long-range order creases with temperature because Before ORMAK was shut down and increasing strength at ele­ of ordering effects. Moreover, the in January, it was possible to vated temperatures up to 950°C LRO alloys exhibit superior resis­ develop key new understandings and yet which can be fabricated tance to creep and reduce evapo­ of plasma confinement in the by the usual commercial tech­ ration loss, and they are expected important areas of electron heat­ niques. The difference between to have improved high-tempera­ ing and macroscopic stabil~ty. the Long-Range-Ordered (LRO) ture stability. Simultaneously, neutral heatmg materials and conventional al­ Because of inadequate strength technology was increased by a loys is significant. In the normal and high-temperature stability in factor of approximately 5, to the alloy, atoms of one element ~e­ existing superalloys, the energy­ 750-kW level required by the next place atoms of another element m system components, such as heat generation experiments. a more or less random manner. exchangers, steam generators, Increased injection power made Contrasted with this is the LRO and turbine blades, which employ possible the first demo~s.tra~ion structure, in which the elemental them have had to operate at of electron heating by rn]ectwn. identity of atoms on lattice sites is reduced temperatures and effi­ In contrast to ion heating, which regular, and the atomic binding is ciencies. We expect, therefore, had been demonstrated previ­ much stronger, giving the ma­ that this new development should ously, the apparent lack of elec­ terial high strength and greater contribute significantly, in the tron heating by neutral beams resistance to radiation damage years ahead, to advanced energy had been an experimental puzzle in tokamak plasma physics. The and corrosion. Historically, how­ conversion technology. ever, one of the main disadvan­ ORNL experiment showed, how­ tages of LRO alloys has been Fusion Development ever, that approximately half of their tendency to be brittle. But the 340 kW of injection power was now, by applying theoretic~} As a result of its rapid and delivered to the electrons. understanding of alloys to th1s dynamic growth over the last Increased injection power also particular compositional system, four years, fusion energy devel- increased macroscopic stability.

SPRING 1978 15 Increased injection power produced first heating of electrons in tokamak plasmas.

0.8 The maximum density attained with injection was higher than ..,..-f---., without injection, and thermal / "'o..... _ _£..--o 0.6 isolation of the plasma improved / ITelmax} ELECTRON INJECTION with rising density. This resulted TEMPERATURE 1 in attainment of a peak Beta-the (keV) I I (340 kW) ratio of particle kinetic energy to 0.4 ~I~ I ..,..:• _,A ...... toroidal field energy-of approx­ J~~--r- .... ~ o-_...o-..,..... (Telmax} -• imately 3% with injection. NO Theory predicts that this Beta is 0.2 e---! .t. .~ INJECTION close to the limit for the circular INJECTION tokamaks in the world. The dedi­ sources. Experiments in the up­ tion is used in L WR licensing to cation of the ISX in November graded facility, called EBT-S (for limit design and operation so that was, of course, an important Scale), will have a higher density negligible metal-water reactions program milestone. The machine plasma and will operate at higher would occur during a loss-of­ iteself has operated more quickly plasma temperatures. coolant accident, and so that the and reliably than any previous core would remain in coolable tokamak device. geometry. Apart from other re­ In neutral beam heating, an Reactor Safety Research strictions, these new data would immediate target met this year allow higher operating tempera­ was the development of injector The nuclear safety research tures. systems for the Princeton Large conducted by ORNL for the The Blowdown Heat Transfer Torus. The design goal was to Nuclear Regulatory Commission Program, led by Dave Thomas, deliver 750 kW of neutral power has shown that criteria used for Jim White, and Bob Hedrick in for 300 msec from a 60-A, 40-keV current LWRs are either correct or Engineering Technology, is the ion beam. The systems have conservative. Results now are largest NRC research program at already re ched this goal and are sufficiently extensive, so there is ORNL. This nonnuclear core sim­ being modified to deliver 1.5 MW little probability for additional ulator has the important mission of power for ISX-B. data to indicate that current of verifying analyses of in-core The Elmo bumpy torus, under operating reactors should be de­ heat transfer during the first 20 the guidance of Ray Dandl, has, rated. In fact, some uprating of sec following a major rupture in in the last two years, gained an reactors might be justified. the primary coolant system of a increasing acceptance that is Two examples illuminate these PWR. Results show that the time based on a series of physics continuing interactions on reg­ to critical heat flux (CHF) is results that confirm predicted ulatory matters. One is a study approximately 0.7 sec, with a performance related to confine­ by John Cathcart and DickPawel range from 0.2 to several seconds, ment, transport, and impurity of Metals and Ceramics on zirco­ and that power level significantly behavior. nium-metal-water-oxidation ki- influences the peak temperature

16 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review November marked the dedication of the Impurity Study Experiment in fusion research, a device of high confinement capacity.

stages and in both sexes. It may involve chromosome losses that can result in early death or in sexual anomalies in the offspring; chromosome abberations that can result in partial sterility of the progeny or in a variety of clinical syndromes; and gene mutations, some of which can have effects in the first generation and others which may be obscure for a number of generations. Relatively quick whole-animal prescreens, such as the dominant lethal test and the spot-test, are generally after blowdown, while initial tem­ Significant this year has been used before a decision is made to perature does not. Present design the development and testing of proceed with more long-term pro­ criteria assume an immediate an automatic pattem recogni­ tocols that require large in vest­ CHF. Thus, the range of data tion algorithm. Now the goal is ments of time and money. The obtained indicates that these to demonstrate long-term unat­ genetic testing of coal-related criteria are quite conservative, tended operation and the ability chemicals obviously benefits although the data are still uncer­ to predict an imminent failure of greatly from systems developed tain enough so that one cannot any component or system from earlier for use with radiation. presently justify relaxing the trends in the sensor signals. criteria. This would permit a power-plant Scattering Research An interesting development in operator to take corrective a DOE-sponsored program relates action before shutdown becomes Finally, let me point to two to the surveillance of operating necessary. impressive new pieces of equip­ power stations. This work by Ken ment-one in operation and one Piety of I&C involves the use of shortly to be built-for scattering Mammalian Genetics neutron noise analysis to increase research. A major addition to our the safety, availability, and relia­ Virtually all estimates of the capability has been the 10-m bility of nuclear power stations. genetic risk of radiation to man small-angle x-ray scattering facil­ The goal is to develop a surveil­ are based on results from ORNL's ity developed by Bob Hendricks lance system that would auto­ mammalian genetics facility, as of the Metals and Ceramics Divi­ matically "leam" and store the are both national and intema­ sion. In routine operation for normal signals and signatures tional population dose limits. In about 18 months, this device has (such as the frequency spectrum the past few years, however, a been applied to a wide variety of the fluctuating components of major portion of this effort has of structural problems in mate­ neutron detector signals) from the been switched from radiation rials science, solid state physics, standard instrumentation ofeach effects to chemical mutagenesis, chemistry, and the biological power station. After leaming and particularly investigation of com­ sciences. J. S. Lin is working with defining "normal" signals, the pounds of importance to coal­ Hendricks in the utilization of system would examine the incom­ related technologies. This broad this unique facility, which in ing signals and detect abnormal effort is concemed with genetic September received an IR-100 signatures in a timely manner. effects at different germ cell award as one of the 100 most

SPRING 1978 17 Micrograph of a cross section of a Zircaloy-4 PWR fuel tube after being . ·' -~ ···; . / oxidized in flowing steam under tran­ ('' • ·r-- . - sient temperature reaching a maximum mm . r' .. of 1400°C. Its mechanical properties - :,/ change with the thickness of the 0 0 Zircaloy oxide and alpha layers, but also ,.._ 10 with the extent and distribution of C\J oxygen in the potentially ductile beta g ~ phase. "' important technological develop­ ments of 1977 (one of five such awards in which ORNLscientists shared this year). 0 0 As the year closed, the National 0 ci 0 Science Foundation announced C\J 10 0 support for establishment at 0 0 ORNL of a National Small-Angle 0 ci Scattering Center, to be directed by Wally Koehler, of Solid State, and Hendricks. Some 30% of the beam time of four existing devices (two x-ray, two neutron) will be utilized by university scientists giving technical advice in many tracts with both universities and under sponsorship of the NSF. areas. But in the last few years industries. In addition, a new small-angle we've seen our sponsors also A second growing area has been scattering facility, costing an depend on the Laboratory to take our broadening interaction with estimated $600,000, will be con­ a more active role in the definition the southeastern region of the structed at HFIR. It will be com­ United States. We've seen grow­ petitive with the best facilities in of programs, in letting subcon­ tracts, and in monitoring results. ing involvement with the Tennes­ Europe, and the combination here This is a positive step, I believe, see Valley Authority, with the of state-of-the-art x-ray and neu­ because those close to the technol­ universities of the Southeast, and tron machines will make the with outreach programs whose Laboratory a truly important ogies can make the best decisions about their technical needs and purpose is to take the technol­ international center for small­ direction. We've had that role, ogies that we and others develop angle-scattering research. under Pete Lotts, in program to the architect-engineers, con­ management for HTGR Fuel Re­ sulting engineers, state energy New Directions cycle throughout the country; directors, consumers, and so on, Earlier, I mentioned that the and with Bill Burch, in manag­ who can see that they are applied. character of the Laboratory is ing Advanced Fuel Reprocessing. A third major area, also increas­ evolutionary rather than revo­ We've also undertaken technical ing in the last few years, is an lutionary. With the constant management responsibility for a emphasis on transferring · the change in the kinds of work we number of conservation areas­ technology that is created in the do, and the ways we do it, it is and others are in the offing. A few Laboratory to those that might important that we not lose sight of of those we are already involved use it. This involves, of course, our those things which make ORNL with include horne appliances, working with other institutions, an essential institution and a heat pumps, and energy storage. particularly with industry. The leader among national labora­ In all cases where we have discoveries that we make at the tories. Within those, we have seen accepted such roles, we insist that Laboratory can have profound three important characteristics the Laboratory have expertise in effects-there's much evidence of evolving. One is in the area of that area and continue to be that. But we must make strong program management. Forrnany active in the research. The major­ efforts to take those technologies years, the Laboratory has worked ity of the work may be done by and place them in the hands of with the federal agencies in others, however, through subcon- those who can create the products.

18 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review John Wolfe looks do wn at Delmar Fraysier at the huge nonnuclear heat· transfer blowdown experiment in Engi· neering Technology Division.

Coupled with that attack is an impressive and more subtle new attack being leveled by a combi­ nation of environmentalists and consumers'-rights advocates. It is represented best in the newest spokesman, Amory Lovins. The attack is not just upon nuclear but upon technology as a whole. The idea of going toward the soft path, toward decen traliza­ tion of the supply and use of energy, and away from big insti­ tutions sounds very appealing. This articulate attack upon tech­ nology and upon our present basic social and economic structure in the United States, if successful, will undoubtedly influence the Laboratory's character in the future. There again are those who ques­ tion the role of national labora­ tories. This year, I testified on this subject before the Committee on Science and Technology of the House of Representatives. There are, in particular, questions from industry, from universities, from not-for-profits about what the These three directions are not reversed. These changes present national laboratories are doing new, for we have done them be­ opportunities as the Laboratory is and why. Such questioning is fore, but they are areas which asked to look at new kinds of fuel always healthy. We look for­ I feel will become more ingrained cycles, new reactor choices, better ward to honest debate and to as part of the character of the ways of creating nonprolifera ting opportunities to sharpen our con­ Laboratory in the next few years. cycles, ways of reducing envi­ tribution. But the questioning ronmental impact, and ways of within ERDA, the Department of increasing margins of safety in Energy, GAO, OMB, OTA, and Omens reactors. Whether we are seeing a others in Washington means that Other things that are happen­ flurry of activity that will subside the national laboratory must ing on a broader scale may have as the crucial role of nuclear indeed be involved in more active longer-term consequences for the energy becomes apparent in the discussion of roles. laboratory- although not neces­ next few years, or whether we are There are also some good sarily predictable ones. A con­ witnessing the death throes of a signs- a willingness by DOE to tinuing example is the attack on technology that is under attack by discuss placing more responsi­ nuclear energy. Some of the a few articulate, powerful people, bility in particular areas at the policies of the past now are being remains to be seen. labs and to create technical

SPRING 1978 19 The algorithm shows how complex nuclear power plants can be monitored automatically. Signals from the plant process are translated by a preprocessor into neutron power density spectra, are compared with the learning period MONITORED spectra (p resumed to be normal), and PLANT NORMAL then are classified accordingly as to OR normality. PROCESS

PERFORMANCE LEARNING ALGORITHM Panoramic view of Bob Hendricks's small-angle x-ray scattering facility de­ scribed in the Winter 1978 issue of this journal. Its outstanding success PATTERN UPDATING has led to support by the National Science Foundation for a National Small-Angle Scattering Facility to be established at ORNL, embodying the construction of a similar neutron-scat­ tering machine at HFIR. centers with sufficient breadth to attack significant problems. There is increasing attention in DOE to areas of research that have in the past been a no-man's land-falling in the cracks be­ tween the too well defined re­ sponsibilities. There is an aware­ ness of the coming plight of basic sciences and a pledge to do something.

