RUDECO Vocational Training in Rural Development and Ecology Мodule № 7
Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture (plant and animal production)
Omsk State Agrarian University named after P.A.Stolypin
159357-TEMPUS-1-2009-1-DE-TEMPUS-JPHES
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. УДК 631 ББК 40.0 Э40
ISBN 978-5-906069-74-0
Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture (plant and animal production) / L.Y. Plotnikova [and others]. Series of training manuals "RUDECO Vocational training in rural development and ecology". M., 2012. - 140 p.
RUDECO Vocational Training in Rural Development and Ecology
National Project Coordination Russian State Agricultural University - Timiryazev Academy Centre of Sustainable Development
International Project Coordination University of Hohenheim, Germany Eastern Europe Centre
Authors L.Y. Plotnikova О.P. Bazhenova G.V. Baraychshuk N.A. Rendov Y.S. Larionov S.V. Kostarev V.N. Chsherba
Responsible University Omsk State Agrarian University named after P.A.Stolypin
University Partners/ Working Group Partners Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow State Academy of Agriculture named after K.A. Timiryazev Ministry of Agriculture of Russian Federation Hohenheim University (Germany)
Reviewer A.S. Matnenko, Doctor of Legal Sciences, First Vice-Minister of Natural Recourses and Ecology of Omsk oblast B.B. Tsybikov, PhD in Agriculture, Associate Professor, head of the chair of general arable farming of Buryat State Academy of Agriculture named after V.R. Filippov
Contact This text book or parts of it can be reproduced in any form for educational purposes with prior permission. For more information contact: “Omsk State Agrarian University named after P.A.Stolypin” Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Nina Kazydub. Email: [email protected], тел ./ факс : 007 (3812) 65-10-72
November, 2012
Preface The present guide is one of the series of the guides that were developed within the framework of the project TEMPUS 159357-TEMPUS-1-2009-1-DE-TEMPUS-JPHES “Vocational Training in Rural Development and Ecology” (RUDECO) under TEMPUS programme.
The project RUDECO aims to improve the vocational training system in the sphere of rural development and ecology and involves various agricultural universities in Russia and Europe. The project goal is to facilitate the universities in acquiring the necessary qualifications by means of conceptualization and development of study guides (modules), as well as by training the instructors who will participate in the vocational training of governmental employees.
The project goals are:
- Development of the vocational training system in the sphere of ecology and rural areas at 11 agrarian universities of Russia, enabling them to obtain a higher qualification;
- Development of 12 modules for representatives of governmental agencies on the national, regional and local level;
- Training of the representatives of Russian public institutions and representatives of public administration of various levels in the sphere of ecology and rural development using professional training from certified instructors;
- Implementing «training for trainers» using the support of European partners;
- Development of international cooperation of Russian institutions of higher education.
The series of modules covers the following topics:
- Sustainable development: key terms and theoretical basis (Introductory Module1, Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy)
- Sustainable rural development: approaches for regional and local programmes elaboration (Module 2, Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy)
- Ecolabeling and marketing of environmental and regional products from rural areas (Module 3, Orel State Agrarian University)
- Eco-tourism and tourism in rural areas (Module 4, Buryat State Academy of Agriculture named after V.R.Philippov)
- Conversion of conventional farming into organic farming (Module 5, Yaroslavl State Agricultural Academy)
- Environmental regulations and laws (Module 6, Stavropol State Agricultural University)
- Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture (plant and animal production) (Module 7, Omsk State Agrarian University)
3 - Participatory approach in rural development (Module 8, Kostroma State Agricultural Academy)
- Reducing pollution in rural areas caused by agricultural, industrial and municipal solid waste (Module 9, Novosibirsk State Agrarian University)
- Sustainable use of water resources in rural areas (Module 10, Samara State Agricultural Academy)
- Food safety and product quality control (Module 11, Moscow State Agroengineering University named after Goryachkin V.P.)
- Management of biological resources of rural areas (Module 12, Tambov State University named after G.R. Derzhavin)
The introducing module on the key terms and theoretical basis of sustainable development basis is an ideal preparation for all the above listed specific modules. Persons who start to get involved in the field of ecology and sustainable rural development, we recommend to read this basic module first, before deepening one of the other topics. Readers interested in the modules and further training can address also all involved university partners to get further information or training about the listed modules.
The main aim of Module 7 “Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture (plant and animal production)” is introduction of the idea of ecological problems in rural areas and possible ways of development of ecological situation for sustainable development of rural areas.
Foreign and Russian experience was used at the preparation of materials for vocational training. Ecological problems and possible solutions are shown on the examples of industrial countries and Russian regions.
Trainees will be competent in
- sustainable development of agriculture and rural areas; - will be aware of different land use interested groups’ interests; - will understand the limitations of implementation of economic, ecological and social interests; - will learn methods for integration of short term individual (maximum products/ individual approach) and long standing social interest (environmental protection);
Trainees will learn how
- to indentify economical, ecological and social interests for agricultural intensification with preservation of the environment; - to coordinate interests of intensification of agriculture with sustainable development of agrarian areas and ecological requirements; - to develop rural areas and improve ecological conditions based on the world experience and up-to-date technologies;
4 Trainees will be motivated for
- development of rural areas and ecological safety; - coordination of interests and activities of participants for cooperation; - finding the balance between the requirements for usage and implementation of efficient technologies.
Responsible university – Omsk State Agrarian University,
Partner university - Novosibirsk State Agrarian University.
Authors: professors of OSAU L. Plotnikova, O. Bazhenova, S. Kostarev, N. Rendov, G. Barayschuk, U. Larionov , V. Scherba.
5 Table of contents
Preface ...... 3 Table of contents...... 6 List of figures...... 8 List of table ...... 10 1 Conception of sustainable rural development...... 10 1.1 Introduction...... 11 1.2 Sustainable development ...... 11 2 Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture ...... 14 2.1 Action on biosphere by agriculture ...... 14 2.2 Biodiversity decrease...... 34 2.2.1 Definition and types of biodiversity...... 34 2.2.2 World centers of high BD ...... 36 2.2.3 Ecosystem functions of biodiversity ...... 37 2.2.4 Goals for the management of natural ecosystems...... 45 2.2.5 Biodiversity in the world ...... 46 2.2.6 Agrarian biodiversity...... 49 2.2.7 BD preservation for human survival ...... 52 2.3 Ecological problems of Russian rural areas ...... 53 3 Possible solutions for the problems of rural territories...... 56 3.1 The role of planning and landscape management in the implementation of ecological aims in rural areas...... 56 3.1.1 Territorial planning in big economies...... 56 3.2 General ecological activities ...... 65 3.3 Ecologization of arable farming ...... 66 3.3.1 Restoration (supporting) of soil fertility...... 66 3.3.2 Control of soil and water contamination by fertilizers ...... 69 3.3.3 Pesticide pollution control ...... 71 3.3.4 Perspectives of ecologization of arable farming by the example of Western Siberia ...... 73 3.4 Biological plant protection as the method to reduce pesticides effect ...... 77 3.4.1 Pesticides effect on ecological situation in agrocoenosis...... 77 3.4.2 Biological method of pest and phytopathogens control – top-priority route forward, guaranteeing environmental stability...... 78 3.4.3 Using of natural regulators of phytophage and phytopathogene population for hardening of agroecosystems by biodiversity preservation...... 78 3.4.4 Bacterial diseases of insects and rodents. Bacterial preparations...... 80 3.4.5 Fungus diseases of insects...... 85 3.4.6 Virus diseases of insects...... 87 3.4.7 Use of effective entomofauna ...... 89 3.4.8 Insects-entomophages...... 90
6 3.4.9 Methods of entomophages’ and acariphages’ use...... 91 3.4.10 Microorganisms-antagonists and their metabolites for decrease of population of disease excitants....93 3.4.11 Biological preparations based on actinomycetes ...... 97 3.4.12 Fungi-based preparations against plants’ diseases ...... 99 3.5 Plant breeding for stress resistant crops pesticide decrease and increase in cropdiversity...... 100 3.5.1 Significance of plant breeding for sustainable development of horticulture ...... 100 3.5.2 Adaptation of varieties to stress factors ...... 101 3.5.3 Plant breeding for adaptiveness to abiotic factors ...... 103 3.5.4 Plant breeding for disease and pest resistance ...... 106 3.5.5 Genetic engineering of plant and biosecurity ...... 111 3.6 Ecological seed breeding ...... 118 3.6.1 Seed breeding and seed science for more ecological sound plant breeding...... 118 3.6.2 Ecological seed breeding and estimation of yield properties of reserve seeds for improvement and maintenance of plant breeding...... 120 3.6.3 Monitoring and technological methods of seed breeding...... 122 The list of literature and electronic informational resources...... 124 Annex: Training material ...... 136 RUDECO partners and contact information ...... 137 Contact persons for the presented module...... 137 All RUDECO partners...... 137
7 List of figures
Fig. 1 Traditional agrarian technologies are the main reasons for soil degradation...... 15 Fig. 2 Soil destruction can be caused by different factors...... 16 Fig. 3 The main sources and varieties of soil erosion ...... 17 Fig. 4 Natural and anthropogenic causes of soil ersiuon ...... 17 Fig. 5 Map of global soil erosion ...... 18 Fig. 6 Desertification is the death of the landscape ...... 19 Fig. 7 Global expansion of deserts ...... 20 Fig. 8 Sahel map...... 21 Fig. 9 Desertification in Africa ...... 21 Fig. 10 A sole ship on the shore of the dry Aral sea...... 22 Fig. 11 Soil solidity after one race of a tractor MTZ 1221 ...... 23 Fig. 12 Soil composition...... 24 Fig. 13 Influence of humin substances upon soil properties ...... 24 Fig. 14 natural behavior of pesticides ...... 25 Fig. 15 Pesticide pollution of cultivated land in Russia ...... 26 Fig. 16 Pathways for pesticides getting into food...... 27 Fig. 17 Pesticides and human health...... 27 Fig. 18 Pathways for pesticides within plants and animals ...... 28 Fig. 19 Ecological consequences of eutrophication ...... 29 Fig. 20 BD structure ...... 35 Fig. 21 Schematic map of terrestrial biodiversity ...... 36 Fig. 22 Ecosystem functions of biodiversity ...... 38 Fig. 23 Interaction of people and climatic system...... 40 Fig. 24 In Russia climatic changes are more transparent in winter than in summer ...... 41 Fig. 25 Changes in global and continental temperature: simulation and monitoring results. Reference: The forth evaluation report by IPCC, 2007...... 43 Fig. 26 Forecast on the retreat of the old ice line to the north by 2100...... 44 Fig. 27 Cultivated area, 2000 Reference: Evaluation of ecosystems on millennium...... 47 Fig. 28 Live Planet Index between 1970-2000...... 48 Fig. 29 The output index in Russian agriculture, 1990 = 100%...... 53 Fig. 30 The structure and content of territorial planning and urban planning documentation ...... 61 Fig. 31 Dissemination of planning and organizational matters and land usage and protection between land management and town building documentation [2]...... 62 Fig. 32 Interaction of town building and land management documentation for territorial planning...... 63 Fig. 33 Types of rural areas in Russia (2010)...... 67 Fig. 34 The scheme of phytosanitary optimization of agroecosystems (V.A. Pavlyushin, 1998) ...... 79 Fig. 35 Significance of plant breeding for the increase of the average yields in the main agrarian cropsin the world (Riva, 1987, Shamanin, 2002)...... 101 Fig. 36 World average of main agrarian crops’ harvest ( Шпаар и др ., 2002)...... 102
8 Fig. 37 Distribution of harvest losses of the main agrarian crops as a result of biotic and abiotic factors (Oerke et al., 1994)...... 102 Fig. 38 Genetic contribution of some varieties into the breeding record of winter wheat varieties cultivated in Ukranian and Russian regions in 1998 ...... 105 Fig. 39 Extension of barley yellow and weak mosaic virus in Germany (Spaar, 2002)...... 107 Fig. 40 pread of brown rust spores in the air current from the Middle East. Number of spores deposited is depicted by the size of the arrows (Pavlova, Mikhailova, 1997)...... 110 Fig. 41 Winter wheat mosaic in the Krasnodar region in 2007 (Ablova, 2008)...... 111 Fig. 42 Creation of GM cotton plant with Bt-gene for pest resistance...... 113 Fig. 43 GM-plants’ cultivated area, million ha ...... 114 Fig. 44 Area (%) cultivated with GM crops in 2003...... 114 Fig. 45 Dependence of the yield in the spring wheat variety Eritrospermum 59 on the level of development of sprout organs at the first reproduction in comparison with the 2 nd and 3 rd reproductions...... 121 Fig. 46 Herbicide’s stress release with adaptogen Gumi-M...... 121
9 List of tables
Table 1 Important diseases of agrarian plants ...... 106 Table 2 Amount of non-standard seeds (%) in Russian Federal Subjects in 1996-2005...... 119 Table 3 Correlation between sprout development and sowing properties of spring wheat Eritrospermum 59 with the yielding capacity (1999-2001)...... 120 Table 4 Influence of the pre-sowing treatment of seeds on field germination and productivity of the spring wheat variety Eritrospermum 59 (2002-2004). Treatment with the growth regulating agents Riftal and Gumi-M ...... 122
10 1 Conception of sustainable rural development
1.1 Introduction Broadly applied to societies, the concept of sustainable development was first introduced in the Brundtland report (WCED, 1987) and subsequently adopted as a general guideline for future development during the world summit on sustainable development in Rio in 1992 (Rio-de-Janeiro, 1992). The adoption of the concept of sustainable development pays tribute to the report “The Limits to Growth” (1974, МедоузД .Х.) showing that ecocatastrophe of the Earth is assured at continued destruction of the environment directly linked to continued exponential growth of the extraction sector.
