Cognitive Skills/Strategy

Cognitive Skills/Strategy Description of the classification

We present an overview of our classification of cognitive skills and strategies that are the result of research started in 1992 to develop a basis for the MISA instructional design methodology. The classification combines previous work on a meta-knowledge taxonomy, on software engineering taxonomies and educational taxonomies. The appendix presents a correspondence between these taxonomies to provide a foundation for our Cognitive Skills /Strategy classification. Level one groups four high-level cognitive skills and strategies from simple to complex. The second level presents more specialized skills and strategies. The third level presents even more specialized strategies. The classification could be decomposed further. Short definitions are provided for level 2 terms of the classification.

Cognitive Skills/Strategies Levels Description for level 2 1 2 3 Persons are able to or are involved in…….

e 1. Acknowledge Mobilizing their attention to some knowledge, without v i

e invoking long-term memory operations c

e 2. 2.1 Identify/Find Using their knowledge in memory to identify or store R Remember 2.2 Memorize some knowledge in long-term memory e

c 3. Specify 3.1 Illustrate Using abstract knowledge (concepts, procedures and

u principles) to specify examples, traces or specific d 3.2 Discriminate o statements r 3.3 Explain p e 4. Translate Transforming some knowledge to another language or R format at the same level of abstraction 5. Apply 5.1 Use Using some abstract knowledge (concepts, procedures, 5.2 Simulate principle) to extract useful more specific knowledge e

t 6. Analyze 6.1 Deduce Transforming some abstract knowledge into equally a

e abstracts components or more specific ones combined

r 6.2 Classify in a new way that provide new knowledge C 6.3 Predict 6.4 Diagnose 7. Repair Adding new components or modified components to some model of abstract knowledge 8.Synthesize 8.1 Induce Building abstract knowledge model from more specific 8.2 Plan information or knowledge 8.3 Model/Construct e

g 9. Evaluate Using values (generality, soundness, validity, …) to add a properties to some knowledge (meta-knowledge) n a 10. Self- 10.1 Initiate/Influence Using meta-knowledge to process (memorize, M -

f control 10.2 Adapt/Control reproduce, create, evaluate) one self cognitive skills l

e and strategies for self-directed behaviour S

1 The innovation here is to represent cognitive skills and strategies as generic processes with their inputs, their products and the major steps or cognitive actions that must be performed. For example, in the following table, the “5.2-Simulate a process” skill, a sub- class of the level “5-Apply skills”, is compared to the “8.3-Construct a process” skill, which is a sub-class of the “8-Synthesize” skills in the taxonomy. We can use these descriptions to model each generic process in an IMS-LD format thus providing a skeleton for the method of a learning design. Skill Input Product Process Flow Simulate a A process, its A trace of the procedure : - Choose input resources objects (data) process procedures, inputs, set of facts obtained - Select the first procedure to execute products and control through the application of - Execute it and produce a first result principles. the procedures in a - Select the next procedure and execute it particular case - Use the control principles to control the flow of execution Construct a Definition A description of the - Assign a name to the procedure to be process constraints such as process: its inputs, constructed relations between products, sub-procedures - Relate this main procedure to a specific inputs and products with their input and output, input and product resource, respecting the of the process and/or and the process control definition constraints required steps in the principles. - Decompose the procedure, respecting the process. definition constraints - Continue to a point where well understood small procedures are defined.

From the precise descriptions of these two generic skills, we can easily see that a learning design aiming at the acquisition of procedural knowledge such as “Information search on the Internet” will be very different if the goal (the learning objective) is to simulate that process or to construct it. In the first case, a number of walks through the process will probably be sufficient, while in the second case, a project-based scenario where learners and engaged in a more complex problem-solving or constructive activity is a better suited learning strategy. For the learner, a cognitive skill/strategy is an intellectual ability he should be able to perform during the run of the learning design. For the trainer, it is the process he is to support. For the designer, it is the cognitive strategy that guides the design: if the learning objective is to remember, to diagnose or to synthesize some knowledge, the designer should provide memorizing, diagnosis or synthesising activities. *** What follows are precise and operational definitions of each of the four groups of level 1 cognitive skill/strategies that are classified according to the kind of input to be processed, and output to be produced, accompanied with some examples.