Su This year, like every year, has been an exciting one for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. I hope I have indicated a number of the changes in direction, as well as examples of our continuing contributions, which keep ORNL at the forefront of science and technology. The future obviously lems any civilization has faced, Ridge National Laboratory and will have many other changes who have the desire for partici­ the excellence of their technical and challenges, enough to de­ pation and involvement, and who contributions. It's been my big­ mand the best from all of us. have achieved remarkable track gest pleasure again this year to be The obvious and continuing records in discoveries, make the involved with this community of source of the Laboratory's Oak Ridge National Laboratory a scientists, technologists, admin­ strength is its people. All of great institution. The real empha­ istrators, and support personnel. I you whose creativity, hard work, sis of any State of the Laboratory have no doubt that 1978 will and dedication have solved some address at any time must be the continue to be an exciting period of the knottiest technical prob- quality of the people of the Oak for all of us as we work together.

20 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review take a number

BY V. R. R. UPPULURI

'•·

1 1 If A= ( - ) 1 -1

Can Squares then A2 = ( ~ ~ ) Be Negative? We all know the square of a Matrices B, such that B2 = B, are number is always positive. For studied in literature. While work­ instance, (2)2 = 4 and (-3)2 = 9. ing on Stochastic Compartments When we speak of a number we Analysis, I encountered matrices mean a real number. C such that C2 = -C. But mathematicians have intro­ For example, if duced complex numbers and defined the multiplication of two complex numbers; the product of c= (1-21 -2 ) an imaginary number by itself is, in fact, negative, as the complex then number i represents the square root of -1. Matrices are another class of objects created by mathemati­ cians. Multiplication of matrices These thoughts show that it is is defined in a technical manner. not always healthy to combine Because of the special method of traditional functions like multipli­ multiplication of matrices, very cation with newly defined classes unusual things can happen. For of objects. Such a criticism is instance, the square of a matrix leveled more strongly in connec­ (which is different from the zero tion with Catastrophe Theory in matrix) can equal the zero matrix. recent times.

SPRING 1978 21 Ron Goans holds forth in the Whole Body Counter Facility in Building 2008, back of the cafeteria. His three degrees in engineering physics , physics , and health physics were earned at The University of Tennes­ see , after which he joined the Health Physics Division in 1974. His interest and expertise in instrumentation led to his being asked to investigate the sonar principle for use in diagnostic testing of burned tissue. Today, a patent is pending on a device developed by Dr. H. D. Stambaugh of the Norton Children's Hospital Burn Unit in Louisville, Kentucky; John Cantrell of NASA's Langley Research Center in Virginia; Brad Meyers, a student at Vanderbilt University; and Ron Goans. The device is now ready for testing at the Louisville clinic , and Goans will be working therewith Dr. Stambaugh this year.

he principle behind finding "Knowing the depth of the T submarines in the Pacific bum is crucial," Goans said, Ocean and bass in Melton Hill "because it determines how How oeeu Lake has been applied by an severe the injury is and, ORNL scientist to a stubborn consequently, the method of medical problem. Using ultra­ treatment.'' sonics, and operating on the Goans' research is significant is the Burn ? same principle as sonar, health because until now there has physicist Ronald Goans has been no sensitive, quantita- By JEFF McKENNA developed a device that could tive way to measure the depth give doctors a quick, accurate of thermal damage in bums­ way to diagnose bums. The information of primary impor­ technique not only can deter­ tance to the physician treating a mine how deep a bum goes, but bum patient. That's not to say, can also distinguish among the however, that the search for various types of tissue damage such a tool hasn't been under associated with the bum. way. Sophisticated techniques

22 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review Application of the ultrasonic transduce r to human skin is simple and painless.

ized by a slight reddening and a sensitivity to touch. These bums are superficial and generally heal readily. A second-degree bum, also called a partial-thickness bum, is a deeper injury and involves all of the epidermis and part of the dermis, the thick layer of fibrous connective tissue under­ lying the epidermis and con­ taining many blood vessels. In addition to reddening and touch sensitivity, these bums produce blisters, but can, with time, repair themselves. The rate of such as dye differentiation, use medicine, but this is the first healing depends on the depth of of radioactive tracers, thermog­ time it's been used for bums," skin destruction and the likeli­ raphy, and infrared spectral Goans explained. "It's really a hood of infection. methods have been tried, but simple idea related to an old Deep dermal bums are diffi­ none has been entirely satisfac­ problem. I'm kind of surprised cult to diagnose and, if they tory and none has come into no one has thought of it before." become infected, can easily widespread clinical use. tum into third-degree injuries. Third-degree, or full-thickness, As a result, most of the 70,000 Types of Burns Americans burned severely bums are very severe, injuring enough each year to require To understand this "simple the fat tissue beneath the dermis hospitalization have been under idea," something should first be and being characterized by a the care of a physician who has said about the nature of bums, dry insensitive surface. Unless had little to work with besides which traditionally are divided extremely small in area, these his imperfect eye, experience, into three classes of severity. A bums usually require skin graft­ and a scalpel. first-degree bum involves only ing; self-repair is impossible. "Ultrasonics has had many the epidermis-the outermost In cases of third-degree bums, other diagnostic applications in layer of skin-and is character- the patient must first be

SPRING 1978 23 treated for symptoms such as many major bum treatment The benefits of early excision shock and loss of body fluids centers are now using this and immediate grafting were and blood plasma. "During method. However, there remains shown in a recent study of the this time," Goans explained, the knotty problem of determin­ death rates of two groups of "you're inviting every kind of ing how much tissue has been patients sustaining similar bacteria in the world. A variety destroyed by the bum and can­ third-degree bums but receiving of complications could occur­ not be expected to regenerate different treatments. Compared blood poisoning, massive infec­ and how much tissue is likely to to the conservative method of tion, nerve problems, cardiac survive and regenerate. So allowing spontaneous separa­ arrhythmias. The greatest although many surgeons agree tion of dead and viable tissues, danger is in the first few weeks that early excision is desirable early excision and grafting following the burn, especially because it removes all dead reduced mortality from 11 to 4% the first two days." tissue, they also point out that and required much less time for the procedure offers disadvan­ wound closure. Treatment by Surgery tages since it is often several Other techniques of bum days before the extent of injury In conventional bum treat­ treatment-excision in stages is known. to ment, this long and hazardous and the use of chemicals period of time was used to allow the dead tissue to separate itself from the less severely burned tissue (viable tissue) under and around the bum. Only after this spontaneous separation had occurred, a process that takes three to four weeks, was the dead tissue removed and skin grafting started- in many cases not in time to evade serious infection or death. "But several years ago," Goans said, "surgeons started attacking the bum problem vigorously and excising (cutting away) the destroyed tissue early. The tissue is cut away until bleeding occurs, at which point the surgeon can be sure he's reached viable tissue." Recognizing the value of early excision of the bum wound,

Pigs have responses oddly similar to humans. This pig, at the Comparative Animal Research Facility, paced nervously when his sty was invaded by strangers, but eventually slowed down and permitted W. J. Kopp, director of animal services at CARL, to reassure him with a few calming strokes. "The only way you can work with a pig," says Dr. Kopp, "is to have more time than he does." Ron Goans stands by, as he has many times in this study, waiting for the pig to gain his composure enough to submit to the preliminary anesthetic, administered by precise injection in the ear.

24 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review ------,

remove dead tissue-also have These waves are directional and two years ago, Dr. Harry D. merit, but again, the extent of can be more easily focused than Stambaugh, a plastic surgeon damage and the level of sep­ audible waves. Due to their at the Norton Children's Hos­ aration must be determined shorter wavelengths, they can pital Burn Unit in Louisville, subjectively by the surgeon at be used for examining small Kentucky, through his associa­ the time of surgery. Therefore, variations in structure. In tion with John Auxier, then the patient would be better off ORNL's nondestructive testing director of the Health Physics if the surgeon could distinguish program, for example, ultra­ Division, suggested that the self-repairing, second-degree sonics is used to detect hairline machine be tried out on burns. burns from nonrepairing, third­ flaws in metals. Its use in recent Goans, whose major duties are degree burns. Using an ultra­ years has been applied to other still in the dosimetry lab, sonic pulse-echo device such as disciplines as diverse as den­ headed the project due to his that developed by Goans, the tistry and gynecology. background in engineering physician can make that fine In fact, the Industrial Safety physics and because, as he said, distinction, remove the dead and Applied Health Physics "I've always been interested in tissue surgically, and perform Dosimetry Laboratory (Building any kind of medical research." immediate grafting while apply­ 2008), where the radioactivity Early devices for producing ing topical agents to the skin. level in ORNL employees is ultrasonic waves, such as the monitored, had been using a whistle and tuning fork, have The New Technology standard ultrasonics machine­ given way to modern trans­ The "magic" of Goans' an echoencephaloscope-for ducers. These are crystals which machine, ultrasonics (sometimes several years. It was used to called silent sound), is the measure the amount of tissue A cross section of skin, showing the science of sound waves having covering the ribcage in humans, sonar response to the layers from epi­ dermis to the beginning of the fat frequencies too high for the and thus the amount of internal tissue. By comparing normal skin human ear to hear-that is, radiation that is absorbed before readings with the burned skin, the higher than 20,000 cycles/ sec. reaching the detectors. About depth of the bum can be ascertained.

EPIDERMIS-DELAY THERMAL DAMAGE

NOIMAI. PORCINE SKIN NORMAL PORCINE SKIN

IMMEDIATELY POSTIIURN EIGHT DAYS POSTIURN

ONE 04Y POSTBURN

TWO DAYS POSTIIURN

ELEVEN DAYS P05T11URN

TIIIEE DAYS POSTIIURN

THIITEfN DAYS POSTIIURN SIX DAYS POSTIIURN

SEVEN DAYS POSTIIURN FOUITHN DAYS POSTIIURN

MM. TISSUE

SPRING 1978 25 change electrical energy into measuring materials of known involves examining changes in mechanical vibrations (sound thickness, its accuracy in bum the reflection spectrum relative waves) and vice versa. In applications was tested on to a known reference pattern. If Goans' device, a pulse of voltage pig skin, which is very similar the bum is partial-thickness, the is applied across the transducer to human skin. Young (5 to ultrasound pattern will contain to produce ultrasonic waves at 8 months old) Yorkshire pigs multiple near-surface reflections the rate of 500 times per second. at UT's Comparative Animal from the burned epidermal Sound frequencies can be varied Research Laboratory (CARL) tissue as well as a strong peak to suit different purposes (the served as the experimental sub­ at the bum boundary (some­ smaller the details being jects. Burned portions of the where in the dermis). The area studied, the narrower the sound pigs' skin were analyzed ultra­ in the ultrasound spectrum from pulse must be) by varying the sonically to determine the bum the peak of the bum boundary size of the transducer and the depth and type of tissue down to the reflection at the voltage. damage. These measurements dermis-fat boundary will be "As the waves pass through were then compared with those relatively free of reflected sig­ the material being studied," from slides of tissue samples nals. Thus, the absence of Goans explained, "any kind of taken from the bums. signals in some portion of the discontinuity (such as the All the burnings were done, of dermis below the signal from boundary between burned and course, under deep anesthesia. the boundary indicates that viable tissue) in the material And, at first, the measurements viable tissue is present and that will cause a reflection (echo) of on these bums were attempted the bum is second-degree. the sound pulse." The trans­ on the wide-awake pigs. As For full-thickness burns, there ducer receives these echoes, Goans tells it, the fact that an will be virtually no echo-free converts them back into elec­ alert pig does not sit still while areas between the initial epi­ trical energy, and the electronics a tender spot on its back is dermal reflection and the of the machine translate the being probed caused some dermis-fat reflection. The reflec­ time lapse between echoes into problems for him, for the vet, tion at the boundary between distances- hence the label and for all that finely tuned the dermis and fat thereby "ultrasonic pulse echo" to hardware. "I've been bitten, serves as a natural anatomic describe the device. stepped on, and squealed at," he landmark-important because Because of the small distances says with a smile. "We used dermal thicknesses vary consid­ involved in measuring bum anesthetic when we could, but erably over the surface of an depth (human skin is roughly giving the pigs too many injec­ animal-and the presence or 1 mm thick), the echoencephalo­ tions would kill them." The solu­ absence of echoes relative to this scope was modified electronically tion turned out to be a simple reflection indicates the degree of to give a finer time resolution. one. Fed a large meal about a burn. Otherwise, the received echoes half an hour before the experi­ from different layers of the skin ment, the pigs fell into a deep, contented slumber, oblivious to would blur together. Goans has Greater Precision been able to bring the resolution any untoward manipulations. down to the remarkable range of When the experimental results Besides determining the depth 0.1 to 0.2 mm. "According to were in, they confirmed the use­ of bums and the degree of tissue bum surgeons," Goans said, fulness of the ultrasonic tech­ damage, Goans' research also "knowledge of the burned tissue nique. Not only were reflections sought to explain what caused thickness to within 10 to 15% is measured from both the near the definite sound reflection-or adequate for all surgical pro­ and far sides of the epidermis "impedance mismatch"-at the cedures. We certainly feel that and from the boundary between boundary between burned and our technique can give answers the dermis and fat layer, but viable tissue. This reflection is within this precision." a distinct reflection was also visible immediately after the noted at the boundary between skin is burned and becomes very Volunteered Piglets burned and viable tissue. distinct by the third day Using these reflections to following the burn. After the machine was diagnose whether a bum is par­ What was known is that checked and calibrated by tial- or full-thickness basically impedance is dependent on the