By 2011 the Rio declaration and thus the commitment to sustainable development has been signed by several governments including Russia . The concept of sustainable development integrates social, economic and ecological considerations. Subsequently, conferences in Johannesburg (2002) and Kopengagen (2009) have affirmed governments’ commitment to sustainable development. Large scale government approval has been driven by a marked aggravation of ecological problems such as climate change, rising deficits of fresh water, decrease in biodiversity, soil erosion and advancement of deserts. Marked aggravation of ecological problems has led to an understanding of the necessity for the formation of a new type of developmental pathways with an increased focus on ecosystem capacities.
1.2 Sustainable development The term «sustainable development» (SD) was adopted in the Rio conference in 1992 (1993, XXI century agenda). Sustainable development integrates ecological, social and economic concerns . It provides guidance for a civilized transition from current short-term over-exploitation to long- term development that is balanced relative to available ecological resources and services and human demand for such resources and services. Such long term development has to be based on the preservation of the biosphere and its services (1999, A.D. Ursul). A decisive difficulty of such an approach lies in the contradiction between increasing demands of humans and the restrictions imposed by the environment to meet such demands. Irreversible destruction of resources and ecological capacities (potentials) in order to meet current demandes will take from opportunities of future generations to meet their requirements. In ecological terms – short term overexploitation will decrease long-term carrying capacity (K) of the environment, with K describing the number of individuals that can persist in a given environment based on the available resources in that environment.
Sustainable development requires a transition from a short term anthropocentric perception to a concept that recognizes and properly considers natural values and ecosystem capacities. Such a transition can be achieved in 2 steps. In the first step anthropogenic demands on resources will stabilize and in the second step such demands will ultimately be adapted to the long-term conservation and stability of the biosphere and its potentials to deliver goods and services. Implementation of sustainable development is possible only through the appropriate organization of environmental management, targeted at reducing stressors. As any management, sustainable development requires suitable monitoring based on agreed targets.
11 Sustainable development in Russia is based on the noosphere concept, which was adopted by the presidential decree №440 (01 April, 1996). Considerable research by Russian scientists has been devoted to the concept (1968, Yu.P. Trusov, 1993, A.D. Ursul, 1998, N.N. Moiseev). A. D. Ursul describe noosphere as a quite new status, linking society and natural development. Noosphere describes a state where humans can exploit the full potential of ecological services, while providing for biological diversity and the continued natural evolution of the biosphere. The terms “noosphere” and “sustainable development” are synonymous.
Understanding and subsequently acknowledging the problems associated with the overexploitation of natural resources and the environment leads to sustainable development. Society has to change its relationships with nature, and humanitarian values must be a top-priority at the transition to sustainable development. The intellect of humanity can provide for the elementary transition from development leading to global catastrophy to controlled, sustainable development. Sustainable development (noosphere) for Russia as for any other civilized society, provides a normative target of future development and that’s why any transformations of society, state and industry should be determined not only by past conceptsbut also by concepts that more strongly take future values into consideration
Transition to a sustainable society is possible and demands balanced targets emphasising sufficiency, efficiency, equality and quality of life. It demands more than technology. It also demands maturation, wisdom, compassion and culture. It demands a complex of measures in the sphere of environmental protection, economics, social psychology etc.. Achievement of sustainable development of society is not a time event; it is a process that has to be furthered by each generation.
The conceptualization of sustainable society is often associated with the realization of ideal attitudes of modern society. However, independent of moral ideals linked to altruistic attitudes, there are many practical approaches to change the structral characteristics of the current system.
- Energy and materials consumption can be decreased through increasing the efficiency of resource and energy use; - Ecological limits can be expanded by new technologies (e.g. plant breeding); - Indicators can be developed, and response to signals from such indicators can be accelerated; - society can act more proactively – it should look ahead in terms of the valuation of today’s choice; - Destruction can be prevented and reversed (ecosystem protection and rehabilitation); rehabilitation is often costly - Growth of population can be stopped. There are suggested options for an increase in productivity of natural resources. For example, factor “four” allows for a 4-fold increase in the productivity of natural resources, in other words it is possible to live better and waste less (1999, Вайкзеккер Э). This describes a new direction of progress. Exact science, a healthy economy, a sound recognition of ecological values, a vision for the future and common sense are preconditions for solving ecological problems.
12 «Green growth» “Green Growth” is a widely used concept that encompasses many elements of the transition towards sustainability. Since 2008 the term “Green growth” has been used in documents and included in the terminology of international organizations as key-term for further development of humanity and countries. The term is described in the documents of OECD, (2009, Declaration on Green Growth. OECD) and special UN departments (2009, UN). The basics of the new course are described in the Programm of the UN for environmental protection (2008, UNEP). Widely used terms around “Green Growth” include “green economy”, “green industry”, “green markets”, “green jobs” and other. The President of Russia D. Medvedev emphasized the necessity of green growth, “which is the top-priority for technological politics of all countries, and it must be provided by adopted decisions” (2010, D.A. Medvedev) (18 February 2010 г.).
Characteristics of green growth include (2010, S.N. Bobylev):
− Technological modernization, leading to sustainable use of natural resources and decreas in environmental pollution; − ecological innovations (green innovations); − Transition to low-nitrogen economy, decreasin carbon dependence translating into an according decrease in greenhouse gas emissions; − Creation of green jobs (energy sector, transport, other key branches); − Development of market mechanisms to incorporate externalities, growing significance of ecological motivations and aids; − Institutional change; − ecological education; − Providing for ecological sustainability as a whole.
13 2 Ecological related problems of intensive agriculture
2.1 Action on biosphere by agriculture The intensity of the human intervention on the biosphere primarily depends on population size . According to some reports the population of the Earth was 250 mln. 2 thousand years ago. It was double at the turn of XVI–XVII centuries. In the beginning of the XXI century the population of the Earth was 6.3 bln. people. Population increase is caused by high fertility in developing countries, where reproductive rates are as high as 3.1 children per woman, while this index is 1.57 in developed countries (population decrease).
Food supply of the immensely growing Earth population is one of the most important problems of nowadays. A growing population requires increases in food production, and results in increased human impact upon ecological systems. According to the data by the British “New Economics Foundation” and the American “Global Trace Network” it will take the biosphere 15 months to restore everything consumed by the humanity in 2006. “We waste much more than we can ecologically afford and running into ecological debts we make two mistakes” writes E. Simms, a co-Director of the “New Economics Foundation” in the report published on BBC web-page in October 2006. “Firstly, millions of people still do not have enough land, food and clean water at their disposal, are deprived of the opportunity of satisfaction of their needs. Secondly, we expose to risk the mechanisms for life sustenance on our planet”.
Global agriculture has 1.5 billion ha at their disposal, the stores of undeveloped remote and low-valued land is 1.3 billion ha. Over its history humanity has already degraded 2 billion ha and during the recent 50 years the speed of this process has gotten 30 times faster and reached the point of almost 20 million ha/year. Land areas melt faster than polar ice, but world public opinion and the media hardly pays any attention to it. According to current UN World population forecasts, the global population will be at 9.3 billion in 2050. This will result in a considerable increase in food consumption and, hence, need for increased yields from cultivated land. Taking into account the rapidity of land losses, in 50 years we are likely to lose 1 billion ha from 1.5 billion ha we have now and it is impossible to reimburse these huge losses with an according increase in yields.
Land is constantly wasted, the most vulnerable areas to anthropogenic degradation include hot, dry, semi-dry and cold territories in the zone of fenland and forest-fenland and also some parts of high-mountain regions where the vegetation period is short. The Mid-Russian black earth area being the richest in terms of soil resources also constantly loses cultivated land. The proportion of cultivated land in black earth areas is 65%, as compared to an average 10.2% in Russia as a whole. The cultivated land area per capita is 1.42 ha in Russia. This is larger than the world average, but it is inevitably decreased due to degradation as a result of ill-motivated human activity, and population increase. Land resources in the areas of the black earth central part, i.e. Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk and Tambov regions encompass 16.8 million ha, 11.6% of it is urban, industrial, transport and other non-agricultural land. The agricultural land comprises 88.4%. Use of old fashioned agrarian technologies are the main reasons for soil degradation (pic. 1).
14
Fig. 1 Traditional agrarian technologies are the main reasons for soil degradation
Locally this damage is hard to see, but globally it is evident. That is why soil loses become a threat for ecological safety. Almost 23% of ready for cultivation land is being destructed resulting in a decrease of its productivity. Under the conditions of semi-arid and arid climate desertification is intensified. 3.6 billion ha, i.e. 70% of potentially productive, dry land is threatened. Globally, the problem of desertification is important for 80 countries; more than 600 million people inhabit dry areas.
Soil is one of the most important environmental constituents. Its ecological functions are focused on the one point, i.e. soil fertility. Removing from the soil its main yields (cereals, vegetables, etc.) and detritus components (straw, leaves) a person partially or fully unlinks the biological turnover of matter, disturbs soil’s self-regulative ability and decreases its fertility. Even partial loss in mould and hence fertility decrease disables soil to completely perform its ecological functions; it begins to degrade, i.e. its properties deteriorate ( Агроэкология , 2000). Other anthropogenic factors also result in soil degradation (pic. 2).
15
Fig. 2 Soil destruction can be caused by different factors
Soil carbon is an important constituent of the global carbon cycle and its management can influence the accumulation of СО 2 in the atmosphere. When forests are turned into cultivated land, the content of soil carbon suddenly changes. Turning forests into cultivated land result in 30% loss in soil carbon. Turning forests into cultivated land usually result in soil carbon loss, though loss rates may differ regionally. Turning forests into uncultivated land usually does not result in soil carbon loss, though carbon can be wasted or accumulated in different areas depending on various circumstances such as fertilizers implementation and replacement of plant waste (Murty et all., 2002).
Soils of agrarian ecological systems degrade most easily and most frequently. The reason of agrarian ecological systems’ imbalance is their simple plant composition (monoculture) which does not provide for optimal self-regulation, structural sustainability and productivity. Biological productivity of natural ecoystems is provided by natural processes, whereas yields in agrarian ecological systems completely depend on a person, his agrarian skills, equipment, social economic conditions, etc. Soil protection is an urgent problem of many countries and regions of the world.
The main ecological problems related to intensification of agriculture are the following:
− soil estrangement, i.e. usage of cultivated land for industrial and urban buildings; − soil erosion and deflation; − pesticide pollution of soils; − superfluous usage of heavy machinery for soil cultivation (compaction); − negative influence of single crops (monocultures); − hazards to ground water and surface water; − plants’ vulnerability for diseases and pests;
− weed and pest resistence
− decrease in biodiversity;
16 − deterioration of landscapes’ quality negatively influencing recreation and agrarian tourism. These negative effects result in the loss of the productive capacity of cultivated land in many countries including Russia. Let us consider the main sources of the above-mentioned problems and their possible solutions.
Soil erosion is a process of soil’s surface layer destruction and subsequent removal of top soils by water and wind. Under natural conditions, soil erosion is constant but as a rule is not threatening. As a result of agrarian management, soil erosion can be enhanced and result in considerable decrease in soil fertility. The main source of erosion is wrong use of land especially in the parts where natural conditions are favorable for erosion (slopes, dry soils). That is why we differentiate between social-economic and natural causes for erosion (pic. 3, 4, 5).
Fig. 3 The main sources and varieties of soil erosion
Fig. 4 Natural and anthropogenic causes of soil ersiuon
Soil erosion damages agriculture greatly. It has become the most threatening factor in the USA (Nordstrom, Hotta, 2004) and Canada where land use “up to exhaustion” was practiced for a long time and also in the countries of the Mediterranean, Middle East, India, Pakistan, China, South Africa and Australia (pic.4). 40% of cultivated land all over the world is subject to erosion.
17
Fig. 5 Map of global soil erosion
Water erosion – is removal of soil under the influence of water currents. It is the most dangerous kind of erosion for soil resources. The total area of removed land is more than 3.3 million ha and in the nearest future it can be duplicated due to development of soil removal from potentially erosion susceptible soils of the Central black earth areas of Russia.
Ecological losses caused by water erosion are huge. Water, when flowing, makes fens, removes organic and mineral substances from the soil. Water erosion results in a decrease of soil fertility, fens useless for agriculture. In Russia water erosion is typical for the Central black earth areas, the Volga and Don regions, and the North Caucasus.
Wind erosion (deflation) of soil is removing the smallest parts of the soil by wind. The strongest and long lasting winds may turn into dust (black) storms. For some days they are able to completely remove the upper fertile soil layer up to 30 cm. Dust storms pollute water basins, the atmosphere, and they negatively affect human health. Wind erosion threatens Southern Siberia, post Volga area, it is typical for soils of light composition. Now the biggest source of dust is the dry land of the Aral sea.