2 Level 1 Cognitive Skills and Strategies Skill/ Inputs Outputs Process examples Strategy Receive External or Facts or knowledge Acknowledge events, movements, emotions, internal (to the identified or stored in social context. Identify and store facts, user) stimuli memory knowledge in long term memory Reproduce Knowledge and Facts obtained by Explain in one’s words or illustrate a concept, a structured instantiation or procedure, a principle using examples. Use a knowledge reformulation knowledge model to explain some facts. Simulate models a procedure.

Create Knowledge and New knowledge and Classify objects in a taxonomy. Replace faulty structured structured knowledge components in a system. Plan a project. Build a knowledge models at the same or model or a system. models higher level of abstraction Self-manage Knowledge and Evaluated knowledge Evaluate the validity of information. Assess one’s structured or models by competence with regard to a process model. knowledge assigning knowledge Initiate a change process form the evaluation of a models, plus properties that can be situation. Apply a strategy to improve one’s knowledge used to orient self or learning or performance. properties other people’s cognitive strategies

The following four tables provide similar definitions and activity examples for level 2 and 3 cognitive skill/strategies.

Receiving Skills and Strategies Skill/ Strategy Inputs Outputs Process examples Acknowledge External or Facts or behaviour Pay attention to some events or internal (to the showing that the focus of to a change of attitude of self or user) information attention in on the someone else. incoming information. r

e Identify/Find External or Existing knowledge React to the description of a b

m internal (to the retrieved from memory, situation by a related fact. e user) information triggered by the incoming Repeat a set of movement just m e information demonstrated. Recognize a R familiar social context Memorize External or Knowledge stored in Register the information without internal (to the memory grouping the transformation. Memorize a user) information incoming information process or a song.

3 Reproduction Skills and Strategies

4 Skill/ Strategy Inputs Outputs Process examples y f

i Illustrate Abstract Examples, traces Give examples of a calculation process, or a c

e knowledge or statements set of classes of animals, or the application of p

S (Concepts, obtained as the laws of economy. procedure or instances of the principles) abstract knowledge. Discriminate Two or more Discriminating Give examples to distinguish mammals from concepts, examples of one reptiles. procedure or that are not principles example of the others Explain Abstract Concepts, Add attributes to a concept definition to give a knowledge procedure or more detailed meaning. Complete a process (Concepts, principles with by adding an implicit step. procedure or more association principles) to others Abstract Similar Represent a natural language statement by a knowledge knowledge schema or a graphic. Describe a situation by Translate (Concepts, presented in analogy from another one. procedure or another language principles) or form y l Use Abstract Instances of the Use a form to calculate your income tax. p

p knowledge or models useful to Choose. Take an abstract description of a A structured attain a goal situation to provide a set of examples to which knowledge a transformation must be applied. model

5 Simulate Abstract Instances Vary the parameters of an ecosystem to knowledge or produced by examine the impact on the distribution of structured giving precise species. Follow step by step the execution of a knowledge values to workflow to find what inputs will produce a model attributes in a desired outcome. model