26 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review velocity of the sound wave, the "All our research protocols hilt University; M. D. Schneider, density of the medium through have been approved for clinical chief of pathological services at which the wave passes, and the testing," he said, following a The University of Tennessee attenuation (weakening of rigorous review by members of a Comparative Animal Research intensity) of the wave in the human use committee. "Now Laboratory (CARL); W. J. Kopp, medium. Previous work had we'll be able to get involved veterinarian at CARL; and H. E. shown that the velocities of with humans in a major way." Walburg, CARL director. sound in both normal and Goans should also be able to burned tissue are approximately devote more time to the project, equal. And density measure­ which he described as "almost a sideline" to his demands at the ments of burned and viable tis­ Further Applications sue showed that the densities Internal Dosimetry Laboratory. were not different enough to Despite the success of the With this increased diagnostic produce the observed impedance ultrasonic device till now, Goans power, ultrasonic techniques mismatch between the two doesn't consider it to be in its might very well be useful in layers. final stage. "After we started other areas where such methods Using a spectrum analysis using it in the pig experiments, as x rays are now used. For technique, Goans then found a lot of modifications from example, the standard echoen­ that the difference in ultrasound the original design were made. cephaloscope described here is attenuation between the burned When we start examining useful in ostetrics for assessing and viable tissue layers was human burns, we'll probably the stage of pregnancy, where a "quite noticeable." The spectral make many more." resolution of centimeters is shape for each layer (from One of the major improve­ sufficient. But with the sub­ burned to viable) changes, and ments will be to convert the millimeter resolution of Goans' the calculated attenuations are current one-dimensional device, it could also be applied significantly different in going display-which provides an to screening for breast cancer. from the first layer to the deeper oscilloscope trace of the depth Goans thinks tumors on the tissue below. Though not posi­ and extent of the burn for any order of one-half centimeter or tive, Goans attributed this one point on the skin-into a less could be detected without finding to differing absorptive two-dimensional scanner, the problems connected with properties of the two kinds of allowing the user to see the x-ray mammography. tissues, a complicated determi­ actual cross-sectional geometry Even when the ultrasonic nation which will require the of the burn. With the addition of device is perfected, Goans assistance of a computer to be a minicomputer, the machine pointed out, the proper treat­ verified. will be able to give physicians ment of a burn victim "will Goans also discovered that the real-time readouts of entire burn eventually rely on the skill of spectra for normal tissue and areas for use at the patient's the doctor. But the scanner viable tissue differ from each bedside- a capability that has should give him much informa­ other significantly, evidencing several instrument companies tion he never had access to that the unburned skin layer looking on with interest. before." Dr. H. D. Stambaugh, a below the burn, while still "That's the really exciting plastic surgeon who specializes viable, is not left undamaged by possibility," Goans said. "I in burns, agrees. Quoted in thermal injury to the skin. think all the technology is Business Week (June 13, 1977), available. It's just a matter he said, "The surgeon's eye is of coming up with the right not very accurate except in Refinements Anticipated interface." clear-cut cases, and there is no Among the people who have way you can look at any given Although some testing of the assisted Goans in this work are case and be sure." The ultra­ ultrasonic device has been done John Cantrell of the National sonic machine, Stambaugh on human burns, Goans has Aeronautics and Space Admin­ added, would change all that. only recently been given the istration at Langley Research "There is no question of its green light to experiment with Center in Virginia; Roberta effectiveness. Once surgeons the machine at the Norton Roswell, Rensselaer Polytechnic learn to interpret its data, I see Children's Hospital. Institute; Brad Meyers, Vander- no barriers to its use at all."

SPRING 1978 27 J. P. Blakely has been appointed by the Board of Directors for the Society for Technical Communi­ awards and appointments cation to be program chairman for the 27th International Tech­ nical Communication Conference to be held in Minneapolis in the David G. Thomas has been Terry Bott won the ANS spring of 1980. named a Fellow of the American Nuclear Reactor Safety Division's Institute of Chemical Engineers. 1977 Best Student Paper Award Elected Fellows of the Ameri­ for "Experimental Comparison can Physical Society have been Dan Robbins has been named Studies with the VENUS-II Dis­ Y ok Chen, Robert N. Comp­ director of the Information Divi­ assembly Code," written while ton, and L.A. Boatner. sion, replacing Fritz McDuffie, attending Brigham Young Uni­ who has returned to research in versity. David Reichle has been ap­ the Chemistry Division. pointed to the National Research Mitchell Conner and John Council's Board on Toxicology Theodore Odell has been named Slaten have been certified by the and Environmental Health associate director of the Biology National Registry of Radiation Hazards. Division, succeeding Stan Car­ Protection Technologists. son, who retired in late 1977. Jim Weir was elected to a The Greater Knoxille Advertising three-year term on the board of L. E. McNeese, formerly asso­ Club, in its 1978 Annual Addy trustees of the American Society ciate director of the Chemical Competition, awarded First Place for Metals. Technology Division, has been in the category of house organs to appointed director of the Coal Bill Clark for his design of the At the joint competition held Technology Program, replacing Winter 1978 issue of the ORNL by the East Tennessee chapters Jere P. Nichols, who has returned Review. of the Society for Technical to the Chemical Technology Divi­ Communication and Industrial sion to become manager of Engi­ Chet Richmond has been ap­ Graphics International, the fol­ neering Analysis. pointed to Committee 2 on Inter­ lowing ORNL entries received nal Exposure, of the International awards: Best-of-Show trophy: Stanley I. Auerbach, director of Commission on Radiological Pro­ "Oak Ridge," by J. W. Gollehon, the Environmental Sciences Divi­ tection. which also won first prize in sion, has been named to President the brochure category; Energy Carter's Committee on Health Division Annual Progress Report, and Ecological Effects of In­ The Carolina chapter of the Print­ fourth prize, annual reports; ing Industries of America, in their creased Coal Utilization. The Ichiban: Radiation Dosimetry for 1978 annual competition, have the Survirors of Hiroshima and committee will make recommen­ awarded second place to J . W. dations to the President and the Nagasaki by John Auxier, first Gollehon and Bill Clark for Secretary of Health, Education, prize, books; Proceedings of the "Oak Ridge" in the category of and Welfare concerning the Conference on Assessing the four-color brochures. health and environmental effects Effects of Power-Plant-Induced of increasing the production and Mortality on Fish Populations by use of coal as an energy source. Hugh C. Long was awarded the Webb Van Winkle, second prize, Ben S. Gilmer Award for Engi­ books category; ORNL Review Dorothy M. Skinner has been neering Excellence by Auburn (Barbara Lyon, editor, Carolyn elected to a four-year term as one University's School of Engineer­ Krause, staff writer, Bill Clark, of four members-at-large of the ing. Established in 1977 in the art director), first prize, house Biological Sciences Section Com­ name of an outstanding alumnus, organs category; Lab Newsletter mittee of the American Associ­ the award is given, not neces­ edited by Jeff McKenna, second ation for the Advancement of sarily annually, to honor a dis­ prize, house organs category; 14th Science. tinguished alumnus of the school. ERDA Air Cleaning Conference

28 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review ------

Effects of Explosion-Generated and J. W. Koger, second prize, of special services to the Society. Shock Waves in Ducts, by J. E. technical reports; Test of 6-inch· J. B. Davidson received second Kahn and J.P. Belk, first prize, thick Pressure Vessels, Series 4: prize in this exhibit's Novel and conference materials category; Intermediate Test Vessels V-5 Unusual Techniques Class for his The Maryland Power Plant Siting and V-9 with Inside Nozzle "Neutron Diffraction Tomogra­ Project: An Application of the Corner Cracks by J. G. Merkle, phy: A Technique for 3D Non de­ ORNL Land-Use Screening Pro­ G. C. Robinsonetal., third prize, structive Crystal Inspection." cedure by J. E. Dobson, third technical reports; Prestressed prize, technical reports category; Concrete Reactor Vessel Thermal Robert W. McClung and Environmental, Health, and Con­ Cylinder Model Study by J. P. K. Kawashima received the trol Aspects of Coal Conversion: Callaghan, D. A. Canonico et 1977 Achievement Award from An Information Overview, Vols. al., fourth prize, technical reports; the American Society for Non de­ 1 and 2, by Helen Braunstein, Stress Analysis of Cylindrical structive Testing for the most Emily Copenhaver, and Helen Pressure Vessels with Closely outstanding contribution to Pfuderer, third prize, technical Spaced Nozzles by the Finite­ Materials Evaluation in 1976. reports; Career Opportunities at ElementMethodby J.D. W. Tso, Their paper, "Electromagnetic Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and J. W. Bryson et al., fourth prize, Ultrasonic Transducer for Gener­ Paducah, Kentucky, with Union technical reports. ating and Detecting Longitudinal Carbide Corporation, Nuclear In the technical art categories, Waves," was submitted when Division, by J. W. Gollehon, ORNL winners were Bill Clark, Kawashima was a Laboratory second prize, brochures; Math­ for "Oak Ridge," first place, book­ guest from Nippon Steel Corpora­ ematics and Statistics Research lets, and second and third place tion, Japan. Department of the Computer Sci­ for line illustration; Alice Rich­ ences Division at Oak Ridge, ardson, second place, brochures; Domenic Canonico has been Tennessee, by J . W. Gollehon, and John Waggoner, third appointed to serve a three-year fourth prize, brochures; Tech­ place, displays and signs. nology Assessment of Modular term on the editorial committee of Metal Progress, a monthly publi­ Integrated Utility Systems, Vol. cation of the American Society for 1, Summary Report, edited by Henry Inouye, Donald E. Metals. Wm. R . Mixon and contributed Harasyn, Karen H. Galloway, to by 17 authors in the Chemistry, Anthony Schaftbauser, Chain Energy, Chemical Technology, T. Liu, Richard L. Heestand, Carl McHargue was named Engineering Technology, and En­ and William 0. Graves have Fellow of the Metallurgical Soci­ vironmental Sciences Divisions, received DOE citations in recog­ ety of the American Institute of fourth prize, brochures. nition of their "substantial and Mining, Metal, and Petroleum Design Data and Safety Features invaluable contributions to the Engineers. of Community Nuclear Power nation's program of scientific Plants by Fred Heddleson, first outer-planetary studies." The De­ Phillip Maziasz received the prize, literature compilation; Nu­ partment of Energy commended American Nuclear Society's clear Safety, edited by Bill ORNL for its role in the develop­ award for the best booth dis­ Cottrell, first prize, technical ment of the multi-hundred-watt play during the Materials Science journals; Time-dependentFatigue radioisotope thermoelectric gen­ of Structural Alloys: A General erators to supply power aboard and Technology Division's poster session at the ANS winter meet­ Assessment by L. F. Cofim, the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecrafts. ing in San Francisco. A. E. Carden et al., first prize, technical reports; NRC Water­ At the International Metallo­ Reactor Safety-Research Pro­ graphic Society meeting in The National Research Council gram by Bill Cottrell, second Houston last year, C. K. H . has appointed Bob J olley to prize, technical journal article; DuBose, chairman of the metal­ membership on the Committee Metallurgical Examination of lographic exhibit since its in­ on Chemistry of Disinfectants LMFBR-FEM Bundle 50 Follow­ ception in 1968, received the and Products, a subcommittee of ing Failure During Boiling Tests President's Award, given for the the NRC's Safe Drinking Water by P. A. Gnadt, R . W. Ludwig, first time in acknowledgment Committee.