Estrangement of soil. The soil layer of agrarian ecological systems is destructed when land is estranged for non-agricultural purposes: industrial building, cities, towns, roads, tube lines, etc. According to the UN’s reports as a result ofthe building of cities and roads annually more than 300 thousand ha of cultivated land is lost. Of course, these losses are to a degree inevitable due to development of settlements, but have to be diminished/minimized. It is possible to diminish the loss from land estrangement with economic mechanisms, but this needs to include into the costs the lost benefit for 100 years as a minimum. In the same token the cost for infertile land lost to zoning and construction must be considerably less.
Desertification . One of the main factors of soil and environmental degradation is desertification. Desertification causes soil destruction and reduction of its biological productivity
18 which can result in the total destruction of ecosystem capacity, turning the territory into a desert (pic. 6).
Currently, 2.1 billion people or about 40% of the world population inhabit desert or dry regions. 90% of them are citizens of low developed countries. Desertification affects 3.6 billion ha, i.e. 25% of dry land. Land in 110 countries runs the risk of degradation. Annually, 12 million ha of land is lost as a result of desertification, i.e. the territory equal to the size of Bulgaria (pic. 7).
Fig. 6 Desertification is the death of the landscape
19 Fig. 7 Global expansion of deserts
The reasons and the main factors of desertification are different. As a rule, the interaction of several factors results in desertification, their complex action negatively influences the ecological situation. Drought can cause desertification, but its main reason as a rule is human activity, i.e. overcultivation of land, losses of forests and bad irrigation practices. On the deserted territory, physical soil properties are deteriorated, plants fade, ground waters get salted, biological productivity decreases and hence the regenerative ability (resilience) of ecological systems becomes weaker. “If erosion can be called a disease of landscape, its desertification is death” (UN FAO report). In the UNEP report it is underlined that desertification is a result of a long historical process in the course of which unfavorable natural and human factors support each other and result in changes of key characteristics of the environment.
Solution of this problem is suggested in the contract of the United Nations. i.e. thje Convention of fighting the desertification in those countries that experience serious drought and/or desertification especially in Africa (1994). The contract was signed by 186 countries and it guarantees fighting desertification. Most of the attention is paid to improvement of fertility and restoration of land and water courses. It underlines the importance of human participation to fight soil exhaustion. On the 16 th of August 2010 in Brazil the UN declared the beginning of the Decade of fighting desertification. In the period from 2010 to 2020 measures to inform people about the necessity of land protection from degradation will be taken, and information on how to improve the quality of dry land inhabited by a third of world’s population will be spread. The dwellers of such regions face serious economic and ecological hazards. “Starting the International Decade of deserts and fighting desertification let us promise to unite our efforts to protect land to achieve the Goals of the Millennium Development project and provide the necessary welfare”, the UN Secretary General said.
Assistance in fighting desertification is provided by different UN institutions UNDP funds measures for fighting desertification through the Drylands Development Centre situated in Kenya (Nairobi) which assists in the elaboration of political measures, technical recommendations, supports the programs for desertification control and cultivation of dry lands. The special program of the International Agrarian Development Foundation invested 400 million US dollars and 350 million dollars for joint funding of projects in 25 African countries threatened by desertification. The World Bank organizes and funds the programs for protection of dry land and improvement of their sustainable agrarian productivity and FAO supports sustainable agrarian development providing great practical assistance to the governances. UNEP supports regional programs, data estimation, capacity building and public information campaigns related to dry land problems
In Africa, especially hazardous conditions characterize the Sahel zone (Senegal, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, etc.), a trans-boundary bioclimatic zone 400 km wide between the Sahara in the North and the savannah in the South (pic.8, 9).
The catastrophic development in the Sahel zone is caused by two factors:
1) increased human pressures upon natural ecological systems for food supply of a growing population;
2) climate change (long lasting droughts).
20 Intensive grazing by cattle results in the overuse of pasture land and the eradication of rare plants with low natural productivity. Desertification can also be caused by the mass burning of dry grass from the previous year, especially after drought periods, combined with intensive cultivation, lowering the ground water level, etc. Removed plants and pronged soil create conditions for erosion of the surface soil layer. Changes in natural complexes and their degradation become most visible during periods of drought.
Fig. 8 Sahel map
Fig. 9 Desertification in Africa
In the map it is shown that 46% of the territory is exposed to desertification, 55% of which runs a high risk.
Reference: Reich and others, 2001
21 In the territory of the former USSR desertification most severely affects (pic.10) the Aral area,
Fig. 10 A sole ship on the shore of the dry Aral sea.
Balkhash area, Black land of Kalmyk and Astrakhan oblast, Dagestan and some other regions. All of them are zones of ecological catastrophe and conditions continue to deteriorate. As a result of wrongly devised agrarian activity soils and the environment in general have degraded in these territories. Degradation resulted in biodiversity decrease and destruction of ecological natural systems. It became evident that agriculture must be ecologically focused for complex irrigation development to be successful and lasting (sustainable).
Soil structure destruction . Soil contraction is one of the main problems of modern agriculture. Superfluous mechanization of agricultural labor, fast crop rotation, intensive pasturing and low-skilled management result in soil contraction. Soil contraction occurs in different climatic zones and on different soils. It is accompanied with low content of organic substance in the soil and intense usage of cultivated land and pastures with a high level of humidity (Hamza, Anderson, 2005).
Complex and often superfluous mechanization of agrarian labor (heavy machinery) resulted in a compaction of the soil. Today soil destruction under the influence of heavy machinery has often reached a depth of 1 meter. According to research results in turf podzolic soil, it was found that the compaction of the soil in the groove was significant as compared to uncompacted areas after just one run of a tractor MTZ 1221(pic. 11).
22 Fig. 11 Soil solidity after one race of a tractor MTZ 1221
Under the influence of heavy machinery the activity of soil microorganisms gets depressed and soil’s solidity grew up to 20-40% which resulted in 2-3-fold decrease of water penetration capacity. Also soil compaction results in a decrease of its unit draft capacity, i.e. more effort is spent on chopping and rotating a layer of soil. High solidity of the soil deteriorates its physical properties, water-air and nutritional regimes and provokes erosion. According to German specialists, soil exhaustion results in about 50% yield loss (Agrarian Ecology, 2000).
Compacted soil shows changes of those soil properties which control the emission of greenhouse gases, the surface drain of pollutants, and the movement of nitrates and pesticides into the ground water. Soil compaction also influences the efficiency of fertilizers and the necessary application of energy in agrarian production,. In this way it can also deteriorate the enviromant (Soane, van Ouwerkerk, 1995).
Soil compaction negatively influences the mobility of toxic substances. When soil solidity is increased from 1.0. to 1.6. g г/sm 3 , lead mobility increases by a factor 2.5 (Agrarian Ecology, 2000).
In order to prevent catastrophic deterioration of structural conditions, soil density needs to be monitored. Monitoring allows to forecastthe properties and condition of the arable land.It is indispensible for optimized management and the determination of needed restoration efforts. Still, there is no control of soil structure in Russia. Criteria and optimal parameters for the structural condition of specific soils have not yet been devised. At the same time, there is progress towards reducing soil compaction caused by heavy machinery. Measures targetd at reducing soil compaction combine a decrease of heavy machinery runs, improvement of the machinery, and specific cultivation of the soil and leading to an increase of humus content by retaining plant remnants, and crop rotation that includes plants with deep and strong rootsetc.(Agrarian Ecology, 2000; Hamza, Anderson, 2005).
In regions of wind erosion it is necessary to implement non-plough agriculture with the establishment of meadow pasture crop rotations, proper crop rotation, field division by tree-or hedgerows planted at a 90° angle to the main wind direction, full crop usage and other methods. Applied together, the management described will minimize soil destruction, support efficient land use, and increase yields.
Dehumification. One of difficult problems associated with the preservation and increase of soil productivity, is humus decrease in the ploughed layer, i.e. dehumification.
Biological soil productivity can be estimated according to the content of organic substances in the soil (pic.12, 13). Biological productivity is enhanced by water, air and heat processes in the soil humus. Micro- and macro fauna of the soil are indicators of its fertility. When cultivated, soil is saturated with oxygen and heated for rapid destruction of organic substances. The content of organic substances decreases as erosion results in humus degradation ( Агроэкология , 2000).
23
Fig. 12 Soil composition
Fig. 13 Influence of humin substances upon soil properties
Long lasting cultivation resulted in humus content reduced by 20- 25% in a meter deep layer of non-removed soil. The dehumification processes has recently intensified. Average humus losses in non-removed soil amount to 9.5% of the initial store over the recent 15 years. Soils subject to erosion loose humus at a catastrophic rate. Compared to no-tillage analogs, average humus content in the ploughed layer decreased in soil subject to low erosion by 15-20%, in soil subject to semi- severe erosion by 28-40%, in soil subject to high erosion by 47-55%. Dehumification decreases soil productivity. A loss of 10t/ha of humus results in a loss of soil productivity in 2 c/ha of cereals
24 (Agrarian Ecology, 2000). Therefore, it is evident that monitoring of soil humus condition is needed in all kinds of land.
Soil pollution caused by pesticides. Tons of pesticides are annually manufactured, in Russia there are more than 100 pesticides with an annual production of at least 100 thousand tons. Each year, Russian farmers produces/applies about 1 kg of pesticide per citizen. In other industrial countries this index is even higher. The pesticide industry is growing. In spite of the annual application of approx 5 million tones of pesticides all over the world, about 40% of the production is lost because of insects, and other pests, and after harvesting 20% is lost because of other reasons. Pesticide application results in 26 million intoxications and 220 thousand deaths globally (Paoletti, Pimentel, 2000).
Increased implementation of pesticides results in soil pollution. Large land areas are infected with pesticide remnants above the MCL threshold (maximum concentration limit). Long-life toxicants and their metabolites accumulate in the soil. Soil pesticide load becomes a source for the intoxication of plants, air, ground and surface water. Toxic substances in the soil are detrimental for human and animal health (pic. 14).
Fig. 14 natural behavior of pesticides
There is a strong necessity of to assess and forcast pesticide residues in the soil, agrarian products, surface and ground water. Generating area specific pollution maps must be based on available data on pesticide behavior over the recent 3-5 years. Most polluted with pesticides in Russian are the Krasnodar and Rostov regions (about 20 kg/ha) (pic. 15).
25
Fig. 15 Pesticide pollution of cultivated land in Russia
Actual pesticide content sometimes is considerably higher than the average (0,1 mg/kg) and can become disastrous in some regions. Soil contamination with pesticides is a hazard for human health through direct contact or through indirect uptake from other substances (water, air, plants). Besides, pesticides may result in qualitative and quantitative changes of soil microorganism. Such changes may result in a destruction of self-purifiction processes. Uncontrolled implementation of chemicals, thus, results in changes of the human habitat.
Extension of the assortment and amounts of chemicals’ applied in the second part of the XX century resulted in an increase of cases of intoxication of people working with pesticides. For the period between 1945-1965, 40 thousand cases of human intoxication with pesticides have been registered, but for the recent 20 years only in low developed countries there were 500 thousand cases of intoxication with agrarian chemicals including 5 thousand lethal cases.
The migration of pesticides from the soil into plants, air, and water results in a chemical threat not only to agrarian specialists, but to the health of the population as a whole (pic. 16).
26
Fig. 16 Pathways for pesticides getting into food
Children are most vulnerable. Most harmful to human health are organo-chloride and organo-phosphorus pesticides. Their fraction in the total burden accounts for about 15%. Some agrarian chemicals penetrating the human body from the soil are mutagens causing an increased number of mutations and chromosome aberrations in somatic and reproductive cells resulting in mutagenic defects, miscarriages, prenatal death, inborn anomalies, infertility, etc.(pic. 17).
Fig. 17 Pesticides and human health
Today pesticide safety is under special control. That is why the production and application of 1 st hazard class pesticides and chloride organic compounds with long persistence (DDT, HCH, polycholene-compounds, bi-phenyls) was banned. Hygienic norms and regulations for pesticide application have been elaborated: MCL in the soil, water, water basins for economic drinking supply, air and the air of work places; MRL in food, time limits for pesticide application; minimum time spans between pesticide application and harvest, etc.
27 It is known that pesticides can provoke resistance and, thus, the increase of the number of pests varieties, deterioration of food properties and safety of production, loss of natural fertility, etc. (Защита растений , 2003).
Most pesticides affect the environment by harming non-target species. Pesticides profoundly change the whole ecological system, affect communities of living organisms while people use them to destroy a limited number of target organisms. As a result, a lot of non-target species including insects and birds are intoxicated and even killed. Also, people tend to implement chemicals superfluously making the problem even more serious.
The most dangerous pesticides are persistent organo-chloride compounds (DDT, HCB, HCH). These compounds can last in the soil over many years and can be dangerous for living beings even in very small doses and concentrations. In very small concentrations pesticides can depress the immune system and in bigger concentrations have visible mutagenic properties. Penetrating the human organism, pesticides can provoke not only fast extension of cancer cells but affect the organism genetically, thereby endangering future generations. That is why the application of the most dangerous one – DDT is prohibited in our and most other countries. In the long term, the general ecological harm from soil pesticides is certain to overcome the use of their application. Pesticides threaten not only people but flora and fauna in general. Plant cover is very sensitive to pesticides not only where they are applied, but also in remote places because of air- or waterborne transport of the poisonous molecules
Pesticides are capable to penetrate into plants through their root system, accumulate in biomass and enter the food chain as a result. Pulverization of pesticides intoxicate birds. The most vulnerable are populations of singing and migrant thrushes, larks and other sparrow like birds (pic. 18).