6 Creation Skills and Strategies

7 Skill/ Strategy Inputs Outputs Process examples e

z Deduce Goal, Given data, Suite of permitted Deduce the possible options from the y l

a permitted operations analysis of a budget. Find the shortest n

A operations relating given path between two locations. Complete a data to the goal. crossword puzzle. Classify Taxonomy and Classes of the Determine the categories of vehicles for a objects to be taxonomy to certain type of automobile. Find an classified which each object appropriate procedure for a certain belongs decision. Predict Process, classes Classes outcomes Predict the possible outcome of a medical of possible of the process operation from the patient’s properties. outcomes of the depending on the Find the risk of changing some process, input input data parameters in nuclear energy station. data Predict one’s behaviour in certain situations. Diagnose System of List of defective Identify errors in the execution of a dance components, components movement. Find faulty components in an quality norm of automobile. components Abstract model Modified model Change the connexions in a chain of and its with different audiovisual components. Prescribe a Repair components components. treatment to change the health record of a patient. e

z Induce Set of Concept, Induce a relation between variables from i s

e information, facts, procedure or a set of experimental data. Construct a h t

n and examples principle that taxonomy of computer types. y

S about individuals. have the individual as instances Plan Set of products to Processes that Plan the execution of a project. Plan the build and output products movement in a artistic skating show. constraints respecting the constraints

8 Model/Build Objects, abstract Knowledge model Build an information system. Design a knowledge and integrating the course. Establish the architectural constraints. objects respecting concept of a new building. the constraints

Self-Manage (Metacognition) Skills and Strategies Skill/ Strategy Inputs Outputs Process examples Abstract Properties of Evaluate the reliability or validity of a knowledge or knowledge associated principle. Evaluate one’s competency Evaluate structured models to the knowledge or for a certain task. Qualify the quality of model social interactions in a group l

o Initiate/ Abstract Modified knowledge Initiate an exercise program to reduce r t

n Influence knowledge or or models taking in one’s weight. Start improving the social o

C structured models account the evaluated climate in an organization. Start - f l associated to properties of convincing a learner of the validity and e

S properties of knowledge. usefulness of some knowledge. knowledge Adapt / Abstract Intervention process Plan and execute a training program to Control knowledge or to improve the adapt one’s ability for project structured models cognitive properties management. Define a program to associated to of the knowledge or improve one’s own or other’s learning properties of models. strategies. knowledge Appendix – Comparison with between classifications

9 Cognitive Skills/Strategies Meta- Generic Cognitive Skills cycle Levels knowledge problems objectives (Romiszowski) (Pitrat) (KADS) (Bloom) 1 2 3

e 1. Acknowledge Attention v i e c

e 2. Remember 2.1 Identify/Find Memorize Perceptual

R Knowledge acuteness and 2.2 Memorize Search and discrimination Storage e

c 3. Specify 3.1 Illustrate Understand Interpretation u

d 3.2 Discriminate o r

p 3.3 Explain e

R 4. Translate Procedure Recall Schema Recall 5. Apply 5.1 Use Knowledge Apply Procedure Recall 5.2 Simulate Use, Schema Recall Expression e

t 6. Analyze 6.1 Deduce Knowledge Prediction, Analyze Analysis a

e Discovery Supervision, r 6.2 Classify

C Classification, 6.3 Predict Diagnosis 6.4 Diagnose 7. Repair Repair Synthesis

8. Synthesize 8.1 Induce Planning, Synthesize Synthesis 8.2 Plan Design, Modeling 8.3 Model/ Build t

s 9. Evaluate Knowledge Evaluate Evaluation e

v Acquisition n i -

e 10. Self- 10.1 Initiate/Influence Initiation, R control 10.2 Adapt/control Continuation, Control

References Bloom, Benjamin S. (1975) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the Classification of Educational Goals. New York: D. McKay. Breuker J. and Van de Velde W. (1994) CommonKads Library for Expertise Modelling. IOS Press, Amsterdam, 360 pages. Paquette, G. (1999) Meta-knowledge Representation for Learning Scenarios Engineering, in S. Lajoie et M. Vivet (Eds), Proceedings of AI-Ed’99 in AI and Education - Open learning environments, IOS Press, 1999. Pitrat J. (1991). Métaconnaissance, avenir de l’Intelligence Artificielle. Hermès, Paris, 1991. Romiszowski A. J. (1981) Designing Instructional Systems Kogan Page London/Nichols Publising, New York, 415 pages.