SPRING 1978 29 Peter Mazur and Stanley Leibo have collaborated for 12 years on cryobi­ ology projects, including the famous mouse embryo freezing experiment, the dramatic results of which were depicted in 1972 on a Science magazine cover. Mazur, a native of New York City , is a Harvard graduate who earned his Ph .D. in biology from Harvard in 1953. After a four-year stint in the Air Force, he was awarded a National Science Foundation fel­ lowship allowing him to pursue post­ doctoral research in biology at Princeton University. Since 1959, when he joined ORNL's Biology Division , Mazur has held various posts , including group leader in cell physiology, professor of biomedical sciences at the UT-Oak Ridge Grad­ uate School of Biomedical Sciences , scientific director for biophysics and cell physiology, and , currently, unit MAZUR leader of theoretical and applied cryobiology. In 1973-74, he was

implications, as it led to further experimental work which dem­ onstrated that glycerol could protect against freezing damage in bovine sperm, human sperm, and human blood. Applications By CAROLYN KRAUSE examine the solution they had of these results were not long used in which they obtained coming: two were improved high surv.ival rates. He deter­ cattle breeding and life-saving n 1949 Audrey Smith, mined that the solution was transfusions of clean, disease­ I C. Polge, and A. S. Parkes of glycerol, not sugar. What had free blood from hospital blood England were trying to preserve happened, it was later learned, banks throughout the world. specimens of turkey sperm by was that the labels on the jars The emerging discipline of freezing them in sugar solution. of glucose and glycerol in the cryobiology is largely concerned The experiments were not refrigerator had fallen off and a with understanding the factors working: the freezing killed the lab assistant had inadvertently required to stop biological sperm. But then one day they switched the labels as he put time-that is, to freeze clusters had a piece of extraordinary them back on. of cells, hold them in frozen luck. They froze sperm sus­ This serendipitous discovery storage for days or months or pended in solution and, to their that glycerol would protect years, and to thaw them out surprise, observed fantastic fowl sperm against freezing without killing them. Choosing survival rates. They decided to damage launched the field of the right concentration of the repeat the experiment in a fresh cryobiology, the study of the right additive (such as glycerol) sugar solution, but they were effects of subzero temperatures to protect against freezing not successful. So Audrey Smith on living systems. The discovery damage is only one critical asked an analytical chemist to also had immensely practical factor; other factors that must

30 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review president of the Society for Cryo­ biology. He is author or coauthor of more than 60 scientific papers. Last year, as a member of the Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences, he was the into suitable foster mothers. In first author (with six coauthors) of 1976, Mazur and his colleagues a report produced for the Academy again achieved a dramatic entitled Post-Viking Biological Inves­ experimental success. They tigations of Mars. Leibo , a native of demonstrated that intact pan­ Pawtucket, Rhode Island, earned his creases of fetal rats can be Ph.D. in biology from Princeton frozen to -196°C and yet retain in 1963 and became a staff biolo­ full function, producing insulin gist at ORNL two years later. As to reverse diabetes when trans­ the chief investigator continuing planted into adult rats suffering mouse embryo research , Leibo has from this disease. been involved in several interna­ These advances at ORNL tional meetings and has led work­ have helped cryobiology move shops on freezing mouse strains in forward in its quest for success­ the Netherlands, Poland , Hungary, ful methods to freeze human and Denmark. Currently, he is on organs for storage in organ leave to conduct research in im­ banks. Such an achievement munology and cryobiology at the would be a medical tour de Basel Institute for Immunology in LEIBO force because it might enable Switzerland. fundamental aspects of cellular patients in need of a functioning response to freezing to the organ to receive a genetically preservation of more complex compatible one without delay. cellular systems. In 1972, in (A close genetic match is essen­ be understood are the right rates collaboration with British tial to minimize the possibility of freezing and thawing for each scientist David Whittingham, of immunological rejection of type of cell. Mazur and Leibo successfully the transplant.) The formidable Among the cryobiologists froze mouse embryos, stored difficulty of human organ making significant fundamental them, thawed them, and preservation, however, can be and applied contributions in the implanted them into foster explained by the findings of area of the freezing of a variety mothers, which three weeks Mazur and Leibo, who have of cell types have been Peter later gave birth to healthy, fully­ shown that each type of cell is Mazur and Stanley Leibo of Oak developed animals. limited in the range of cooling Ridge National Laboratory's Their fundamental observa­ and thawing rates it can with­ Biology Division. Since the tion that a cellular system as stand. Complex organs such as 1960s they have studied the large and as complex as a kidneys are composed of many response to freezing of various mammalian embryo can be different types of cells; hence, it types of simple cells, including successfully preserved by freez­ may be difficult to find ideal microorganisms, red blood cells, ing has stimulated similar cooling and warming rates that bone marrow, and tissue culture research in more than two dozen will permit the survival of the cells. For each type of cell they laboratories around the world, majority of such organs' con­ found that the factors critical resulting in several inter­ stituents. Another problem is to cell survival include cool- national conferences specifically the potential toxic effect on ing rate, thawing rate, and devoted to the subject of embryo some cells of the protective a concentration of the additive freezing. It has now been additive. solution that is high enough demonstrated that embryos of to protect against freezing rats, rabbits, sheep, goats, and The Problems damage without being toxic. cattle can also be successfully In his article in the 1976 During the 1970s they applied frozen so as to develop into McGraw-Hill Yearbook of their understanding of the living young following transfer Science and Technology, Leibo

SPRING 1978 31 The four photomicrographs show intra­ cellular freezing in mouse ova in dimethyl sulfoxide as a function of cooling rate. Intracellular freezing is indicated by the sudden darkening at -40° of the ova cooled at 32°C/ min (No. 4).

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sets forth the questions that crease. Eventually, all the liquid cryobiology attempts to answer: water is removed either by intra­ "Why do some cells, but not cellular ice formation or by others, withstand exposure to diffusion through cellular subzero temperatures? How does membranes, and the entire cell a cell survive the conversion is converted into the solid state. from the liquid to the solid state J. Lovelock of England has under one set of freezing con­ offered the widely accepted ditions but not under another? hypothesis that one cause of Does 'freezing damage' result freezing damage is exposure to from exposure to subzero tem­ high salt concentrations. He peratures alone, from events suggested that compounds such that occur only during freezing, as glycerol and dimethyl during storage in the frozen sulfoxide may serve to protect explanation of the fact that state, or during thawing? Can cells against freezing damage by the probability of survival of a freezing of biological systems be acting as a "salt buffer" to cell decreases if the cooling rate used practically to achieve a reduce electrolyte concentration exceeds a certain value. More­ state of suspended animation, during freezing. From this hy­ over, his explanation can ade­ thus staying the otherwise pothesis has sprung a corollary quately account for the fact that inevitable passage of time?" long accepted by cryobiologists: different cell types exhibit Cryobiologists have been if damage results from exposure different optimum cooling rates. zeroing in on what happens to high salt concentrations Assuming that cell cytoplasm is when a cell freezes. To begin during freezing, then the rate of an ideal solution and that the with, a cell's contents and freezing should be fast to reduce cell will achieve equilibrium surrounding liquid consist of exposure time and thus mini­ only by the movement of water, a dilute salt solution (mostly mize damage. But experiments Maxur derived mathematical sodium chloride, some potas­ at ORNL in the 1960s persuaded expressions to describe the re­ sium chloride). When the tem­ Mazur to throw cold water on sponse of a hypothetical cell to perature of the cell is lowered the idea that fast cooling rates freezing." below 0°C, water begins to assured high survival rates. According to Mazur, this is crystallize out of solution as ice, According to Leibo in the what happens. As a cell's tem­ causing the salt concentration McGraw-Hill article: "Mazur perature plummets below the in the remaining liquid to in- was the first to offer a rational freezing point, the water in the

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These brown mouse pups are tended to interior of the cell remains outside. If we cool at a fast by their albino foster mother into whose supercooled (i.e., unfrozen), and rate, then there isn't time wo mb they were implanted as embryos. The mouse embryos had been remo ved the ice crystals that begin to enough for the water to leave, from pregnant mice, held in frozen form remain outside the cell. This and eventually ice forms inter­ storage for eight days, thawed by slow upsets the cell's equilibrium. As nally because cell water does not warming, and transferred to the repro­ Mazur puts it: "The unfrozen, remain supercooled below about ductive tract of the foster mother mouse. supercooled water has a higher - 10 to -l5°C." Another p hotograph of th ese mice appeared on a Science magazine cover chemical potential than that of Mazur's hypothesis predicts in 1972. the ice outside. Like water at the that the probability of intra­ top of a waterfall, water with a cellular ice formation increases higher potential will tend to with increasing cooling rate. are not shrunken but contain leave the cell- diffuse through The experimental evidence con­ large amounts of intracellular the cellular membrane by firming this prediction for ice. Mazur and Leibo believe osmosis- resulting in a higher several types of cells is now that intracellular ice formation concentration of salts in the persuasive. Light and electron is usually, but not inevitably, remaining liquid and in a lower micrographs, taken in Mazur's lethal. At a minimum, its potential. If we cool the cells as well as several others' labora­ presence renders a cell highly slowly down to liquid nitrogen tories, clearly show that slowly susceptible to lethal events that temperature (- 196°C), each cell cooled cells appear shrunken may occur during warming and has time to dehydrate, and the with no evidence of intracellular thawing. Furthermore, circum­ water leaving the cells forms ice ice, whereas rapidly cooled cells venting these potentially lethal

SPRING 1978 33 This schematic depicts the physical events in cells during freezing. If the cell < -10 oc is cooled slowly (upper right), there is enough time for the cell to lose its water, resulting in some shrinkage but in no formation of intracellular ice. lf the cell is cooled too rapidly (bottom and center ~r.. right), it is not able to lose water fa st enough to maintain equilibrium; it -5 oc SLOW/ becomes increasingly supercooled and eventually freezes intracellularly. The e COOL cooling rate can be controlled by regu­ lating the rate of flow of liquid nitrogen through special chambers containing the 0 /_RAPID_ -~®. • Aen sample or by suitably insulating the sample tubes from the refrigerant. @- ~ COOL \J.$1 e ~VERY • • events under practical condi­ RAPID tions may be difficult if not COOL~. impossible. Therefore, Mazur's analysis together with results of his and Leibo's experiments demonstrate that freezing damage is most easily avoided by cooling cells under conditions in which ice does not form intracellularly-that is, by if one selects a slow enough rapid warming, at least for cooling them slowly. cooling rate to avoid intracell­ slowly cooled cells. This sugges­ The common thread running ular ice formation, coupled with tion was verified in the first through Mazur's equations­ a sufficient concentration of embryo freezing experiments, which relate the volume of water an additive such as glycerol to since Whittingham, Leibo, and in a cell to temperature, cooling protect against damaging salt Mazur found that slowly frozen rate, and permeability to concentrations. Then they con­ embryos also had to be warmed water-is that cells seek to re­ sidered the possibility that slowly if they were to survive. main in equilibrium with their slower warming might be surroundings. Mazur mathemat­ necessary to assure the sur­ Embryo Freezing ically described this biological vival of cells coming out of principle as well as the physico­ frozen storage. Mazur hypoth­ Something of a milestone in chemical principle that lowering esized that cells cannot remain cryobiology was achieved in the temperature produces two in osmotic equilibrium unless 1949 with the successful freezing conditions believed to be excess protective additive in the of fowl and human sperm. But potentially damaging to cells­ cell diffuses out during thawing cryobiology had to wait until increased salt concentration and to keep the concentration of salt 1972 for the freezing of ova intracellular ice. "With these solution both inside and outside (unfertilized eggs) and embryos equations," Leibo said recently, the cell the same. (fertilized eggs). As Mazur "one can predict theoretically Hence, slow warming of cells recalls it: "First, we made a how a cell ought to respond to previously cooled slowly might decision, based on theoretical freezing. What is now quite clear be important, since it permits considerations, to cool the is that the theoretical descrip­ time for cells to remain close to embryo cells slowly to avoid tion does in fact match the osmotic equilibrium during formation of intracellular ice. experimental observations quite thawing. Some modeling experi­ To thaw the cells, we had been closely." ments by Leibo to simulate some warming rapidly because most The work of Mazur and Leibo aspects of freezing and thawing people assumed that that was established that many cells had also suggested that slow the best procedure since it would could be preserved by freezing warming might be superior to shorten exposure to high salt

34 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review ------~

concentrations. But work by Jackson Laboratory in Bar • Preservation of embryos of Leibo indicated that too rapid a Harbor, Maine, and Carshalton endangered species and of wild warming might be damaging. Medical Research Council animals maintained in zoos. The guess that slow warming Laboratory in England are Says Leibo: " It has been sug­ might be more protective than currently applying the procedure gested that embryo freezing fast warming was correct, and it to preserve mutant stocks of might be used to prevent abso­ helped lead to successful freez­ inbred experimental mice. lute extinction of an animal ing of mouse embryos." Because diverse forms of mouse species. The hope is that these Says Leibo: "We had observed germ plasm (egg fertilized by wild animal embryos could be some surviving cells when we sperm) are so valuable for reared by transferring them warmed them at 450°C per genetic research and because into similar· common species, minute. So we thought, if a little maintaining mutants by breed­ e.g., a zebra embryo in a foster is good, a lot has to be better. ing colonies is so expensive, horse. This formidable question Hence, we slowed the rate of these laboratories subscribe to of cross-species transfer re­ warming to 215°C/ min. Once we the view that it is worth the mains wholly unanswered, came to that realization of the expense to freeze certain strains however. On the other hand, importance of warming rate, we of mouse embryos which can be present techniques would per­ went from zero survival to 80% developed into live animals in mit the improvement of the survival over the course of a the event that they are needed genetic stock of wild animals week's experiments. It was a or in the event that a highly currently bred in captivity, e.g., very exciting time." selected strain is eliminated by lions and tigers. The constant In their initial experiments, disease. inbreeding of animals main­ Whittingham, Leibo, and Mazur Mazur and Leibo believe that tained in zoos is leading to surgically removed three-day-old cattle embryo freezing, which growing deterioration of the brown mouse embryos (up to 120 has been achieved in England, fitness and vigor of these ani­ cells in size) from pregnant may soon be used to increase mals. Freezing of embryos from mice, cooled them with liquid the production of superior cows. animals still living in the wild, nitrogen to -196°C, left them in Says Leibo: "The ability to and transfer of these embryos frozen storage for eight days, freeze such embryos, coupled into captive foster mothers thawed them by slow warming with techniques to superovulate almost certainly would revital­ (so that the protective additive cows so as to increase the total ize the genetic pool of animals dimethyl sulfoxide could diffuse number of eggs produced by a in zoos, without the necessity of out), and then transferred them superior animal, may have as reducing the size of the wild to reproductive tracts of albino far-reaching an effect on cattle animal population." foster mothers. A large number production as sperm freezing of the frozen-thawed embryos has already had." • Preserving human embryos so developed normally into living Other possible applications of as to permit previously infertile mouse pups. Later experiments embryo freezing might be: women to bear children. Freez­ indicated that three-day-old · ing might help physicians to embryos could be frozen for at • Importing into the United circumvent tubal blockages least a year and survive just as States new or improved animal causing infertility in an esti­ well as those held at -196°C for breeds in the form of embryos mated 5% of the female popula­ only a few days. that could be implanted into the tion of child-bearing age. The This technique has now been oviducts of foster mothers on steps in the procedure would successfully applied elsewhere to domestic farms. This approach consist of inducing a woman to the embryos of several other could circumvent the economic superovulate by hormonal stim­ animal species, including rats, problems of shipping live ani­ ulation and surgically remov· rabbits, sheep, goats, cattle, mals from abroad as well as the ing her ova, which are then guinea pigs, and hamsters (the U.S. Department of Agricul­ fertilized in vitro, cultured, latter two species have been ture's quarantine restrictions placed in frozen storage, and frozen in embryonic form, but on imported animals to mini­ transferred back into her uterus unlike the others, live animals mize the possibility of bringing several months after her body have not been produced from foot-and-mouth disease into the has reverted to a normal state. them). country. If she aborts, the physician can