Fig. 18 Pathways for pesticides within plants and animals
Russian and foreign researchers have proven that pesticides pollution of the soil results not only in human and animal intoxication, but also in the destruction of their reproductive functions causing bad demographic and ecological consequences. Application of pesticides results in the loss of non target natural enemies and at the same time in the development of resistance and, thus, new
28 particularly harmful pest organisms whose natural enemies have been eliminated ( Агроэкология , 2005; Plant Protection).
Soil protection. Soils are polluted with industrial waste and mineral fertilizers. If excess fertilizer is applied, large quantities of nitrates, sulphates, chlorides and other compounds remain in the soil. This results in changes in biological, geological and chemical cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus and some other elements. Ecological consequences of such a breakdown are mostly significant in aquatic systems, for example through eutrophication of water basins which takes place when superfluous amounts of nitrogen or phosphate are removed from the soil.
Eutrophication is the increase of the level of fresh water production due to increased concentration of nutrients, i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus. Intensive plant (algal) growth results in the accumulation of biological substances which, as a result of incomplete mineralization accumulates in a water basin. There is natural and anthropogenic eutrophication. Natural eutrophication can take thousands of years, anthropogenic eutrophication is much faster, especially in water basins with slow drainage.Nutrients enter continental water basins as a result of fertilizer removal from fields (enhanced by erosion and plowing) and discharge of industrial and public sewage. In addition, nutrients enter aquatic systems through atmospheric deposition. Up to a certain level, eutrophication increases production of fish and other aquatic organisms. However, as pollution levels increase, fresh water quality can deteriorate causing algal bloomslower water quality and oxygen deficiencies. High level of eutrophication results in suffocation. Ultimately eutrophication may cause the full loss of ecological significance of water basins (pic. 19). Also, blooming is connected with mass development of toxic cianobacteria that cause human diseases affecting different organs and nerves (Voloshko, 2008).
Fig. 19 Ecological consequences of eutrophication
In addition, pollution with sewage may cause spread of transmittable disease and enteroidea in particular (Agrarian Ecology, 2005).
29 Cleaning of eutrophicated water causes extra cost as cyanobacteria provoking water blooming are hard to remove and productivity of water preparation gets worse as eutrophication increases. Also, most cleaning methods implemented in Russia do not eliminate the toxins produced by cyanobacteria and other toxic weeds. Water purification targeted at these toxins is very expensive. It needs application of absorbent carbon, ozonation.
The most important factor contributing to anthropogenic eutrophication is agriculture. Intensification of agriculture accelerates the process of water eutrophication and the problem of nutrient saturation of water has become global nowadays. nfluence of agriculture as a powerful source of nutrients is growing due to transformation of land (larger agricultural plots), and the application of mineral and organic fertilizers. ransformation of agrarian landscapes affecting large territories and destroying the natural composition of the soil layer causes erosion, and export of nutrients. It becomes a catalyst for ecological processing resulting in soil degradation. Intensive agriculture changes natural nutrient cycles, most importantly those for nitrogen and phosphorus (Agrarian Ecology, 2005).
Monocultures. Large territories of natural ecological systems are used for intensive monoculture agriculture. The local flora and fauna lose their habitats. Intensive agriculture is focused on cultivation of varieties that are most profitable due to their quick growth, big fruit, etc. These varieties are not as genetically diverse as natural ones. The more monotonous the genetic composition of a variety, the more vulnerable to infection it is. A weak resistance against pests and diseases needs large doses of pesticides to secure desired yields. Some pesticides are very slow to decay in nature, they can accumulate in soil, plants and other parts of food chains. In addition, the need for intense use of pesticides increases the probability for pest organisms to develop resistance.
Thus, monoculture decreases the variety diversity of plant communities. As a consequence, agrarian ecological systems become increasingly unsustainable and incapable to resist abiotic and biotic ecological stress.
Agrarian ecological systems differ from natural ones firstly in terms of structure. Instead of mosaic plant cover, agriculture needs regular fields convenient for machinery. Secondly, functions of agrarian ecological systems change. Instead of natural nutrient cycles which are almost 90% closed, a 50% open geochemical system characterizing the agricultural systems is causing loss of mineral nutrition elements (MNE) of plants. The unbalance of MNE circulation degrades the soil. Agrarian technologies take out much MNE provoking development of weeds.
Agricultural weeds are undesirable plants competing with cultivated crops. Weeds may provide habitat for pests species and disease, they spoil crops for sale. On the other hand weeds reduce erosion, removing MNE, especially nitrogen, and thus moderate effects of monocultures, And weeds may provide habitat for useful animals (e.g.natural predators). Weeds are an important genetic recourse for breeding. So fighting them must be done with consideration of their positive factors, preservation measures must be taken if necessary. Mechanical elimination of weeds exhaust the soil and cause new weeds ( Защита растений , 2003).
The main ecological paradox of modern agrarian technologies is that ploughing of soil releases superfluous MNE not more than 20% of which is absorbed by plants, the other nutrients are removed. Superfluous MNE cause weed outbreaks. It is necessary to say some words about the ecological significance of weeds in natural ecological systems. Weeds having a unique ability to
30 increase their phytomass hundreds times with superfluous MNE working as biological pumps absorbing superfluous MNE and so holding them inside an ecological system. Multi-variety phytocenosis pushes weeds out from the community. However, the seeds of weeds are kept in the soil (seed banks) until conditions are suitable for germination. In agrarian ecological systems weeds try to perform their functions but traditional agrarian technology considers them evil and tries to eliminate them ( Защита растений , 2003). So, to prevent soil from degradation it is necessary to get rid of superfluous MNE and weeds. This can be achieved by minimizing mechanical cultivation of soil or growing multi-variety plant mixtures capable of absorbing the maximum of soil produced MNE. There are two ecologically safe systems: non-plough agriculture and multi species mixed cropping. These two different systems help solve the problem of soil degradation from different points, they can be combined depending on conditions ( Керженцев , Кузьменчук , 2009).
Mixed cropping can solve this problem. This technology is not widely used due to the absence of separate multi-crop harvest methods, although all other operations are available. To solve this problem the head of the laboratory of functional ecology of the Institute of Fundamental Biological problems of Russian Academy of Science A.S. Kerzhentsev has an interesting proposal. He suggests mixing up the plant ingredients of food not at the end of cooking but at the beginning, when making lists of crops for mixed cropping. Then, the whole set of crops can be harvested simultaneously and sent for processing. The author refers to world precedents, i.e. Chinese cuisine and food for astronauts. The main physiological ration is similar for all people and special food desires can be satisfied with traditional technologies. Moderate recourse, e.g. food, consumption is one of the ways to avoid the ecological crisis. Some agrarian technologies (mix-technologies) must correspond to another ecological principle, i.e. return the element taken out of ecological system into the geochemical substance cycle.
Mix-technologies must be used on degraded soil in hazardous agrarian areas. In the future the area of their implementation will be wider. The system of agrarian industrial complex will have to be rebuilt considering in a more comprehensive way important factors such as plant breeding and seedage, means of mechanization, storage and process technologies, ecologically safe fertilizers. Change is about upgrading the lifestyle of agrarian manufacturers and consumers. To survive the ecological crisis humanity will have to develop suitable measures of public influence: legal, political, ethical (Керженцев , Кузьменчук , 2009).
Traditional agriculture has always allowed joint cropping of genetically different varieties and making border tress to decrease possible yields losses. In the long term such an approach is better for the natural environment and has economic advantages. If in modern intensive agriculture genetic similar high-productive plant varieties and animal species are used, in traditional agriculture local animals and plants are used, that are characterized by genetic diversity and the ability to well cope with the environment.
Decrease in biodiversity (BD) . Low intensity agriculture has often increased and sustained BD. The need for increased productivity and subsequent intensification often harm biodiversity. Soil cultivation, drainage, plantation and crop rotation, and pesticides negatively influence flora and fauna. To sustain BD in agricultural landscapes the load of chemical fertilizers must not exceed the needs of cultivated plants and the use of pesticides must be minimal. In addition, there is a need to maintain a certain percentage of uncultivated land (hedges, fallows, green belts along waterways). To decrease the negative impact caused by agrarian machinery on birds, in particular, it is necessary
31 to regulate the types and regimes of this machinery for minimal fauna damage. It is important to understand that agrarian impact upon BD can vary between different regions and real consequences of certain land-use patterns have not been studied for many plants and animals (McLaughlin, Mineau, 1995).
Development of agriculture resulted in the development of new ecological systems, i.e. agrarian ecological systems. In the second half of the XX century the dominance of the chemical- technological approach resulted in a great reduction of BD on territories shaped by intensive agriculture, loss of ecological sustainability, considerably reduced self-regulation and self- regeneration capacity, elimination of historically and ecologically valuable natural and cultural landscapes ( Агроэкология , 2005). For a very long time the focus of nature conservation in agricultural landscapes was on rare species, especially carnivores. But now formerly common species are also becoming endangered.
So, the less intensively cultivated the land, the richer the BD. However, changes in BD often also depend on the underlying environmental matrix (mosaic landscape). Therefore, mostattention must be paid not to the preservation and increasing of plot specific BD, but to BDat the landscape level (Duelli et al.,1999).
Agrarian BD is also endangered, i.e. domestic animal breeds and plant varieties are lost at an alarming rate; genetically more uniform crops and species become more vulnerable. So there are two main objectives of biodiversity conservation in the agrarian context: to support agrarian BD and to reduce the negative effect of agrarian production upon the BD which is not commonly exploited. Intensive development of conventional agriculture results in BD decrease, but organic agriculture tends to better preserve it (Biao et al., 2003).
Chemical technological approach (industrial approach) is dangerous for agrarian development. Its main consequences are:
- introduction of much fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation systems;
- pollution of ecological systems with waste from animal husbandry;
- unification of agrarian methods;
- use of the most reproductive species and varieties, and subsequent disappearance of local varieties and species;
- creation of large, uniformagrarian areas;
- soil erosion, dehumification, loss of fertility and diversity of ecosystems.
Landscape quality deterioration . Agrarian activity takes place within the limits of solid natural entities, i.e. landscapes. Landscape is a territorial system consisting of interacting natural and anthropogenic complexes and a foremost object for protection. There are different landscape types, the most important for humans are agrarian landscapes. Agrarian landscapes are anthropogenic landscapes containing, natural elements, and elements created by people. Agrarian landscapes are dominated by human elements and tightly managed systems that replace natural phyto- and zoo-cenoses in most of the agrarian territory. More specifically, an agrarian landscape is
32 defined as a landscape on the larger part of which natural plants are replaced with agrarian crops. (Agrarian Ecology, 2005).
In agrarian production, it is most important to efficiently use the natural productive basis, characterized by the landscape peculiarities of a territory. Accounting for the landscape and estimating landscape productivity is a cornerstone for the ecologization of agriculture Landscape ecology provides the theoretical measure for the development of the system of ecological sustainability (ecosystem management).
Ecosystem management is a developing field which enables many governmental institutions to take part in the management of federal land. The most important goal of this philosophy is to support integrity of ecosystems (i.e. their functions, composition and structure) for future generations under the prospects of a growing population. These goals can be achieved through an integration of land quality assessment and efficient land management targeted at the preservation and development of landscape systems and processes. Landscape ecology and preservation of biological principles are the most important constituents of this philosophy. Significance of ecology in ecosystem management is great, although the acceptability of integration of ecosystem quality assessment into ecosystem management is a subject for discussion (Jensen et al., 1996).
Creation of sustainable natural ecosystems is one of the economic priorities of the state being connected with national security. Still, economics degrades the environment. Especially, such degradation continues to be typical for agriculture as the changes in the main constituents of agrarian landscapes are linked to degradation of biological and geological substance, decrease in energy efficiency and nutrient cycling, decrease of biodiversity, changes in the structure of the main properties of natural landscapes, pollution and troubles in the processes of regeneration of recourses. The consequences of mismanagement are considerable: droughts; decrease in biodiversity; increased soil erosion and deflation; changes in the balance of organic substances and chemical elements in the soil; impacts on biological and geological cycles characteristic conditions of agrarian landscapes therefore often include low ecological sustainability of landscapes, but focus on the short term steadiness and efficiency of agrarian production (Aidarov, 2007; Lopyrev, 1995; Agro-ecologic land evaluation, 2005).
In Russia the following problems associated with a lack of consideration of ecological processes can be encountered: water and wind erosion, salinisation, alcalination, acidification, loss of humus, low economic and natural soil fertility, overstocking, etc. Annually, the eroded land in Russia increases by 400-500 thousand ha, and the total area of deflated, erosive and wind eroding hazardous agrarian land is 130 million ha including 84.8 million ha of ploughed land and 28.7 million ha of pasture land. It is necessary to underline that the amount of wind eroded soil is growing (5-6% every 5 year-as). As a result of these processes, the loss of yields on the ploughed land is up to 36% and on other territories is as high as 47% (Problems of degradation, 2007).
For thousands of years agriculture extended all over the world except for the Antarctic. Under human influence landscapes have been transformed into anthropogenic or natural- anthropogenic landscapes . These landscapes are peculiarthat as a result of the elimination of native plant communities the processes activate which are hard to be found in safe landscapes. In terms of their dissemination, natural anthropogenic landscapes appear to follow “zone laws”. the maximum development of thermokarst is found in fenland and forest-fenland; secondary forest, upland and
33 flow meadows and wastelands in the zone of boreal and mix forest; ravines – from forest steppe to semi-deserts; secondarily saline soils and removable sands – in semi-desert and desert.
When looking at ecological zones and associated biomes in the context of agrarian expansion it is necessary to take into account the global landscape changes connected to climate warming in the XX-XXI centuries.
In the XX century, and in its second half in particular, natural landscapes were destructed at a large scale. Industrial urban complexes developed. In many regions, and in the EU in particular, relicts of natural ecosystems were preserved only in national parks. Contrary to natural ecosystems in which ecosystem functions were performed “free of charge”, anthropogenic complexes are totally managed by people., As free ecological services are replaced, and systems increasingly depend on external inputs, economic cost will increase.
Considerable changes took place in the steppe zone of the USSR due to the clearing project in the middle of the XX century. In the process, the steppe landscape was totally damaged and replaced with ploughed land resulting in negative ecological consequences. Dark soil is sooner to get warm with sunrays. This results in aridization of the climate of the whole steppe area, drying affecting once numerous lakes and rivers. Other negative factors in the steppe zone are droughts and dust storms. Massive plowing of land and associated loss of humus can exhaust soils. The fertile humus layer can be removed in one single, powerful storm. The storms in the steppes of the USSR in the 60ies were disastrous in terms of humus removal. In addition, the loss of the steppe surface layer partly or fully eliminated the local fauna.
Elimination of the steppe landscape, its flora and fauna, led the regions affected to the threshold of an ecological catastrophe. Some decades of ill conceived agriculture have degraded the steppe nature of the Volga region, the Urals and Kazakhstan more than a hundred years of agriculture in Central Russia..
Agriculture in arid territories will continue in the XXI century. It makes sense to believe that a considerable part of semi-desert and desert landscapes will become anthropogenic ecological complexes: fields and gardens, pastures, cultivated plants. However, for land-use to be sustainable people will have to support the favorable (especially water) balance of ecosystems, and this may need vast expenses if precautionary measures are insufficiently integrated into management practices.
2.2 Biodiversity decrease
2.2.1 Definition and types of biodiversity The word «biodiversity» (abbreviation from the word combination «biological diversity») in the Biodiversity Convention (1992) is defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
According to the definition by the WWF, biodiversity encompasses the diversity of living forms on Earth, millions of species of plants, animals, microorganisms with their variable genome sets and complicated ecosystems making living nature».
34 Biodiversity (hereafter BD) must be considered at 3 levels (pic.20.). BD includes genetic diversity (genetic variation of each specie), species diversity and ecosystems’/communities’ diversity (habitats and ecosystems and their biocenosis on a certain territory) (Golubev, 2006).
Specialists study mechanisms for changing or preservation of BD at each level. Species diversity includes all species. There are two definitions of the word “species”. The first one: species is a complex of individuals that are , morphologically, physiologically or biochemically different from other such groups. This is the morphological definition of species, Today, for visibly identical species (e.g. bacteria) scientists use differences in DNA sequence and other molecular markers to determine species. The second definition defines species as individuals that can potentially or factually interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring. (biological definition of species).
The 3 rd level – diversity of communities/ ecosystems
diversity of habitats and ecosystems and associated processes for a certain area
The 2 nd level – species diversity
species numbers encountered in an ecosystem
The 1 st level – genetic diversity
genetic heterogeneity characterizing a species
Biodiversity
Fig. 20 BD structure
Genetic intra group diversity is expressed through reproductive behavior of individuals and their genomes inside a population. A population is a group of individuals that are factually able to reproduce and, thus, exchange genetic information. A species may include one or more populations. Population may consist of just several or millions of individuals. Individuals within a population are usually genetically different from each other. Genetic intra group diversity is based on insignificantly different genes. It is caused by mutations and arising of different gene combinations in the process of reproduction (recombination during meiosis). Plant breeders select certain gene variants, create fertile, e.g. pest resistant plant varieties
A biological community is a complex of individuals belonging to different species and inhabiting the same territory and, thus, interacting. The biological community associated with a habitat forms the ecosystem.
35 All BD levels are necessary for people. Species diversity is a source of natural recourses. According to a UN study conducted in 1995, the number of species on the earth is 13-14 million. Only 1.75 million of them have been described, i.e. less than 13%.
Genetic diversity is necessary for each species to preserve the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions which includes resistance to diseases. Genetic diversity of domestic animals and cultivated plants is mostly important for breeding programs targeted at for crop or livestock improvement.
The highest BD level is associated with ecosystems and landscapes . Community diversity includes species associations jointly living in a certain environment. Biological communities typical for deserts, steppes, forests and flooded areas sustain the functioning of these ecosystems. In terms of species diversity, richness is highest in the following landscapes: wet equator forests, coral reefs, dry tropical forests, wet forests of medium horizon, ocean islands, Mediterranean landscapes and steppes (Global perspective, 2010).
2.2.2 World centers of high BD Plant diversity is utterly important for determining the overall biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. In fact, the authors’ of the map “Global biodiversity. Vascular plants’ varieties” ( Бонн , 1996) believe that the number of species of vascular plants’ is a suitable indicator for overall biodiversity all over the world (pic.21).
Fig. 21 Schematic map of terrestrial biodiversity
(by W. Barlot, W. Lauer, А. Plake. Erdkunde, V. 50, № 4, 1996)
36 According to this map the following principles can be pointed out:
1. There is a tight dependence of BD on ecozone conditions; in wet equator and tropical forests the diversity is opulent and ranges from 3 to 5 thousand species per 10,000 km 2, in boreal forests and mixed woods biodiversity is much lower, i.e. up to 500 species per 10,000 km², but in fens and forested fenland there are not more than 200 species in the same area. Most other ecozones correspond to the BD intermediate quantities.
In some tropical and subtropical regions total BD is further specified by environmental conditions, i.e. terrain, soil, climate, history of territorial development.
Up-to-date research points out the global hubs of BD, many of which had already been recognized by N.I. Vavilov in the 1920-s. They are:
1. Choco (Costa Rica); 2. Tropical Eastern Andes; 3. Atlantic Brazil; 4. Eastern Himalaya; 5. Northern Borneo; 6. New Guinea. Apart from the global hubs there are 16 hubs of high BD (3,000 species and more per 10,000 km 2). These includ the Mediterranean (including the Caucasus), the Tien Shan – the Pamiro-Alay, the Eastern African rift valley, Madagascar, etc. (Golubev, 2006).
2.2.3 Ecosystem functions of biodiversity BD provides for the functioning of ecosystems. BD decrease is a nonrenewable loss of genetic recourses causing bad consequences, i.e. loss of ecosystem functions and the adaptability of such functions to changing environments.
The idea of ecosystem functions appeared together with the term “ecosystem” with the meaning of its integral influence upon the environment (e.g. connection of nitrogen and mire water accumulation, wind speed decrease in forests, etc.). The desire to perform an economic estimation of these functions resulted in the analysis of “ecosystem services”, i.e. the services ecosystems render for people ( Оценка экосистем , 2005).
Ecosystem functions and services can be grouped into three main categories:
- formation and support of environmental parameters favorable for human life – regulating and supporting functions;
- the biomass taken from nature by people (seafood, wood, forage, fuel, etc.), –productive functions and “ecosystem goods” ;
- information contained in natural systems, their cultural, scientific and educational role – aesthetic and cultural / function.
37
Fig. 22 Ecosystem functions of biodiversity
Regulating and supporting functions are of key importance. Current favorable living conditions are a result of natural evolution reaching back almost 4 billion years. The oxygen rich Earth atmosphere was formed thanks to photosynthetic activity. Biological regulation theory developed by Russian scientists proves that the conditions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and Earth climate are dependent on millions of species. If these activities are lost the planet will come to full water evaporation or to full icing.
“regulating services” include those benefits that are derived from ecosystem process. Supporting services”, include those functions that are necessary for the delivery of all other ecosystem services. The main regulatory and support functions include: - support of processes regulating the atmosphere and the global climate;
- local environmental stabilization, i.e. minimization of the effects from extreme conditions (floods, droughts, etc.);
- forming of fertile soil and its protection from erosion;
- water purification and maintenance of the hydrological balance;
- processing of biological waste.
A very important ecosystem function is climate regulation. Today many of the world’s natural disasters – frequency and severity of droughts, cold spills, inundations, storms - are
38 consequences of climatic change. The cost caused by such catastrophes is increasing. In 2005 these costs were above 200 billion US dollars.
Different experts have forwarded many ideas on climatic change. It has been discussed whether its main cause is human activity or natural processes. Even considering geological and astronomic factors, human activity still is most important.
The report issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that today’s climatic changes are mostly human caused. In this context, huge anthropogenic modifications of ecosystems influence the climate of the earth in two ways: shift of the gas balance in the atmosphere and changes of Earth’s physical surface properties.
The most discussed cause of climatic change is the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These include water vapor ( Н2О), carbon dioxide ( СО 2), nitrogen protoxide (N 20), methane ( СН 4), ozon ( Оз ), sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) and perfluorinated hydrocarbons (PCF). The most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide.
Elimination of ecosystems and inefficient land management produced more СО 2 than the global industry. But what is even more important is that by eliminating ecosystems, people destroy the natural mechanism of СО 2 fixing which could largely compensate for anthropogenic emissions. СО 2 is not a waste, but for primary producers it is as vital as oxygen.
Carbon dioxide emissions caused by the destruction of natural ecosystems have been estimated at 180 billion tons, whereas industrial CO 2 pollution (before 1980) amounts to 160 billion tones. From 1991 to 1994 the carbon stream into the atmosphere was 6.7 Gt/year; this includes 5.9. Gt/year caused by burning of fossil fuels.
Existing natural ecosystems (soil and plants) are huge carbon sinks. According to the IPCC the largest stores are in the boreal forests. Destruction of these ecosystems will result in tremendous carbon output into the atmosphere. Particularly threatening is the increase in the emissions of carbon and methane from mires, fenlands, boreal forests. Resulting global warming would cause melting of ice caps and permafrost soils, droughts and fires.
39
Fig. 23 Interaction of people and climatic system.
Reference: The forth evaluation report by IPCC, 2007
One more cause for modern climatic anomalies is the unbalance of heat and water cycles in terrestrial ecosystems. Natural plants moisturize and cool the near-ground atmosphere. But today forests were replaced with agrarian land, infrastructure and urban areas of enormous size. Resulting changes in heat and water cycles are known to be as much a reason for the increase in average near ground atmosphere temperature as is the greenhouse effect.
Changes of natural ecosystems have resulted in a 2-fold biomass loss. The energy not captured in biological systems goes into abiotic processes making them more powerful, causing weather anomalies and catastrophes (pic. 24).
40 Natural ecosystems minimize extreme weather conditions. The costs of rainstorms and droughts in Europe in 2005 and 2010 were so huge as there was no natural ecosystems, i.e. in general forests, mires, rivers, meadows are human managed.
Fig. 24 In Russia climatic changes are more transparent in winter than in summer
41 (temperature anomalies in winter and summer 2007 in comparison with 1976-2006, °C). Reference: Report on the specific features of Russian climate in 2007. Climatic change has influenced BD for the last half a century. It provoked changes in species range, population size, reproductive periods or migration. Climate change has also resulted in an increase of diseases.
Forecasts of BD changes based on recent research have shown that by 2050 (pic. 2.5) as much as 15-52% of the 1103 species of mammals, birds, frogs, butterflies and plants considered in the analysis may have gone extinct. Whereas the growth season has extended in Europe for the last 30 years, in some African regions the combination of regional climatic change and anthropogenic influence has caused a continuouis reduction of cereal yields since the 1970-ies. Changes in fish populations also result from climatic imbalances. The El Nino current impacts fish stocks near South America and Africa; and climatic circles in the Pacific ocean have influenced the fish stocks near North America. According to the IPCC, by 2100 the global average temperature will increase by 2.0-0.4 ° С in comparison to the pre-industrial period
42
Fig. 25 Changes in global and continental temperature: simulation and monitoring results. Reference: The forth evaluation report by IPCC, 2007
The harm to BD will grow as the speed of climate change increases. Still, some ecosystem services my increase in some regions due to climatic change (rising temperature and increased precipitation). The duration of the vegetation period (active growth season) has increased in Europe for the last 30 years resulting in an associated increase in yields. But as temperature increase progresses, the negative consequences of climate change will outweigh the benefits.
43 .
Fig. 26 Forecast on the retreat of the old ice line to the north by 2100.
Reference: The forth evaluation report by IPCC, 2007
BD in terrestrial ecosystems is most severely impacted by changes in land management. This is followed by climate change and nitrogen accumulation as the three most important factors causing biodiversity decline. Still, there are differences between the geographic zones (biomes). For instance, climate change most significantly determines the BD loss in fenlands, boreal forests, pine forests and deserts. In warm, mixed forests nitrogen accumulation is more important. Based on the interaction of the above factors the total loss of vascular plants from 1970 to 2050 is estimated at 13-19%. Since the impact of other important factors such as overexploitation and invasive species cannot be predicted, the BD loss in terrestrial ecosystems can even be more disastrous.