SPRING 1978 35 draw upon her other fertilized utilization of insulin and by Cacheiro at ORNL have also ova in frozen storage and im­ excessive amounts of sugar in done transplantations of frozen­ plant an ovum each month until the blood and urine.) thawed pancreases in 20 a successful pregnancy results. Because the first UCLA exper­ diabetic rats here. They have Mazur and Leibo emphasize, iments involved inbred rats, the found that 50% of the adult rats however, that this is a specula­ implanted pancreases came were cured or greatly improved tive and untested notion. from rats of the same genetic as a result of the transplanta­ The investigation of embryo background as the recipients. So tions. Mazur says that it is freezing provided Mazur and the UCLA researchers sought to possible that the cure rate would Leibo with a fundamental un­ do a followup study in which be increased by improvements derstanding of cellular response fetal pancreases could be frozen in their transplant technique. to freezing and warming which, and genetically classified for The ORNL study also demon­ they pointed out, could have later implantation in non-inbred strated the feasibility of long­ application to the preservation rats of varying genetic back­ term low-temperature storage of of mammalian organs. Even so, grounds. When the UCLA organs. Temperatures below they recognized in 1972 that it researchers failed to preserve -120°C are required to keep would not be easy to adapt a the pancreases by freezing, they organs indefinitely because no procedure used on three-day-old turned to the Oak Ridge group chemical reactions can occur in embryos (which are in a rela­ for help. such a range. (The only damage tively undifferentiated state) to Relying on his analysis of the that can take place is that the freezing of mammalian causes of cell injury during caused by ionizing radiation; organs (which are larger and freezing and thawing, Mazur Mazur calculates that most contain many different types of selected the conditions for the cells are preservable at liquid cells). But in 1976, the hope that experiment. Working with John nitrogen temperatures for up to organ preservation is feasible A. Kemp of UCLA and Robert 2000 years before sufficient was revived when the ORNL H. Miller of ORNL, Mazur damage would accumulate to group was successful in freezing immersed the fetal pancreases kill them.) Previous attempts to and thawing pancreases from in a high concentration of freeze mammalian organs rat fetuses. Unlike the mouse dimethyl sulfoxide solution to resulted in irreversible damage embryo, the fetal rat pancreas is protect them against freezing below -20°C, but the ORNL in a differentiated state closely injury, cooled them very slowly experiments successfully pre­ resembling that of mammalian to either -78°C or -196°C, held served the organs first by lower­ organs in general. The pancreas them in frozen storage for days ing the temperature to -78°C is a gland made up of special­ or weeks, and then thawed them and then to -196°C. ized cells, some of which secrete by slow warming. To measure What is next on the horizon digestive enzymes while others the success of the procedure, for mammalian organ freezing? secrete the hormone insulin that they used protein synthesis as Leiba believes that David Pegg is essential for metabolizing their criterion. They found that of Harrow, England, may suc­ carbohydrates. frozen-thawed pancreases were cessfully freeze rabbit kidneys in The story began at the Uni­ able to synthesize 80 to 100% as the next three years. Pegg has versity of California at Los much protein as is synthesized succeeded in getting 40% Angeles, where researchers had by unfrozen organs. glycerol solution in and out of a demonstrated in 1975 that rats Additional work by the UCLA kidney that has been surgically could be made diabetic chemi­ team of Yoko Mullen, William removed from a rabbit. The next cally by destroying the insulin­ Clark, and Josiah Brown step will be to cool a kidney producing cells in their demonstrated that the thawed while injecting it with glycerol, pancreases. The chemically­ pancreases, after being trans­ then to hold it in frozen storage induced diabetes could then be planted into adult rats, were until the rabbit has recovered reversed in many cases by able to produce insulin that from the trauma of surgery, transplanting pancreases from reversed experimentally induced thaw that kidney, remove the rat fetuses. (Diabetes is a partly diabetes. Mazur, Ray Rajotte glycerol from it, and implant it inherited disorder of carbohy­ (a visiting postdoctoral investi­ into the rabbit while removing drate metabolism characterized gator from the University of the other kidney. The rabbit will by inadequate secretion or Alberta, Canada), and Lucia then be observed to determine if

36 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review ------

the thawed kidney can maintain transfusion with fresh but tion of bone marrow extracted the rabbit's life. unwashed whole blood. from healthy, young clients; the Freezing of mammalian em­ thawed bone marrow could then Current State and Prospects bryos is already being applied be reinjected into these people to preserve valuable strains of several decades later when their Although a fledgling science, laboratory animals. Due to the immune systems are in need of cryobiology has already potential the technique offers rejuvenation to combat the achieved some dramatic results. for improving the economics of diseases of old age. Other pros­ Its first application was sperm animal husbandry, vigorous pects include aging studies preservation, which has had an research in cattle embryo freez­ involving frozen-thawed cells to important impact on the beef ing is now being conducted in permit researchers to examine and dairy industry. It is esti­ laboratories in Australia, Great changes in plant and animal mated that as many as 50% of Britain, Canada, Denmark, cells over time, preservation of the cattle born each year all France, The Netherlands, and normal and diseased blood cells over the world are produced Poland. It appears human to aid in studies of how to treat from frozen bull sperm used for embryo freezing may have hematological disorders, and, artificial insemination. Freezing important clinical applications perhaps most important of all, of human sperm has also been in the treatment of human human organ preservation. achieved, but as Leibo points infertility. "The potential applications of out, "It now appears that Cryobiology has also been cryobiology in the future may be human sperm banks will have applied in the treatment of staggering indeed," Leibo writes only very limited appeal in cancer. Cryosurgery is now in in the McGraw-Hill Yearbook conjunction with vasectomies as use for killing by freezing article. "They may range from a measure for family planning." (rather than preserving) dis­ the purely practical for medical Blood cell preservation is eased cells of a tissue. Tumor treatment and food production another important application of cells are killed by applying a to the almost philosophical. cryobiology. Banks of frozen temperature-monitored probe That is, it is already possible to blood have been established in through which liquid nitrogen freeze mammalian embryos to hospitals all over the world, circulates. Alan Solomon, a within a few degrees of absolute including a half dozen in the visiting applied mathematician zero. It is conceivable, therefore, United States. Unlike fresh from Israel in the Computer that an embryo that would blood, frozen blood does not Sciences Division, is currently otherwise develop into an adult have to be discarded because of devising computer methods to in the 20th century could be outdating; furthermore, due to simulate the events that occur frozen and stored close to 0 K for the necessity of washing thawed during cryosurgical freezing a millenium, to begin its life in blood to remove glycerol, the with the idea of enhancing the the 30th century. The freezing of incidence of serum hepatitis surgeon's control and manipu­ biological systems, then, offers following transfusion with lation of the procedure. the potential for the human frozen-thawed blood is substan­ One prospect for the future in being to control time, rather tially lower than that following cryobiology might be preserva- than the reverse."

Staff Quote

"I am most impressed by the research program led by Dr. T. Kada who is well known for his DNA-repair studies in E. coli. His recent finding that the mutagenicity of smoked meats and fish can be neutralized by vegetable extract has deep implications in human evolution as well as our everyday living. "­ Abraham Hsie, discussing a recent visit to Japan.

SPRING 1978 37 mission and distribution, a less which "hard technology" electricity centralized system may be pref­ is used to extract "soft technology" letters erable; and solar energy from the atmosphere. (e) many people in the United Consider how often the heat pump States want to be assured of con­ fails compared to how often elec­ Hard Path, Soft Path tinuing participation in decisions tricity is not available. Almost any about energy alternatives for their "soft" technology approach I know I am responding to the editor's communities, neighborhoods, and of is susceptible to failure during invitation to comment on "Hard homes; but such participation is operation whether by corrosion, Paths and Soft Paths: A Dialogue," harder to bring about for systems mechanical failures, or simple cloud published in the Winter 1978 issue that rely predominantly on large, cover. of the Review, because I believe that high-technology facilities. The obvious answer is redun­ we need to consider the possibility These are ideas that can be dancy in the stand-alone systems. of a "middle path." incorporated into a national energy Cost factors then lead to the So far, the reaction to Lovins' policy-and an energy RD&D realization that it may be just as 1976 paper in Foreign Affairs seems policy-without foreclosing future effective, yet considerably less to bear out his argument that there options. In the same way, I believe expensive, to back up two or more is "a deep conceptual dichotomy" that we can continue to examine a homes with one standby system; between the two paths. As Allen lot of possibilities that Lovins and soon one develops the legal Hammond has pointed out, both considers part of a hard path, notion of a public utility to handle sides agree that either hard or soft without necessarily agreeing that a the ownership problem. technologies could probably be national commitment should be Conservation and efficient system made to work. But each side made to supply all of our energy operation are our most reasonable vigorously rejects the other path, from very large central stations. answers to the energy problem. Call often on grounds that are "not Unless and until we are faced it "soft" or "hard" if you will. More mainly technical or economic but with a "guns or butter" decision, insulation helps either approach; rather social and ethical" (Lovins). because our fiscal resources no waste heat recovery helps either My personal response is to be longer allow us to learn more about approach; designing for passive skeptical about the proposition that a range of alternatives, we can energy sources helps either we are limited to two mutually choose to follow a "middle path": a approach. Unfortunately, Lovins' exclusive long-term energy policy strategy that gives "soft," small­ "soft" approach presupposes the alternatives- and that we must scale technologies equal access to availability of hard technology place our bets on one or the other R&D support, utilization incentives, energy to function, and the hard right now. One reason is that if I and management emphasis. Such a technologies need the soft technol­ choose either of the paths, I am path helps us to expand and clarify ogy energy savings to work. It's too apparently expected to stop consid­ our options without predetermining bad that only people who must tum ering some scientifically interesting the choices that society will make a profit have known this and and socially attractive ideas. several decades from now. And I practiced it long before there was For example, we can examine believe that this kind of objective is an energy crisis. It was called "cost Lovins' ideas without necessarily not only politically efficacious but savings." agreeing that a total national socially, ethically, and scientifically commitment should be made to a appropriate. Harry G. Arnold Energy Division soft path. Consider these notions: Thomas J. Wilbanks (a) Our energy supply system is Energy Division I really enjoyed reading the dia­ more reliable and stable if it logue between Helen Braunstein includes considerable technological One of the really important and Dick Roop in the winter issue of and geographical diversity; factors in the "hard" versus "soft" the Review. They did a superb job of (b) an energy supply system technologies (Review, Winter 1978) discussing both sides of the contro­ needs some geographical fine is reliability. Most people do not versy in an interesting, informative, tuning because resources, needs, suffer the loss of energy (electricity) and informal style. and preferences vary from place to more than a couple of hours in one place; year (or one day in 10 years by Would it be possible to conduct (c) when thermal or mechanical utility system design standards.) similar dialogues in future issues? energy is needed and can be sup­ Unfortunately, this is not auto­ I think this would be a great way plied directly, it is energy-inefficient matically true of the smaller, single to stimulate more thinking and to meet the needs with electricity; home, or local, soft technology, discussion at ORNL about key sub­ (d) because a highly centralized energy converters. A good analogy stantive issues related to energy. energy supply system incurs rela­ is the heat pump. This is a hybrid Eric Hirst tively high costs for energy trans- soft-hard technology application in Energy Division