People can destroy natural ecosystems, but there is nothing to substitute for the regulatory services provided by natural ecosystems. Artificial maintenance of an unsustainable biosphere in acceptable conditions would be a difficult task. It is impossible to substitute the biotic regulation with technical means as the complexity and intensity of the information streams in the biosphere by far surpass technical abilities. Earth’s biosphere is the only system to grant survival for humanity today and in future.
44 2.2.4 Goals for the management of natural ecosystems For thousands of years humankind has exploited nature for products only. Productive functions are still important for the world economics. However, today it is increasingly important to be aware of the regulating functions of nature. This new approach is also important as it re-defines the goals for nature management. To identify management goals for the whole complex of functions linked to BD, it is necessary to take into account not only the productivity of systems, but also their diversity and the value of constantly supported biomass.
The management towards maintaining regulating and informational functions coincide with the maintenance of natural BD, but with a focus on short term production the management goal is often contradictory. When extracting the maximum value of biomass from ecosystems and populations, e.g. by artificially increasing their productivity with various fertilizers, it can be expected that their diversity and environmental regulating function will be degraded. As it was mentioned above, degradation of regulating functions takes place when ecosystems are exploited. The communities which restore their structure after overexploitation have a weaker ability for biotic regulation of environmental parameters. Numerous case examples for the deterioration as a result of targeted ecosystem modification for productive increase exist and are listed in the report “Ecosystems and human welfare”.
We cannot avoid extracting bio-resources from natural ecosystems, but when defining management goals this objective must correspond to the preservation of regulating functions, i.e. the volumes and ways of resource exploitation must be limited.
Natural ecosystems and their services are the wealth of each country. But they are not included in the list of standard economic indicators. Thus, their destruction does not affect the formal welfare indexes. Forests and soils can be ruined with gross domestic product increasing: economic development can leave destruction of nature behind itself.
The situation is even worse when estimating the most important BD function based on standard economic indicators. The regulating function of BD encompasses non-market services. The global environmental regulatory factors are precious. Considering these factors has resulted in the following conclusions:
- the cost associated with the loss of ecosystem services is higher than the global gross domestic product (GDP);
- the cost of productive functions accounts for only 6% of the total value of ecosystem services.
Exact economic estimations can be made nationally, regional, or locally for further decision making. Partial accountancy of some regulatory functions (including economic hazards resulting from the lack of such services) shows that the economic gain from protecting natural ecosystems is more than the profit from intensive exploitation and transformation into agrarian land.
A possible approach to assess the economic value of various ecosystem services is to estimate the cost of the restoration of natural ecosystems and associated functions. The miniomal value of global ecosystem services has been estimated at 1.8 times above the global gross domestic product (Costanza et al., 1996). Well known is the New York water supply case. In the New York
45 vicinity, destruction of natural ecosystems by construction and agriculture in the drainage area resulted in critical water quality deterioration. Calculations show that restoration of environmental functions of ecosystem in these areas by water protection and legal limitation for emissions from industry will be cheaper than building water purification technology to replace lost ecosystem services.
Today many international institutions (UN, World Bank, EU) elaborate the economic criteria and indexes for environmental destruction. Economic development in many countries has led to natural degradation. Efficient mechanisms for strategy and decision making in national and international nature management have to take into account the regulatory functions of ecosystems.
Continued underestimation of BD and its environmental regulatory function translates into continued elimination of biodiversity. Today, projects extracting resources transforming natural territories still seem to be more profitable than conservation. The mechanisms leading to short term exploitation are still functional although it has been recognized that the cost of natural ecosystem destruction is economically significant. The examples for such costs are numerous, e.g. costs associated with fires in Russia in 2010 caused by the drainage of peat mires.
2.2.5 Biodiversity in the world Today species, communities and ecosystems are lost faster than at any time during the past 65 million years. Tropical forests are destroyed, coral reefs die in the oceans, inner territories are plowed, water is polluted.
In theory, natural extinction rates would amount to about 4 species a year. Today, these rates are at least 40-times higher than those of the geological past. According to “Global BD estimation” (1995) 30,000 plant and animal species are endangered.
The reasons for high extinction rates are:
- human population growth and economic development;
- no attention to long standing consequences of human activity destroying ecosystem processes and associated living beings;
- economic underestimation of BD and its loss;
- human migration, development of international trade and tourism;
- water, soil and air pollution.
The three main reasons to halt further extinction of species include: - halt further deterioration of ecosystem and biosphere functions (gas composition of the atmosphere, biological re-cycling preservation of soil fertility, etc.); - organisms are important resources used for food, pharmaceuticals, clothes production; - Moral and aesthetic considerations.
The economic and political interest in exploiting BD is understandable. BD is a physical recourse, i.e. wild organisms are valuable for breeding, produce substances for pharmaceuticals, food, perfumery, etc. One of the well-known examples is a product from wild Catharanthus roseus
46 growing on the island of Madagascar, which proved to be very efficient for the treatment of children blood cancer and therefore is highly profitable in economic terms.
Since 1972, once every 10 years the UN holds a conference on environmental problems and development. The most important documents were issued in Rio-de-Janeiro in 1992: - the “Agenda 21” proclaiming the sustainable development concept as an overriding political target and the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD). In 1994 the first activities towards solving the biodiversity problem (extinction crisis) were launched in Russia and in 1995 the CBD was ratified by the State Duma. .
The CBD has 3 main goals: - to protect biodiversity - to grant for continued use of biodiversity without destroying it; - and to share any benefits from genetic diversity equally Today the Convention has been ratified by 192 nation states and the EU. In April 2002, it was decided to significantly decrease the loss of BD by 2010 - globally, regionally and nationally. This goal was confirmed at the World meeting for sustainable development at the “Rio+10” summit in Johannesburg in 2002 and ratified by the UN. In addition, “Ecological Sustainability” was defined as a new development goal in the Millennium Declaration. This goal originally set for 2010 is obligatory for all countries, even the few countries that are not CBD parties.
Unfortunately, since 2002 there has been no progress in fighting further degradation of the biosphere. The final report of the international “Millennium Ecosystem Assessment” (2005) project shows that the loss of natural ecosystems and BD is fast and global. By now, almost all surface ecosystems have been negatively affected as a result of human activity. In those parts of the globe where living conditions are favorable, people use from 20 to 75% of the territory for agriculture or forestry (pic. 27). There are only few natural ecosystems left, mostly deserts, semi-deserts, areas covered with ice and other areas with restricted living conditions for humans.
Fig. 27 Cultivated area, 2000 Reference: Evaluation of ecosystems on millennium
47
Dark are the cultivated systems: territories where no less that 30% of the total area is cultivated
Cultivation of land usually means simplification. Vital components are reduced at all structural levels from genetic diversity to ecosystem and process diversity. The speed of the loss has been steady over the past decades. One indexes used to assess the state of BD is the Live Planet Index for global trends in vertebrate populations. Today, this index includes data on 3600 populations for 1300 species. Between 1970 and 2003 this index declined 30% (pic. 28).
Fig. 28 Live Planet Index between 1970-2000
black – all vertebrates; Red – land-based species; Green – fresh water species; Gray – marine species. Reference: WWF, UNEP Species are nonrenewable, there loss is irreversible. The dissemination of species is getting more homogeneous as a result of the loss of regional species and endemics and the expansion of foreign species that are often invasive. According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), 10- 50% of the well-known plant and animal species are endangered. It is impossible to estimate the loss of insufficiently studied species. It can be suspected that most species are lost without being
48 studied and, thus, are lost unnoticed. Referring to the current period in the history of life on Earth we can speak of the “Sixth mass extinction” http://www.well.com/~davidu/extinction.html ).
The biosphere is destructed in two interacting ways:
- the living membrane of the planet is getting smaller, natural ecosystems become anthropogenic, habitats are being lost and population sizes decline, the overall biomass is reduced;
- natural ecosystems are restricted to an increasingly smaller area, intergroup and species diversity is lost, the living cover is getting simpler and more homogenous.
Human influence is getting more powerful. Experts say it is now above the critical limit that can be sustained by the biosphere. Usage of renewable natural recourses since 1961 to 2001 increased 2.5-fold and today is 25% above the total biological productivity of the planet Earth. The critical limit was surpassed at the end of 1980-s. Today the resources provided by the biosphere are wasted sooner than they can be restored. The socio-economic system is thus unsustainable!
2.2.6 Agrarian biodiversity Agrarian BD provides important ecosystem services like nutrient cycles, restoration of degraded lands, water purification, provision of soil fertility, ecosystem productivity, regulation of pest and diseases. These functions allow for possibilities to increase the productivity of natural ecosystems without stressing them. Different agrarian ecosystems have different resistance to disturbance and anthropogenic impacts. There is a connection between BD preservation and multi- functional small farms and other constituents of low-intensity agriculture. Low-intensity agriculture can create ecological niches, thereby providing habitat for wild plants and animals, and at the same time produce food. On the other hand, BD is particularly important for low-intensity agriculture to a large extend directly relying on ecosystem services rather than external inputs to achieve production targets.
Agriculture can support BD but it is also the leading driver for biodiversity loss due to agrarian intensification. Agrarian BD is also endangered: diversity of domestic breeds and varieties is being lost. Consequently livestock and cultivated plants become more vulnerable. Agrarian BD has two goals: grant sustainable agrarian production (including ecosystem services); and minimize negative agrarian effects. The main goal is sustainable agrarian production.
Agrarian BD is divided into:
- Plant genetic recourses used in agriculture for food production including pasture species, genetic forest recourses;
- Genetic animal recourses used in agriculture for food production including fish genetic recourses if they are part of the agrarian system;
- genetic resources of mushrooms.
- It has to be kept in mind that all domesticated species result from human management of BD for sustainable productivity.
49 Alien species often are a threat for BD. They have been introduced by people for many centuries. This process has recently accelerated due to development of transport systems (global trade) and increased import of exotic species in fish breeding, agriculture, forestry and horticulture. In this context, it is necessary to avoid purposeful introduction of a species without full scale assessment demonstrating that the benefits of an introduction overcome the hazards.
Some introduced species naturalize without causing damage to native species. Others are often competitors for local species for habitat and food as they unravel existing food webs.
The other problem of introductions is related to the assimilation with the native gene pool if identical species from different regions are introduced and the spread of disease. There is also the problem that climate change may cause favorable conditions for alien species as compared to local species.
Recently plowed land in Europe was invaded by the maize rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera . Evidently it came to Yugoslavia in the 1980-ies. By 2001, it extended all over Europe inhabiting an area of 182,000 sq km. This pest was a catastrophe for maize fields in Serbia and Montenegro (the yields loss was up to 70%). Considerable research is undertaken to fight such pests. Therefore, planning of efficient strategies against biological invasions is a world wide priority.
The problem caused for BD by invasive species is a topicv addressed in the CBD, as well as the Ramsar, Bern and Bonn conventions. Within the CBD, the global problem of invasive species has been addressed at the Johannesburg meeting in 2002 and the CBD Parties are now obliged to control exotic species. In Europe, this is stated in the European strategy for exotic invasive species elaborated by the Council of Europe. The existing EU strategy for BD presupposes precautions against invasive alien species.
There are measures for the preservation of BD and ecosystems in rural areas. A strategic goal is to change the existing chemical-technological approach towards an approach more closely following ecological principles. Foremost this change will require:
1. Preservation of parts of natural ecosystems, plant and animal species and ecologically balanced natural complexes.
2. Optimization of the combination of natural and anthropogenic elements in agrarian landscapes; provision of stability of natural ecosystems in ecologically balanced natural complexes based on the formation of ecological islands (stepping stones) and other activities to increase coherence.
3. Support of self-regulatory processes in agrarian ecosystems and maximization of nutrient and matter cycling.
4. More environmental protection and restoration of resourses
5. Preservation and restoration of ecologically balanced natural complexes in agrarian landscapes.
6. Recording of local and regional diversity conditions and economic methods, implementation of different varieties, species and improvement of land complexity.
50 7. Preservation of species diversity and within species diversity – preservation of ecotypes adapted to certain local conditions and forming a part of the regional cultural heritage.
8. Restoration of ecological centers for agriculture and animal husbandry.
9. Control of genetically modified organisms especially in natural ecosystems; establishment of centers for native domesticated plants and animals breeds.
Priority regions for these measures: - regions of intensive agriculture in steppe and forest steppe;
- suburbs of vast urban areas with degraded environment useless for productive agriculture and residential zoning;
- regions of balanced intact natural ecosystems with sustainable natural landscapes.
- The CBD treats agrarian BD as a separate matter. For the first time this problem was considered at the third Conference of the Parties (COP) in Buenos Aires in 1996. The COP asked the Parties to elaborate national strategies, programs and plans for agrarian BD and made relevant recommendations. Later the text was extended and confirmed at the fifth COP in Nairobi in 2000.
The thematic CBD program for agrarian BD includes four elements:
1. Estimation. The need for an assessment of conditions and tendencies of agrarian BD. For efficient analysis it is important to introduce the system of indexes and standardized methods.
2. Flexible management. Introduction of adaptive management approaches, technologies and activities. Understanding the close links between BD and the sustainability of agrarian ecosystems (productivity). Recognizing these interactions helps optimize the BD management in agrarian production.
3. Creation of capacity. Development of partnerships including rural dwellers for sustainable management of agrarian BD.
4. Activity actualization. Increased efficiency in the cooperation with national biodiversity strategies towards supporting and including the preservation and sustainable management of agrarian BD.