38 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review Lab in Flux article does not distinguish between Environmental Sciences Division. this Environmental Program and The latter is an outgrowth of the The article "A Laboratory in ongoing environmental research earlier large-scale work in eco­ Flux" by A. H. Teich and W. Henry being carried out by the (then) system analysis and radiation Lambright, excerpts of which were Ecological Sciences Division for the ecology carried out by the afore­ contained in the Winter 1978 ORNL National Science Foundation. mentioned Ecological Sciences Review, deals in part with the Clarification should be made that Division. establishment of "a large Environ­ there is no connection between mental Research Program" at the "Environmental Program" men­ S. I. Auerbach ORNL in 1970. Unfortunately, the tioned in this article and the present Environmental Sciences Division

information meeting highlights

Metals and Ceramics, September 27-28

For years the Metals and Ceramics detecting and counting the character­ identity of submicron-size minerals in Division has conducted research istic x rays emitted from the excited coal. projects on materials related to nuclear atoms of sulfur. From the data they Two years ago , in collaboration with fission reactors. But in recent years the inferred that there is relatively more Pedro Smith (now with the Chemistry Division has also distinguished itself sulfur in exinite than in vitrinite, and Division) , Harris and Yust found that with work on other energy sources (in that sulfur content is lowest in exinites have channel-like pores-many keeping with ORNL's broadened inertinite. shaped like golf tees-which frequently mission), such as coal. Some examples This analytical technique, which is contain a microscopic spherical par­ are reported here, as based on two quick and relatively low in cost , offers ticle. At the time , the investigators poster sessions at M&C's tent-covered the potential of determining the relative theorized that the unidentified particles information meeting held September 27 content and distribution of sulfur in acted as catalysts to form the pores , and 28, 1977. various coals, thus allowing the user to which branch out from filler material. Studies of coal constituents. Larry select the coal that is least likely to More recently, Harris and Yust have Harris and Charlie Yust have developed pollute the air in violation of federal observed that the inertinite region of a technique combining optical micros­ standards. Since the distribution of coal has much smaller pores than are copy with electron microprobe analysis sulfur among the pyrite and organic seen in exinite, and that these pores that not only determines the total constituents governs how well coals are widely distributed and highly inter­ amount of sulfur in a sample lump of can be cleaned, the technique could be connected . The character of porosity in coal, but also maps for the first time useful in selecting the coals that can be vitrinite is now being studied. the relative densities of sulfur among effectively cleansed of their sulfur by Using electron microscopy to extend the sample's minerals and macerals conventional "sink and float" processes the knowledge obtained by optical (organic constituents). After inspecting which separate out heavy minerals. petrography studies , Yust says that he polished sections of various samples of The technique could also aid in and Harris have observed mineral coal under the optical microscope, developing new methods for removing bands in coal that are on a finer scale Harris and Yust pinpointed the relative sulfur from macerals in the coal. and that are much more finely dis­ locations of the macerals of exinite, These recent findings are a direct tributed than has been generally vitrinite, and inertinite as well as outgrowth of earlier work performed by appreciated . Typically, mineral parti­ minerals such as pyrite, which tie up the investigators using ORNL's high­ cles in these bands range in size sulfur (e.g., FeS2) . Then Harris and voltage electron microscope and a from 50 to 150 J1. in diameter. Under­ Yust subjected the samples to elec- scanning-transmission electron micro­ standing the mineralogy of aggregate tron microprobe analysis, which scope interfaced with an x-ray disper­ coal is critically important to the provides data on the relative amount sion unit. These instruments have conversion of coal to clean-burning of sulfur at each location by bom­ revealed the distribution and size of liquid and gaseous fuels because some barding the coal with electrons and pores as well as the location and minerals act as poisons to external

SPRING 1978 39 catalysts, whereas other minerals than they had as incident particles and contracts , changing in density but serve as catalysts to promote conver­ because some of the initial energy is not in shape. sion (primarily to get hydrogen from deposited in the nucleus where it Similar results were also obtained donors into the heated coal). Yust appears as the oscillation energy of the when the experiment was repeated for and Harris have found in coal such giant resonance.) The shapes of the lead-206, gold-197, bismuth-209, and minerals as titanium silicate, which angular distributions and strengths of thorium-232. The results on lead-208 renders the cobalt moly catalyst inef­ the inelastic scattering observed in have since been confirmed by further fective, as well as iron and aluminum these experiments were compared with measurements by a group at the Texas silicates, which tend to catalyze coal theoretical predictions by ORNL's Ray A&M cyclotron. The results obtained at conversion reactions.-CK Satchler. These comparisons helped the Groningen cyclotron were reported confirm that a giant quadrupole reso­ March 28, 1977, in Physical Review nance had been found . (These observa­ Letters by Bertrand and KVI staff tions were reported in 1971 by Bertrand members M. N. Harakeh, K. van der Physics, and M. B. Lewis in Nuclear Physics and Borg , T. lshimatsu, H. P. Morsch, and October 3-4 separately by Satchler in the same Adriaan van der Woude (formerly at journal.) ORNL). A new giant resonance in nuclei. At about the same time , these new The discovery of the giant monopole Nuclei of atoms are normally thought excitations were also being produced in resonance , reported at the Physics to be more or less spherical and to Darmstadt, West Germany, and Sendi, Division's annual information meeting have a roughly spherical distribution of Japan, by inelastically scattering elec­ this past fall, is of considerable impor­ charge. In the 1940s, experimental trons from nuclei. Later, measurements tance for the physicist's understanding physicists found that irradiating atoms were also made using the inelastic of the properties of nuclear matter. As with photons (gamma rays) of certain scattering of alpha particles. (These Satchler explains it: "Many nuclear energies caused the atomic nuclei to particles, unlike protons and electrons, phenomena, such as fission or the oscillate strongly, creating an excited do not excite the previously known fusion and scattering of two heavy state of the nucleus. This excited state, giant dipole resonance, which is fairly nuclei , can be understood in terms of a called a giant dipole resonance, is close in excitation energy to the newly picture of nuclei as drops of liquid, or thought to consist of a nuclear motion discovered quadrupole resonance. This nuclear fluid. The simplest approach to in which the neutrons and protons makes experiments with alpha particles this nuclear model treats the fluid as within a nucleus move collectively easier to interpret.) In order to obtain incompressible; however, this is known against one another, so that their alpha-particle beams at high enough to be only an approximation and the center of mass and charge separate, energies to assure a high probability of fluid really is compressible. Unfortu­ thus creating an electric dipole their exciting new resonances, Bertrand nately, heretofore there has been no moment. spent five months in 1976 (followed by way to experimentally measure this In the early 1970s, ORNL pioneered seven weeks in 1977) doing giant­ compressibility. The new observation the investigation of other giant reso­ resonance research at the Kernfysisch of a compressional oscillation in nuclei nances in nuclei with the discovery of Versneller lnstituut in Groningen , The gives us the first opportunity to obtain the giant quadrupole resonance, an Netherlands. The cyclotron there pro­ information on this important and fun­ excited state of the nucleus which can duces a beam of 120-MeV alpha damental characteristic of the nuclear be characterized by the spherical particles, which Bertand and his KVI fluid. nuclear shape oscillating back and collaborators used to irradiate lead-208 "For example, one important ques­ forth between a prolate (football) shape nuclei. They carefully measured spectra tion for which this information is vital and an oblate (pancake) shape. Led by of the inelastically scattered alpha is whether shock waves can be excited Fred Bertrand, several members of the particles. Each spectrum showed the in nuclei in which the density of the ORNL Physics Division have continued peak corresponding to the quadrupole nuclear matter may be many times that the experimental study of the giant resonance, but in each case an addi­ of normal density. If such shock waves quadrupole resonance and initiated tional resonance cou ld be seen with a can be excited , it is possible that new searches for other new giant reso­ slightly higher excitation energy. phenomena, such as the existence of a nances. Comparison of the measured angular super-dense form of nuclear matter as The first direct evidence of the distribution of inelastically scattered predicted by some theorists, may be quadrupole resonance came in 1971, alphas corresponding to the new peak revealed. These shock waves might be based on measurements in which with theoretical predictions by Satchler induced by the collisions of two heavy numerous nuclei were bombarded with showed that this new resonance has nuclei, using heavy ion accelerators 60-MeV protons from the Oak Ridge the characteristics of a giant monopole such as the one under construction at Isochronous Cyclotron, and angular resonance. The monopole mode of ORNL. Even if shock waves do not distributions of the inelastically scat­ nuclear excitation, which had not been exist, knowledge of the compressibility tered protons were obtained. (Inelastic previously observed , can be visualized (or the bulk modulus of elasticity) of scattering means that the particles as a breathing, or compressional, mode nuclear matter is vital for our under­ bounce off the nucleus with less energy in which the nuclear sphere expands standing of the behavior of heavy ion

40 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review collisions, as well as being a funda­ solution, but this does not occur if high suitability stems from the fact that it mental characteristic which any theo­ temperatures and low acidities are produces a waste form with very low retical description of nuclei must be avoided. leachability over a long period of time . able to reproduce ."-CK The process of nuclear fuel recovery Other tests have indicated that the requires the use of holding reductants addition of fly ash to the cement to prevent nitrous acid from oxidizing reduces the leachability even further, Chemical Technology the recovered trivalent plutonium. After and that the leachability of iodine is October 27-28 testing a variety of compounds in fast about 10,000 times less in seawater reactions in the new ORNL-developed than in fresh water. ORNL's increasing involvement in Portable Centrifugal Fast Analyzer Stable isotope separation. lodine-123, research on the nuclear fuel cycle and (described at the end of this article) , a valuable isotope in medical diagno­ on coal conversion is heavily reflected Don Kelmers and Diane Valentine of the sis, is used in radioactive scans and in the projects of the Chemical Tech­ Chemistry Division found that the uptake studies of the thyroid gland. nology Division, as reported at the conventionally used compounds of lodine-123 is preferred over the com­ Division's annual information meeting hydrazine and sulfamic acid are still monly used iod ine-121 because of its held on October 27 and 28, 1977. The the most effective holding reductants. shorter half-life and correspondingly Division's work also includes stable Special equipment, which will be lower body burden. One source of isotope separation , the uses of used to aid in the design of future this isotope is isotopically enriched microbes to remove pollutants, and the chemical reprocessing plants, is being tellurium-122, which is transmuted development of sophisticated instru­ installed at Building 7603 to test to iodine-123 in an accelerator. To ments for biomedical and environ­ processes for recovering usable nu­ reduce the body burden even further, mental measurements. Several of these clear materials from spent reactor fuel. it is desirable that the enriched projects are described here. Others The shearing system , the voloxidizer tellurium contain a minimal amount of (such as the tapered , fluidized-bed (in part), and the rotary dissolver have tellurium-123. bioreactor for removing phenols from been installed so far. The shearing Last year, a research and develop­ coal waste streams, the Anflow pilot system severs the top and lower ment group in the Isotope Separations plant, and fission product release from sections of fuel assemblies, compacts Section , including Bill Bell , AI Veach , reactor fuel) have been covered in them, and cuts them into small pieces. and George Howell , developed methods previous issues of the Review. The shear product then enters the val­ to overcome problems besetting the Nuclear fuel reprocessing. Owing oxidizer, which converts the U02 to U308 calutron separation of the tellurium to shifts of emphasis in national policy, and drives off most of the gaseous isotopes. As a result of this study, research at ORNL on reprocessing fission products to a collector system . they collected samples which show an spent nuclear fuel has been broadened The fuel material is subsequently fed isotopic assay greater than 97% to include extraction of uranium-233 into the rotary dissolver, where it is tellurium-122 with less than 0.3% from thorium-based fuels in addition to rotated in a drum and mixed with nitric tellurium-123. Since these samples the recovery of usable uranium-235 acid, which dissolves the uranium, meet current medical requirements, and plutonium-239 from spent fuel plutonium, and some fiss ion products. steps are now being taken to adapt the from light-water reactors and fission Fixation of wastes in concrete. One developmental equipment and pro­ breeders. of the most promising methods for cedures for a forthcoming tellurium Dave Campbell and his colleagues disposing of low-level wastes from separation. have successfully extracted and nuclear fission is the fixation of these Hydrocarbonization research. ORNL stripped plutonium from irradiated wastes in concrete. ORNL has pio­ has completed the first phase of its light-water reactor fuel after dissolving neered the incorporation of radioactive investigation of the hydrocarbonization it in nitric acid. They found that pluto­ wastes in cementitious grouts. These process for coal conversion with nium losses could be maintained below grouts are pumped into deep-lying , Wyodak coal , a western subbituminous 0.01% as long as acid concentrations geologically suitable shale deposits coal. In the bench-scale hydrocarbon­ during stripping were not too low. A (hydrofracture); in fact , ORNL is the ization experiment, pulverized coal is small fraction of irradiated fuel is only nuclear installation in the United pyrolyzed under hydrogen pressure in insoluble i.n nitrjc acid , and this "dis­ States currently employing under­ a fluidized bed to produce liquid hydro­ solver res1due " was analyzed by a ground rather than surface storage of carbon fuels , gaseous fuels , and low­ variety of methods, which showed it low-level nuclear wastes. sulfur solid fuel. The relative yields and to consist of fission products (molyb­ Recently, John Moore and Gene the quality of these products may be denum , technetium , ruthenium , rho­ Devaney reported their work on a controlled by adjustment of the oper­ dium, and palladium) with negligible process developed by Walter Clark and ating conditions, such as temperature amounts of uranium and plutonium. Clarence Thompson for solidifying (up to 1200°F) and pressure (up to Under certain conditions, process radioactive iodine-129 in a cement 20 atm). More than a dozen experi ­ solutions are unstable to precipitation mixture . Their tests have shown that ments have been completed with of zirconium molybdate, which will barium iodate (mixed in concrete) is Wyodak coal , providing data for opti­ carry some of the plutonium present in the most suitable iodine compound. The mizing the hydrocarbonization process.

SPRING 1978 41 Hank Cochran, of the Chemical Tech­ tion with its integral microcomputer, results that could lead to a method nology Division , has concluded that weighs only 55 lb. Like the initial for the economic production of efficient useful products can be extracted at prototype GeMSAEC, the new portable solar cells , improved experimental modest prices by mild hydrocarboniza­ Centrifugal Fast Analyzer received an techniques for better understanding tion of western coal based on the IR-100 Award in 1977 (bestowed by of catalysts, improved superconducting following attributes: Industrial Research Journal to the top magnets for confining plasmas in 100 technical innovations of the year). fusion reactors , and a more precise quantification of the simulation of • Significant quantities of oil and gas The new machine is superior to its neutron-radiation damage by ion can be obtained without the need for predecessors in two respects: (1) it has a gasifier and oxygen plant to pro­ a revolutionary centrifuge drive system beams from an accelerator. Solar cells from ion-implanted laser­ duce hydrogen . which mixes the samples to be ana­ annealed silicon. One way to make a • The residual solid char is a low­ lyzed with their reagents so rapidly solar cell is to dope the thin upper sulfur efficient boiler fuel which does that up to 99 separate measurements layer of a silicon wafer with boron by not require stack-gas scrubbing or can be taken on each of 16 different ion implantation- that is, by acceler­ limestone for sulfur sorption. solutions in less than 2 sec ; and ating boron ions enough to force them • The quality of the oil produced is (2) the integral microcomputer not only such that only light hydrotreating is acquires, processes, and prints out the into the crystalline solid . The problem with ion implantation is that it knocks required. data, but also controls the analyzer silicon atoms out of their lattice • The substitute natural gas is a direct and checks its performance to diag­ product of hydrocarbonization, and nose potential malfunctions. The com­ positions, thereby degrading the crys­ talline structure. In the past, this methanation is not required . pact size of the microcomputer and its problem has been partially solved by • Subbituminous coals are noncaking output device contribute greatly to the and do not agglomerate in the portability of the machine (dimensions placing the doped silicon wafer in a reactor. of 18 by 11 by 12 in.), which enables it conventional furnace for heat treat­ to be carried into remote or rural areas ment. Called thermal annealing , this by mobile vans and to be operated technique restores the boron-doped Lloyd Youngblood, who operates the from a battery pack. This new analyzer silicon layer to its crystalline structure hydrocarbonization experiment, indi­ can measure light transmission , light and incorporates the boron atoms sub­ cates that tests are under way to apply scattering , or fluorescence on up to 16 stitutionally into the lattice; however, this technology to the bituminous coals different samples to follow changes in substantial lattice irregularity remains. of the East and Midwest. Chemical the concentrations of products. There is also another problem: the pretreatment has been found to render Potential applications include field phosphorus-doped base region of the the bituminous coal noncaking and to assessments of environmental pollut­ silicon wafer is adversely affected by facilitate the production of clean­ ants such as phosphate, ammonia, the heat treatment. After the base burning char from these high-sulfur sulfates, and silica; clinical monitoring region is heated, an undesirable re­ coals. of astronauts in space; and typing of combination of electrons and "positive Biomedical technology. In 1968, ORNL blood at a patient's bedside. Of course , noles" in the photovoltaic device researchers invented the centrifugal these applications are possible in addi­ occurs, thus destroying the potential fast analyzer (dubbed GeMSAEC), tion to the machine 's already proven for a voltage difference necessary to which revolutionized the speed , accu­ capabilities to perform routine analyses produce an electric current through an racy , and sensitivity with which of minute quantities of serum or urine external circuit. medical diagnostic tests and other in the clinical chemistry laboratory.-CK Last summer, after exploring the analyses can be performed . Three Russian literature, Rosa Young came commercial versions of the GeMSAEC up with the idea of trying laser anneal­ have been used in clinical laboratories ing instead of thermal annealing to fab­ to measure certain constituents in ricate solar cells. Working with Woody blood , such as various enzymes , total White , Greg Clark, Jagdish Narayan , protein, glucose, and triglycerides, in Solid State Physics, and others, she found that pulses order to identify malfunctions of the November 2-3 of coherent light from a a-switched liver, kidney, and heart. GeMSAEC was ruby laser (at ORNL's Fusion Energy followed, in 1973, by a miniaturized The Solid State Division has been Division) effectively annealed radiation analytical module coupled to a com­ reorienting its studies of the struc­ damage and completely removed crys­ puter; this prototype, weighing over ture and physical behavior of solid tal imperfections in the ion-implanted 350 lb, has recently been made avail­ materials to provide basic information region. Even better, the localized able commercially. This past year, to the Department of Energy as an heating effect of the laser light inflicted ORNL researchers led by Chuck Scott, aid in the development of new energy no harm on the electron-hole recombi ­ John Mrochek, Martin Bauer, and technologies. Some of the experiments nation properties of the phosphorus­ Richard Genung developed a third­ described at the November 2 and 3, doped base region . According to the generation machine which, in combina- 1977, information meeting have yielded ORNL evidence, laser annealing , unlike

42 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review thermal annealing , almost completely found that there is 10% less space vibrations and determine the nature of preserves the lifetime of the electrical between the surface layer and the next reordered surfaces (changes in geo­ carriers in the base region. Tests here layer of atoms for one surface arrange­ metrical arrangements and the number showed that the ion-implanted , laser­ ment of copper , when compared with of su rface atoms) which can result , in annealed solar cells possess an effi­ known distances between the layers of the case of gold , when the surface is ciency of about 12 to 14% (output atoms in the bulk. They have also made perfectly clean. Appleton is opti­ power divided by input power from the inferred, on the basis of what they ca ll mistic that the data derived from both sun) , and that the cells are improved in weak evidence, a contraction of some PIGS and LEED will contribute to im­ in their response to light in all wave­ 2% between the second and third layers proved understanding of the physical lengths. Because ion implantation com­ relative to the bulk interlayer spacing. mechanisms responsible for surface bined with laser annealing offers a Such experiments are expected to lay reordering . potentially less expensive way to make the basis for future studies of how re­ Peculiar properties of a rare earth. It quality solar cells , there is growing active substances interact with surface has been established that, when the industrial interest in the ORNL process. atoms of catalytic materials. rare earth compound samarium sulfide LEED studies of copper surfaces. Positive ion crystallography of is under high pressure, the valence of X-ray diffraction studies done early in surfaces. A newer technique for study­ the samarium ions appears to fluctuate the century on such crystall ine solids ing solid surfaces is positive ion crys­ between +2 and +3 within a very short as copper revealed both the orderly tallography of surfaces (PIGS) , which is time , with the best estimates ranging array and lattice positions of the atoms evolving as a powerful new surface from 10-9 to 10 -15 sec . To pin this time in the bulk of the material. These early analysis tool for determining the down better, Herb Mook performed an x-ray studies and neutron diffraction species , quantity, geometrical arrange­ inelastic neutron scattering experiment studies gave solid-state physicists ment, and dynamic properties of atoms on Sm .?s Y. 2sS and determined that the considerable insight into the structure on both clean and contaminated sur­ lifetime of the +2 configuration is about of matter. But only in recent years faces. About five research groups in 4 x 10-13 sec . have sophisticated techniques been the world are using the technique now, To understand better the behavior of available to permit an understanding of but the ORNL lon Bombardment Group the samarium ions, Ralph Moon studied how the structure of surfaces compares under Bill Appleton was the first to samarium sulfide under pressure in the with the bulk of a given material. One publish results utilizing PIGS . presence of a strong magnetic field to such technique is low-energy electron PIGS is based on the observation that induce a magnetic moment on the diffraction (LEED) , which is being suc­ ions from an accelerator bombarding samarium ions (the reason: samarium cessfully used at ORNL due to the Lab's surfaces of crystalline solids are either ions have the peculiar property among experimental capability, together with backscattered by the surface atoms or rare earths of being unable to line up the availability of theorists and large can penetrate the solid by entering in a specific orientation , that is, to computers to perform the complicated open regions, or channels, between the order magnetically). Using elastic scat­ quantum mechanical analyses required rows of atoms . (This phenomenon, tering with polarized neutrons from the to interpret LEED data. The experi­ known as channeling , was discovered High Flux Isotope Reactor , Moon mental technique involves striking a at ORNL in the early 1960s.) The observed that samarium sulfide enters single crystalline target material like surface sensitivity of the PIGS tech­ the mixed-valence state when the copper with a well-collimated beam of nique is a direct consequence of pressure exceeds 6 kilobars , and, at electrons from an electron gun; some channeling. By measuring the yields of this point, the compound's lattice of the electrons hitting the surface positive ions (e .g., helium) scattered contracts, bringing the atoms in the atoms are elastically backscattered from the surface atoms of a single bulk closer together. Although it was and can be observed on a phosphores­ crystal (e.g., gold) as a function of expected that one could measure a cent screen where the electrons trigger angle of incidence to a channeling change in the distribution of the the emission of a symmetrical pattern direction, Appleton , 0. E. Schow, and induced magnetic moment around the of light when diffraction has occurred . John Barrett have been able to make samarium ions corresponding to a shift Using other methods to measure the quantitative determinations of the in valence , Moon was surprised to find intensities of the reflected electron geometrical arrangement of surface that the observed distribution was beams as a function of the energy of atoms. Their PIGS measurements can identical to that calculated for the +2 the incident electron beams , the distinguish between surface layers ion, and that there was no evidence of experimentalists and theorists can which are relaxed inward or outward a distribution typ ical of a +3 ion . develop computer models that build a by distances less than 1 x 10-9 em. This presents another puzzle for the picture of the electronic structure and Furthermore, it is possible to detect theorists, who are still grappling with geometrical arrangement of atoms in relaxation of interface layers between the problem of explaining the peculiar the surface layer of the material in the bulk and adsorbed contaminants; magnetic properties of rare earths in question . this is particularly promising for future mixed-valence states. Using LEED, Harold Davis, John studies in catalysis. Fluxoids in superconductors. When Noonan , and Les Jenkins have stud ied Appleton and his colleagues can also certain metals (or metallic alloys) such ultraclean surfaces of copper and have detect the dynamics of surface atom as niobium are cooled to liquid-helium

SPRING 1978 43 temperatures, they exhibit supercon­ By measuring the bulk magnetiza­ culations which were largely untested ductivity-the property of having no tion , Rich Kerchner verified Christen's by experiment. resistance, so that an electric current findings for the mixed state of the To determine the extent to which ion­ can flow continuously through the same sample. Kerchner has also produced damage agrees with neutron­ material without loss of strength . At studied the effect of neutron irradiation produced damage as calculated by low current in a superconducting wire, on niobium by irradiating niobium theory, Tom Noggle has studied dam­ the wire excludes the lines of force samples with high-energy neutrons age production rates of 5-MeV alumi­ of the magnetic field-the so-called produced by stopping deuterons in a num ions in aluminum and 17-MeV Meissner effect. Increasing the current beryllium target at the Oak Ridge nickel ions in nickel as a function of and accompanying magnetic field be­ Isochronous Cyclotron. Each collision the depth of ion penetration into the yond a certain point designated as Hc1 between a high-energy neutron and a target material. The damage is mea­ (lower critical field) forces the field into niobium atom produces a cascade of sured by inserting a thin-film electrical­ the wire in the form of quantized lines atoms displaced from their regular resistivity specimen , which serves as of magnetic flux called fluxoids . These crystalline lattice sites . This kind of the damage sensor, behind thin foils fluxoids are filaments of nonsupercon­ radiation damage is of interest because of aluminum or nickel to simulate ducting material in which the magnetic it is similar to the damage that is different depths in the bulk that can be field is concentrated . In equilibrium, expected to occur in the supercon­ penetrated by the bombarding ions they are parallel straight lines arranged ducting magnet in a fusion reactor. He from the ORNL tandem accelerator. The in a two-dimensional lattice. It is the found that the "displacement cascades" increase in the electrical resistivity in motion of fluxoids under the force of pin fluxoids . This combination of small­ the damage sensor varies directly with a transport current which gives rise angle neutron scattering and bulk the number of defects formed in the to resistive losses. Fluxoids can be magnetization measurements provides material as the ions displace atoms kept from moving in superconductors a unique method for understanding from their lattice positions. Because the (thereby eliminating losses) if there are fluxoid pinning, which can lead to the irradiations and electrical resistance a sufficient number of crystal defects development of better superconductors measurements were carried out at to serve as flux-pinning sites. for a variety of applications. low temperatures (below 10 K), the Dave Christen has used small-angle Measuring radiation damage by displacement damage observed was neutron scattering on a defect-free accelerators. The neutron-induced frozen in to eliminate the possibility single-crystal sphere of pure niobium damage that would occur in fission and that some of it would anneal, as ordi­ to measure the magnetic-field level at fusion reactor components over their narily happens at higher temperatures. which the interaction between fluxoids expected life spans can be simulated in Comparisons of Noggle's experi­ shifts from being repulsive to being a few days by bombarding reactor mental ion damage rates in aluminum attractive, thus determining Hc1for this materials with energetic heavy ions and nickel with experimental fast­ element as a function of temperature from an accelerator. Consequently, neutron damage rates in these metals and crystal orientation with respect to irradiation tests can be rapidly per­ agree within 20% of that expected from the applied field. He has also measured formed to aid the development and theory. In fact, these experimental the equilibrium fluxoid-lattice sym­ ultimate selection of structural mate­ results show that the theory is better metry and found that the fluxoids rials that are most resistant to radia­ than had been anticipated; they also adopt an orientation-dependent config­ tion damage. However, the quantitative provide a sound basis for using ion­ uration inside the cubic lattice of comparison of ion damage to neutron damage experiments to simulate the niobium. damage has rested on theoretical cal- damage expected from neutrons.-CK

Staff Quote:

"My Czech hosts were very cordial and looked after my needs to extremes. I was even able to learn one sentence in Czech: 'Strc prst skrz krk!' which means, 'Stick (your) finger down (your) throat!' And every letter is pronounced. Unfortunately, I found no occasion to use this phrase."­ Gary Howland, recounting his attendance at the Second Symposium on DNA, held at Lib/ice Castle near Prague last year.