The CBD program estimates the conditions and tendencies for change in agrarian BD and their causes, studies local management experience and awareness towards agrarian BD. The program pays attention to the identification and introduction of adaptive management, environmentally friendly technology, policy and prevention. One of the goals is the protection and sustainable use of genetic recourses, providing an important source for future food production and further agrarian development. There are new important technologies such as GURT (Genetic Use of Restriction Technologies ), and associated capacities for influencing agrarian BD, biosafety, farming and economics.
51 The program studies the effect of trade liberalization upon agrarian BD. It provides recommendations for national policy targeted at agrarian BD and according management systems.
In March 2007 the EU has launched the international project The Economics of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity (TEEB) to promote the importance of biodiversity, by illustrating costs associated with losses of BD. TEEB also aims at assembling experts in science, economics and politics for the integration of ecosystem services provided by BD into real politics and economics.
In 2007 the leaders of the G8+5 countries approved this project. The project has been completed with the final report being delivered at the COP in Nagoya in October 2010. TEEB reports are available at: TEEB Interim Report (2008) , TEEB Full Report (2009) , TEEB for Policy Makers Summary (2009) , TEEB Climate Issues Update (2009) .
2.2.7 BD preservation for human survival There are many ways to protect BD. On the level of species there are two main routes: in situ – i.e. within the habitat and ecosystem context; and ex situ –i.e. outside the habitat and ecosystem context. In situ is the main approach. It encompasses legal protection of species and populations regulated hunting and trade for these species, specific programs targeted at the preservation of the most critically endangered species or their re-introduction into the wild nature.
The ex situ strategy for preservation is limited to species kept in zoos, arboretums, aquariums, seed and microorganisms collections.
Red Lists for endangered species have been published for many regions and taxa..
BD protection at the level of species is often difficult and expensive; it is possible only for some species. In addition, to provide for the global biotic regulatory functions vast territories occupied with natural communities and intact ecosystems are needed The most efficient way of BD protection at the ecosystem level is the creation of networks of especially protected natural territories (EPNT). For example, apporx. 15% of the EU territory is protected under the EU Conservation Directives (Habitats Directive and Birds Directive). In Central and Eastern Europe, protected areas cover 9%, in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia the extension of protected areas amounts to 3%.
EPNT status contradicts to at least some forms of land use for other purposes. Inside protected areas, for BD protection it is necessary to improve the management of wild population and their habitats. For this, the following methods are applied:
• Zonation of the territories according to their degree of exploitation; • Making habitat networks (isles and corridors) to connect land areas (patches) with less human stress (e.g. forests) ; • Decrease in fragmentation of BD hubs; • Management of border zones between different landscape elements; • Preservation of natural wetlands; • Management for wild populations and their habitats.
52 Efficient BD protection has been achieved through a number of international agreements. The key document is the CBD (1992). Also important is the Convention for International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) of fauna and flora and the Bern Convention under the hospices of the Council of Europe and establishing a Europe wide network of protected sites (Emerald Network). This includes sites in Russia and a joint program has been launched in 2009, in order to substantially develop the Emerald network in the European part of the Russian Federation and other countries of Eastern Europe.
Humanity must make efforts to stop the continued loss of BD. This may appear hard to achieve, but the more powerful and effective the efforts today, the lower the costs will be in future.
2.3 Ecological problems of Russian rural areas Russian agriculture is depressed. The output index has constantly decreased between 1990 and 1998 and currently still remains below the level of 1990 (pic.29).
Fig. 29 The output index in Russian agriculture, 1990 = 100%
According to the data by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation, agrarian land covers about 220 million ha, 40 million of them are not cultivated. In the late 1980-ies in Russia about 115 million ha was plowed, today this figure is less than 80 million ha. Tilled fields degrade, if they lack attendance and fertilization. Application of gypsum and irrigation have experienced a 10-fold decrease. About one third of the acreage is not fertilized; for the many fields fertilizer quantities applied are 3-4 –fold smaller than they should be. Still, recently harvest of cereals and oily crops has increased but perennial crops and pastures occupy a smaller area.
Soviet agriculture was extensive. Regular schedules included tilling, some cultivations, dragging, leveling prior to sowing, sowing, etc. Power of tractors, tillage depths and plough coverage constantly increased making the soil layer lose and easy to be removed by the wind. Erosion extended over millions of hectares, and the humus content in the best black earth regions decreased from 10-12% to 5-6%. This approach still being implemented in many farms exhausts the soil and subsequently requires more expenses.
In many regions in Russia, the condition of soil and soil biota in agrarian land, vast forest areas and especially on transport, urban and other areas is critical. About 56% of the arable land are at risk from water and wind erosion. Propensity for soil erosional increases from the North to the
53 South; it is highest in the black earth zone and lowest in chestnut soil. The relative area of soil under the risk of erosion and erosion intensity correlate with the terrain: they are minimal for plain lowland, increase on stain hill plains and reach the maximum on slopes in the highlands with a thick joint framework.
In European Russia, soils most vulnerable to water erosion are located in the Mid-Russian and Volga highlands, the Pre-Ural area, the Stavropol highland and the foothills of the Caucasus. In steppe and forest steppe zones erosion resulted in ravines. In steppe and dry steppe zones wind erosion not typical for natural steppe developed.
The southern part of European Russia consists of plains, foothills, and mountains. There are 13 federal subjects belonging to the Southern and North-Caucasus Federal districts. This is a comparatively densely populated area of intensive agriculture. The analysis for soil quality proves that for a long time the arable land in this region has been degrading as a result of human activity and hazardous natural processes. By the beginning of the XXI century, the region became mono functional. Almost all natural landscapes were transformed into agrarian plots. The landscape lost its natural asssets and biodiversity and as a consequence its ecological mechanisms granting regulation of ecological processes, production and purification. The land and its function became fully dependent on people and the inputs they provided. Currently, the agrarian land in these regions makes up 80% (in the Stavropol region it is more than 90%) and tilled area is 50% of all agrarian land (Glushko, Razumov, 2010).
In Western Siberia 9598.8 thousand ha or 22.1% of the available soil has been degraded. Degradation on tilled land has been particularly severe (40.2% of tilled land amounting to almost 7 Million ha). Erosion is due to different factors: 17.76% is water removed soil, 37.40% is wind eroded soil, and 44.54% of the tilled land area has been degraded by the joint influence of wind and water. In the Omsk region 1762.5 thousand ha or 24.6% of the agrarian land have been degraded: 1.62% - fully degraded, 22.98% - semi-degraded, and 75.40% - slightly degraded. Wind eroded soil amounts to 74.5%, water removed soil amounts to 12.1% and joint eroded soil amounts to 14.4%.In the southern eroded area wind erosion is more typical, in the central area – joint wind and water erosion, in the northern area – soil erosion (Reingard, 2009).
The humus content decreases in the South of the Omsk region. Desertification of soil also takes place in the south, especially at the Irtysh ridge and in the steppe zone. Inefficient land management made the soil layer unsustainable and vulnerable to erosion, wind erosion, suffusion, gravity, desertification. Most deteriorated are tilled areas of grain texture composition loosing alphitite at a rate of 40-60% and more, in heavy soil up to 20%. The humus content decreased in light soil up to 3-fold and in heavy soil up to 1.25-fold. The gross storage of humus decreased in light soils from 172.6 to 67.5 t/ha and in heavy soils from 237.5 to 152 t/ha ( Рейнгард , 2009).
Western Siberia is diverse in soil types with their own specific quality and fertility. Not all of them are fertile enough to allow for effective agricultural production. Agrarian research shows a low humus content for 31.2% of the total tilled area of the Western-Siberian region. Projects targeted at clearing hedges and tree rolws oroiginally planted to prevent erosion proved to be really disastrous. This is the result of long-standing wind and water erosion and little application of organic fertilizers. Annual nonrenewable losses of organic substance in the soil amounts to 0.3-0.5 t/ha ( Красницкий , 2008).
54 Western Siberian soils also lack microelements partly because of the absence of the application of micro-fertilizers. Much of the tilled land is badly supplied with movable types of zinc (99%), cobalt (73%), copper (50%), manganese (16%), molybdenum (13%) and only movable barium content is high enough, everywhere (Красницкий , 2008).
Heavy metals are not frequent in the Western-Siberian region. Soil content is not above o,5 MCL for each element (Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Co). The exception is the highly industrialized Kemerovo region (Krasnitskiy, 2008).
The main threats of traditional agriculture to soil diversity and soil biota include:
- chemical technological approach to agriculture, large scale plowing resulting in soil erosion, transformation of natural soils, degradation of soil and impoverishment of soil biota;
- pollution of soil with industrial emission, transport, cattle breeding, civil waste, chemicals, petrol;
- forest clearance resulting in the erosion of soil in mountain and dry areas and in mire formation in the north. Inefficient logging results in destruction of the top humus layer and the soil;
- drainage of mires with inefficient drainage systems results in regional water imbalance, destruction of peat blocks;
- inefficient irrigational systems provoke soil salination and mires;
- loss of river dynamics and associated flooding because of water storage (construction of dams);
- neglect in terms of maintenance and reconstruction of existing irrigation systems;
- in the permafrost regions activities not taking into account ecological concerns (building, surface transport out of its area, petrol pollutions) result in erosion and northern soil destruction;
- land destruction due to building and mining (the area is extending);
- soil intoxication with residues from pesticides
55 3 Possible solutions for the problems of rural territories
3.1 The role of planning and landscape management in the implementation of ecological aims in rural areas For sustainable development of rural areas scientifically based planning and management is necessary. Such planning has to take into account economic targets, satisfaction of social needs, and measures for the improvement of ecological condition and natural landscapes. Peculiarities of land planning and management depend on many parameters, such as state and desired state of economic development, political and administrative regulations, ecological awareness, land conditions, etc.
3.1.1 Territorial planning in big economies Experience of big economies shows that the land management process deals with the following matters:
- Regulation of land property rights;
- Division of land for communities;
- Improvement of land owning and land management with consolidation;
- improvement of landscape ecological sustainability and aesthetic attraction of territories (EU);
- implementation of nature protection, anti-erosion, irrigation, water regulating, and other activities (Germany, Australia, USA, Canada, China, India);
- Economic support of farms with measures facilitating efficient use of land taking into account the quality of land areas (EU);
- Land management support for land rotation and land market (EU, USA, Canada);
- Growth of farms and provision of differentiated mechanism for their support and functioning (EU, USA, Canada, etc.).
In Germany the model for landscape planning is well developed. Landscape planning in Germany started in the XIX. century as a public response to industrialization. In the federal law of 1976, landscape planning was confirmed to be a planning tool for landscape protection, improvement and development. Now landscape planning also has become an important tool for nature protection.
Planning takes place at different administrative levels (federal, state, region community) and becomes increasingly concrete as the process moves to the regional or community level. Planning takes place on the background of territorial characteristics: building intensity, population density and dissemination, soil conditions, water recourses, biodiversity, etc.
(pic. 30 – Plans B-C) Art the regional and at the community level plans for strategic development are being worked out to cover a 10 – 15 year period. As the plans at the regional level are prepared, the lower administrative units – municipalities make suggestions for territorial
56 development and send them to the regions or states, In some areas such as planning of major roads the land sums up proposals and sends them to the federal government to be included in the federal strategic planning. However, e.g. planning for residential zoning is restricted to the local scale (supervision by the region).
Planning targeted at nature and landscape protection attendance must be accomplished within the framework of mostly regional plans. Within the framework municipalities decvise their plans largely independently As a rule, a municipality makes a landscape plan. Some municipalities include a so called green plan for specification of the landscape plan in terms olf landscape and conservation targets..
Landscape planning makes efforts to point out and assess functions and properties of landscapes to allow for sustainable soil, water, and green space protection (recreation), as well as fopr nature conservation (preservation of target habitats, plants and animals). Planning is important as it provides the basis for normal functioning of these diverse elements and their interaction. Recommendations for sustainable ecological use of landscape elements are being worked out inn the planning process (Landschaftsplanung, 1997).
When making plans for development of territories with well developed industry and high population density, in order to achieve nature conservation targets it is necessary to preserve the richest biotopes, and to reserve special corridors between biotopes for species migration. Activities to preserve landscapes and biodiversity are conducted as a joint effort of land managers and owners.
Special attention is paid to landscape design. It is not only about untouched nature but also about cultivated landscape corresponding to protective and aesthetic criteria, i.e. diversity of its elements and beauty.In Germany landscape quality is considered not only as an element of psychological social agent but a source of income for a sustainable agrarian economy. Ecological and agrarian tourism provides extra income for the territories that is why at the stage of planning availability and preservation of these lands is considered. One olf the basic objectives of landscape planning is to point out areas for preservation and development of sites for recreation and tourism. Development of recreational infrastructure is important socially, aesthetically and economically.
With lots of stakeholders affected either by state or by public planners or private investors (what is typical of Germany) forecasting and coordinating of planning is necessary. Taking part in landscape planning the public and the state, regions or municipalitiesface the problem of environmental protection. Landscape planning benefits from strengthening the interaction of environmental protection and social, cultural, economic and other interests motivating planners to follow the objective of regional sustainable development.