44 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review BOOKS

Environment and Society: An Introductory Analysis by Brian Harvey and John D. Hallett, The MIT Press, Cambridge (1977). 150 pp. +appendices, $6.95. Reviewed by Virginia Cone.

This analysis is a concise, Such a generalization is impor­ lution, control of science and thought-provoking compilation tant in considerations of re­ technology, changes in decision­ of environmental problems, both sources, particularly their finite making processes, and political their scientific bases as well as nature. and economic changes. their social, political and eco­ The impact of man on his nomic aspects. The book is in­ The social framework in environment is related largely to tended to cover the issues of the which the environmental prob­ environmental debate, particu­ the growth of the world popula­ lems occur is dealt with in tion. The growth, geographic larly for nonspecialist readers. detail. Environmental problems A historical framework is of­ distribution, and principles of are discussed as being intri­ population dynamics are dis­ fered in which the effects of cately related to political and cussed. Requirements for food man's intervention in normal economic processes. The authors will increase in the future­ environmental cycles are clearly present an applicable model and demonstrated. These cycles, in­ indeed, famine and malnutrition discuss market theory and are seen as future realities, volving materials and energy in approaches to the solution of calling for agricultural develop­ the biosphere, are discussed in a environmental problems. These chapter which summarizes fun­ ments and improved distribution approaches include taxes, of food supplies. damental principles of ecology. subsidies, governmental and Natural-energy-material systems The origins and development legal roles, and technological are complex and easily restored of the environmental debate are development. The authors accept to their normal balance after discussed. Resolution of the possibility that fundamental disturbance, whereas systems problems will likely involve changes in social, economic, generated by man are generally changes in individual attitudes and political systems may be less complex and less stable. and behavior, a cultural revo- required.

SPRING 1978 45 Dick Davis (left) and Jerome Dobson study the computer-gener­ ated map that assesses the water sources tor the United States by county. It is one of the resources used in the National Coal Utiliza­ tion Assessment (NCUA) that is being undertaken for DOE by the national laboratories. Some of the work of Davis's Regional Urban Studies Section in the Energy Divi­ sion, along with a bit of its back­ ground, is recounted here.

Regional Impacts of the Energy Plan

ne of the first actions taken concentration upon coal as an the national environment, spe­ O by President Carter upon energy source. This would in­ cifically their effect on water assuming office was to address clude not only the increased availability, water quality, and himself to the nation's energy extraction and burning of coal, the amount of solid waste crisis by drawing up his now but gasification and liquefaction generated thereby. famous National Energy Plan. operations as well. An unknown So when the President asked A salient feature of this plan quantity in such a change of ERDA for a quantitative assess­ includes conservation of natural activities was the impact they ment of these projected impacts gas and oil, with attendant would have on several aspects of last year, the Assistant Admin-

46 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review istrator for Environment, former group was able to accomplish Civil Defense Project. In June of ORNL Associate Director James this study within the time that year, an interagency agree­ Liverman, turned to Argonne, allotted because the Regional ment had been perfected, within Brookhaven, Los Alamos, and and Urban Studies Section in which a task force of 15 social Oak Ridge National Laboratory the Energy Division has worked scientists and 9 physical scien­ with the request that they bend for the past several years in the tists were put to work under their joint efforts in such a perfection of just such analyses. HUD sponsorship to summarize determination. To ORNL went the current state of knowledge the task of siting all the Program's Roots regarding decentralization of facilities; in addition, we population and industry, and assessed the extent of water The program has a very re­ then to initiate research into the consumption under the new spectable history. Its roots determinants and consequences scenario. Argonne studied water go back to early 1969, when a of such redistribution. This quality, and Brookhaven the memorandum went to Alvin HUD program subsequently solid waste question; LASL pro­ Weinberg, H. G. MacPherson, made possible rare access to vided assistance on water Liverman, and Floyd Culler, the details of the 1970 U.S. Census quantity assessment in the quartet who represented the figures, an advantage available West. The deadline given for leadership in administration of to very few such groups in the this inquiry was eight weeks. the Laboratory at the time, country. By August, ORNL TM-B098, proposing a study of urban The Regional Studies Pro­ A Nationwide Assessment of decentralization, to be funded by gram, which is now directed by Water Quantity Impacts of the the Department of Housing and Dick Davis in the Regional and National Energy Plan, was in Urban Development. National Urban Studies Section of the draft form. This analysis, which concern at that time was di­ Energy Division, has expanded with the siting study was rected toward the potential con­ and involves staff from the headed by Jerry Dobson, shows gestion of the cities by the Environmental Sciences and that the NEP differs from the massive migrations there from Computer Sciences Divisions as "base case" for 1985 by less rapidly diminishing rural areas. well. Before the President's than 1%, with the exception of The memorandum that reached latest query, Liverman had the Trinity River Basin in the executive office of ORNL already asked for an evaluation Texas, which is projected to was signed by James C. Bresee, of the impact on the South of differ by about 4%. Dobson's at the time director of ORNL's increased mining and use of

STATE 2,000,000 ENERGY '960-70 CONSUMPTION ENE RGY PRODUCTION (QUADS) ...--- I, 500,000 4 2 o 2 4 s a 10 12 14 I ~

ALA. IN 1,000,000 ~ MIG RATION FLA. 500,000

~ GA. r KY . 1900 IC t91C 20 1920 30 193C' 40 1940 50 I~O LA. bd r---- MISS. t-- 1- 1---- 500,000 r----r- - - '--- N. CAR. I OUT - M IGRATION 1-· - I-- S. CAR. 1,000,000 - -

TENN. - - 1,500,000 r-- TEX.

VA. 2 000 000 '-- W. VA. D W!-iTE The South provides more energy than REGIONAL TOTALS : PRODUCTION = 35.70 CONSUMPTION = 21 .40 D NJN WHITE it uses, and mo re people than it keeps.

SPRING 1978 47 coal over the principal alterna­ than they consumed, another their counterparts at the other tive energy sources. The region four states produced an laboratories. customarily assigned to the extremely small fraction of the ORNL group is the 14-state area energy they consumed (Georgia, that extends from Texas to the Florida, North Carolina, and NCUA Study Atlantic coast, and as far north South Carolina). The remaining Whereas the National Energy as West Virginia and Virginia. states, Alabama, Mississippi, Plan postulated a reduced However, for some analyses the Tennessee, and Virginia, used annual rate of growth in energy program covers the entire East only slightly more energy than demand (2%), the NCUA base­ and sometimes even the whole they produced. The report case scenario assumed an United States. Thus, ORNL showed other characteristics in annual growth rate of approx­ covers the major historic coal which the states within this imately 2.7% over the forecast mining as well as oil and gas region varied widely from one period. This higher rate results producing states. In response to another, the kind of information in a net increase in energy use this request, ORNL and the that is frequently concealed in in the Southeast of 32% by 2020. other five big national labora­ national and regional generali­ The air-quality study has shown tories have undertaken a nation­ zations. It offers useful material that most areas in the South wide network of regional studies for national, regional, and local that are up to 50 km distant called the National Coal Utiliza­ energy planners. from large generating facilities tion Assessment. Its purpose is This report however, is only should be well below National to identify the potential major the precursor to the principal Ambient Air Quality Standards environmental, social, and eco­ assessment reports, the first for S02 in 1985 (80 ,ug/ m 3 annual nomic effects of coal develop­ of which was released in draft average concentration) although ment and use in order to ensure form in January. Volume I of incremental insults may crowd that these effects are adequately Preliminary Regional Assess­ EPA's regulation for prevention considered in DOE's R&D plan­ ment of Coal Use in the South of significant deterioration as a ning. This program is develop­ forecasts the energy supply­ result of the additional pollution ing an entire series of assess­ demand conditions in the region from utilities. ment reports, the first of which over the next 45 years, assum­ In addition to sulfur, ground­ was ORNL-TM 5900, Coal and ing a moderate rate of coal use level concentrations of nitrogen Energy: A Southern Perspective, and a relatively high rate of oxides (which form ozone in and carries the names of F. D. nuclear use. Based on this sunlight and contribute to the Boercker, Davis, F. G. Goff, J. S. energy future, the report de­ acid rain problem), and total Olson, and D. C. Parzyck. scribes the plausible location for suspended particulates (TSP) future coal-fired power plants, were predicted. Calculations for Energy and the South synfuel plants, and coal mining oxides of nitrogen show a com­ Some interesting insights were activity, and the probable im­ mon prediction of around revealed in TM-5900. For one pact of these patterns on air 10 ,ug/ m 3 , although one location thing, the southern region is the quality and water availability, showed as high as 20 ,ug/ m 3 • most complex of any of those as well as socioeconomic im­ The National Ambient Air studied: it includes those states pacts in the region. Quality Standard for N02 is that are among the highest in Davis anticipates that this 100 ,ug/ m 3. Dispersion of partic­ the United States in energy study group will be given the ulates, also, is anticipated to be production- by coal (Kentucky responsibility for performing well within the air quality and West Virginia) and by oil additional energy-fuel-cycle standards of 75 ,ug/ m 3. Even and gas (Texas and Louisiana). impact assessments for the though these pollutant levels Approximate figures derived region in the future. All of these from utilities do not appear to from state publications show subsequent assessments, al­ exceed national standards, the that in 1974, the region though smaller and more limited full impact of coal use will not produced 35.7 quads of energy in scope, will follow the form be known until we assess the from all sources, while con­ pioneered by the coal study, added pollutant contribution suming 21.4 quads. Besides the which was an entirely new from industrial coal use. This four states mentioned, which structure, involving an interdis­ assessment is currently under produced much more energy ciplinary team from ORNL with way.

48 OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Review ,------

D <300CFS [] > 300 CFS POSSIBLE

7-DAVQ-10>300CFS II SALTWATER

The region of interest to the ORNL National Coal Utilization Assessment study, showing the accessibility by co unty to cooling water. The dark areas show a dependable stream flow of over 300 ft 3/ sec; lig ht areas show an equal amount possible with storage; perforated dark areas have only salt water for cooling; and the blank areas represent counties that have insuffi­ cient water flow, that is, less than 300 {t3/ sec.

-npacts on ater 4. Heavy conservation mea­ well as the information devel­ sures in electricity use, or shifts oped in these programs, is now The assessed impact on water to dry-cooling technology will be being made available by the availability showed significant necessary if the most significant Laboratory throughout the variations across the region. If water consumption impacts pre­ southern region in a program the continued use of water­ dicted by the assessment are to called Regional Outreach, under cooling technologies is assumed, be avoided. the direction of Fred Boercker's significant impacts on water With these findings in mind, group. Boercker makes a point resource availability are pre­ then, the authors of the report of keeping in close communica­ dictable, according to the NCUA assess the possible power­ tion with many of the state and analysis. Four conclusions a re production sites in each of the local agency representatives in cited in the report: 12 states in the ORNL region. In the region by means of news­ seeking plausible hypothetical letters, forums, seminars, and 1. Water consumption prob­ direct contact. The Regiona l lems for all competing uses al­ energy-facility sites, they emphasize that the patterns that Outreach Program is designed ready exist in certain drainage to facilitate future planning basins in Texas, Oklahoma, emerge should not be considered final, but rather that these are efforts between the federal and Arkansas, and Florida. These local governments. will be aggravated by the a basis for further analysis. Because of the constraints ''Our explorations into projected growth in energy regional energy analysis h a ve production. assumed, it is unlikely that the patterns would vary signifi­ allowed us to develop an impor­ 2. Potential problems exist in cantly for different levels of tant ca pability for extending West Virginia and Pennsylvania total energy demand, except in our work to include the investi­ along tributaries to the upper terms of the size of facilities gation of a wide range of Ohio River Basin. placed in specific counties. The alterna tive energy futures for report does not identify specific the nation," says Da vis. "More 3. Several states, notably siting locations, only totals by importantly, we h ave demon­ Florida, Delaware, and Mary­ county. strated that ORNL ca n analyze land, will have to use brackish the potential regional effects of water for cooling if they want to Outreach national energy policy. " avoid major efforts toward water conserv,ation or toward The techniques used in per­ limiting energy growth. forming assessment studies, as

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