An example of active territorial and landscape management is the social program for reconstruction and consolidation of land in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. Baden-Wurttemberg is a well inhabited region with well developed industry and agriculture. Farms prevail that are basedn on a tradition of inheritance to all the heirs (continued splitting of property among the heir). Hence, there is a system of small farms, sometimes detached from each other (pic. 31). So the land cultivation becomes difficult, crop rotation is disturbed, economical efficiency is decreased.
With the consolidation program the owners agree to land exchange. Land is reallocated with the target to create larger plots. New agricultural roads are built, areas for biotopes and tourism are
57 delineated. Such an approach tries to solve the main problems of intensive agriculture: economic improvement and environmental development. Land consolidation programs are expensive. In Germany expanses for land consolidation programs are shared mainly by the land owners, municipalities and the federal states.
To sustain natural biotopes and cultivated landscapes there are special EU regulationse.g. NATURA-2000 and EU co-funded state or national programs, e.g.in Baden-Wurttemberg the MEKA and PLENUM agri-environment programs. These programs pay special attention to the development of natural biotopes and and environmentally friendly management of cultivated landscapes.
In Russia at the beginning of the1990ies new forms of land ownership arose. According to data from 1 st of January 2009, 133 million ha of land belonged to private owners (7.8% of the total land acreage of the country). The citizens own 124 million ha including 107 million ha of land shares. 80% of agrarian land is private. More than 11 million ha became unavailable for farming and about 30 million ha are not used due to different reasons. Today share holding hampers agrarian activity (www.komitet4.km.duma.gov.ru ).
Considering heritage further land division can be expected.
3.1.2. Planning of agrarian territories in Russia
Planning aims at land distribution for territorial improvement and making the strategy for efficient usage of land in Russia [5].
Planning is encouraged by socio- economic programs, land management, civil building, and nature protection documents.
Before the land reform in Russia there was a strict form of land management and land protection at different levels [2].
This system included elaboration of forecasts, programs of land management and protection, schemes of land management, territorial management projects, and projects for special activities.
Land management developed in three directions, i.e. state, municipal and economic [9].
State activities are for land relations, changes in the organizational structure of land management. The state objectives of land management are organization of more complete, knowledge based and therefore efficient land use. State activities are conducted when necessary. The results of state activities are obligatory for implementation for all forms of ownership. State activities are divided into federal and subjective. Land management includes the following activities: study of land, planning and organization of land management and protection, territorial management, farm specific land management.
State activities are locally funded. If they don’t contradict to state land management and legislation they are obligatory for all local governments.
Economic activities are funded by the land owners. They are not obligatory. Individual land management activities are conducted by citizens.
58 Composition of these activities adjusts land management to the objectives of production, recreation, and human necessities. State activities are usually ecologically, economically and politically motivated and, thus, different from economic ones. Only if state land management is supported by municipal and economic ones, best effects are achieved.
With the existing land reforms, land redistribution resulted in the destruction of the existing land management system. Absence of knowledge based land management concepts and minimization of its importance resulted in considerable disadvantages.
Therefore, recent legislation renewed the existing land management system.
Later, the absence of relevant organization and funding for land management, refusal to work out necessary land management documents, and the absence of land management in agrarian areas resulted in unsustainable land management, land degradation, environmental pollution and conomic decline.
Restoration of sustainable land management depends on the development of appropriate land management. Integrated development of rural areas is the main objective of land management and other activities.
Today Russian regions have the right to solve economic and social problems of their territories. One of the rural economic priorities is strategic planning.
Since 2009 in the Russian Federation its President, Government, Ministry of economic development, Ministry of regional development and Ministry of agriculture work out the sustainable system of land management for a sustainable development of rural areas. A long standing system is under elaboration for agrarian land use planning by state institutions and private owners. The system for long standing planning of agrarian land under different forms of ownership for implementation by different governmental bodies is being worked out. This system enables local administrations to plan agrarian territories according to project land management which include legal, economic,and ecological conditions for efficient production and ecological sustainability with sufficient investments, and technological provisions.
The enhanced economic development of rural areas due to inclusion of land assets into active economic cycles needs improved land management and territorial planning systems. The existing legislation considers possibilities for territorial planning and land protection based on the civil building and land management ordinances.
Recently there have been no documents to oblige local authorities to implement strategic planning for territorial development. Since the town planning code was ratified, the authorities are obliged to conduct territorial planning. According to point 9, part 1 of the town planning code “territorial planning must identify the territorial status according to social, economic, ecological and other factors for sustainable territorial, engineering, transport and social development”[3]. System of territorial planning in Russia is illustrated in pic. 30.
ederal law “About introduction of town planning code of Russian Federation” d/d 29.12.2004 №191-FZ states that since the 1 st of January 2010 if there are no documents for territorial planning of subjects of the Russian Federation, municipal authorities cannot withdraw land for industrial and residential zoning. Since the 1st of January 2010 it is prohibited to build without special document
59 for territorial planning. After these control dates the prosecution office can contest any municipal decisions.
In this connection, the scheme for territorial planning is obligatory as it determines the land regional policy. Working out and implementation of this document is funded from different sources.
The schemes for territorial planning of Russian Federation and municipal districts solve the matters of transport, military, development of energy supply, and zoning of federal, regional and local significance. These matters have to be relevant to the land management schemes of the certain level.
Organization of efficient use of agrarian land, water and forest land does not cover all natural objects under protection with civil building regulations and must be planned and implemented according to the land management documents.
This regulation provides up-to-date and technically relevant provisions for territorial planning and land management schemes for different levels. Such an activity must be supported with special documents on municipal bordering and with data on land separation according to the forms of ownership included into land management schemes.
Civil building documents of the low level starting with a general plan must cover urban and rural areas. Efficient land use and protection must be conducted according to land management schemes and projects (pic. 31).
This statement was confirmed in the point 19 of the federal law d/d 18.06.2001 № 78-FZ “About land management”. Land management documents include general Russian land management plan, schemes of the land management of the federal subjects, municipal and other plans, schemes for land usage and protection.
60
Fig. 30 The structure and content of territorial planning and urban planning documentation
61
Fig. 31 Dissemination of planning and organizational matters and land usage and protection between land management and town building documentation [2].
The general scheme for land management in Russia serves for:
- Coordination of territorial and land interests of the Russian Federation and its subjects;
- Estimation of land recourse capacity of the state and its economic integration;
- - improvement of federal and regional systems of land ownership;
- - Knowledge based use of land as a most important recourse.
62 The land management scheme of the Russian Federation must be developed according to the main document, i.e. the general scheme of land management in Russia. It is a long standing planning documentation.
It must be developed for the nearest future of about 15-25 years with a possibility of correction.
Схемы территориального Генеральная схема Федеральная целевая планирования землеустройства программа Российской Федерации в территории Российской использования и охраны различных Федерации земельных
Схемы территориального Схемы землеустройства Целевые программы планирования территорий субъекта использования и охраны субъектов Российской Федерации Российской Федерации земельных и ресурсов субъектов
Схемы территориального Схемы землеустройства Целевые программы планирования муниципальных образований и использования и муниципальных районов других охраны земельных ресурсов административно - муници -
Генеральные планы поселений Проекты территориального (городских округов ) землеустройства
Проекты планировки Проекты внутрихозяйственного территорий землеустройства
Рабочие проекты на Проекты межевания осуществление территорий мероприятий по использованию конкретных земельных участков
Fig. 32 Interaction of town building and land management documentation for territorial planning.
The schemes are for governmental bodies and their management for the information of national importance and elaboration of prior development trends for regional land management.
The main objective of municipal land management is pointing out the most promising trends for use and protection of land recourses for further development of agriculture.
This objective is achieved with the following activities:
63 - making favorable conditions for social and economical improvement in rural areas and adoption of regulated market management;
- organization of complex use of land recourses and supply of various enterprises with the land recourse base necessary for economic development;
- improvement of the land use in agriculture according to the relevant legislation, agrarian ecological land quality, rural towns location, and available infrastructure;
- landscape sustainability, protection of land and other natural recourses.
As it was mentioned above, the elaboration of land management schemes at different levels, addresses the whole complex of land management and protection in Russia and its regions. Still, there is a strong need for solutions to certain problems related to land management and protection. It is possible to work out schemes related to the land identification for individuals disposal, land for special land funds, land differentiation according to existing Russian legislation. Composition, content and detail of the schemes are made in accordance with the problems to be addressed and the current economic and social conditions. Devising such schemes is in accordance with legal requirements
Land management schemes are transformed into projects Land management encompasses three project types: territorial land management, internal enterprise land management.
Territorial land management projects cover a large scale of land management activities for land redistribution, land area provision, creation of new specific objects, border shifting, drefting of plans and maps, etc.
Internal land management projects address activities for efficient land management in agriculture and the territorial organization of production for agrarian enterprises.
Work projects are worked out for the activities to make reliable graphics and accountancy for funding and project management.
Generally, the given scheme of forecasting, planning and simulation is characterized by a complex approach for the development of certain areas considering socio-economic conditions, efficient land use and protection, and sustainable ownership and environmental protection.
Knowledge based land use planning and implementation of the activities are efficient tools for economic and ecological improvements in rural areas. For instance, up-to-date and integrated estimation of land value results in a decrease of non-grounded take of agrarian land. Development of efficient transport infrastructure minimizes transfer costs and prevents environmental pollution. It is also important to plan and put into action the measures for water recourse, and the protection of biotopes and associated flora and fauna.
64 3.2 General ecological activities Many projects of Russian scientists ( Биоразнообразие сельскохозяйственных .., 2003; Агроэкологическая оценка .., 2005) conclude that for the preservation of biodiversity and resistance of soil ecosystems in Russia it is necessary:
- to provide a rational balance of different kinds of lands, to select specially protected parts in the territories of different types of land use (farming, meliorative-farming, cattle breeding, etc); all economic activities and nature protection measures should be strongly differentiated in accordance with regional patterns of soils and landscapes in Russia;
- to create a coordinated state politics for the protection of soils.
- to develop mechanisms for interdepartmental coordination in order to implement the complex strategy of land use and protection;
- to move from a chemical technological concept of agriculture to environmentally sustainable principles and land use systems.
- to create Red books of specifically valuable and rare soils and their biota;
- to organize direct and indirect protection of soils and to create a unified state monitoring system for protected soils. To develop chapters of Land Cadastre of RF and its territorial subjects, encompassing protected soil objects;
- to include criteria of soil protection in the planning of systems of strictly protected nature territories.
- To create special soil reserves, nature reserves, monuments of nature.
Also the main regions and top-priority species for biodiversity protection are selected. There are rare and endangered species, planetous, operated, endemic species, rare and endangered breeds of domestic animals and cultivars. Rare and endangered breeds of domestic animals and cultivars are the top-priority objects for protection because of:
- any form of living organisms modified by humans is a carrier of unique genetic information to be used in agriculture, including yet unknown merits that may become useful in the future;
- the variety of breeds and cultivars is a necessary condition for the development of ecologically balanced agriculture in RF, characterized by great diversity of natural and socio-economical conditions. This requires breeding possibilities to respond quickly to changes of ecological (including climate changes), economical and social situations and, therefore agro-biodiversity is the necessary condition of sustainable development of rural areas and providing for food safety
- local breeds and cultivars are inherent elements of traditional land use culture. They are a “living cultural heritage”.
Priority and critically endangered ecosystems in Russia include;
65 - forest-steppe, steppe and semidesert ecosystems;
- ecosystems of the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea;
- lowland ecosystems demanding particular care;
Forest-steppe, steppe and semidesert ecosystems in Russia to the fullest extent have been developed by humans. Remnants have been preserved only in the form of separated, isolated lots, many of which have lost their regenerative capability. For the preservation of these ecosystems in the territories of Russia it is necessary to protect all remaining natural zones, to resume measures for their rehabilitation and to develop environmentally safe agriculture in the regions concerned.
Global changes of natural habitat lead to the need for reorganization of current management systems, reexamination of many social paradigms and values of social evolution. It is necessary to define new priorities in science and technology, to develop the mechanism of risk management and minimization in the socio-economic sphere, to optimize operation procedures in innovative and socio- economic technologies under the conditions of rapid environmental change. Human and social adaptability to environmental change is linked to the specific time period of generation change (20-25 years). Serious changes of social paradigms and according development of society, generally is possible during 3-4 generations (50-80 years).
Due to the afore said the training of administrative and management staff of agriculture in the Tempus-RUDECO project is very important and valuable. The main aim is to shape modern ecological concept about agricultural development.
3.3 Ecologization of arable farming For the stabilization and development of rural territories it is essentially to apply environmentally sound technologies of plant industry, developed with a glace to zone. It is necessary to solve ecological problems in an integrated way. It is important to develop the system of arable farming for each region based on natural settings and possibilities of agricultural production producers.
3.3.1 Restoration (supporting) of soil fertility Erosion and dehumification control
Region specific complexes of complementary agronomic forest, and hydrotechnical improvement has been developed for erosion control. Agronomic measures (cultivation, seeding across slopes, shallow tillage rotated after 2-3 years with usual tillage, plain sectail and nonmoldboard tillage, spring sweep cultivation of winter tillage, paraplowing, cultivation of winter wheat and undersowing with grass providing for vegetation cover) promotes the regulation of runoff after snow melt and rain water and greatly reduces soil loss.
Sweep cultivation with sweep blade plow (soil-protecting technology of tillage) is applied in the regions of widespread wind erosion that reduces thindown and promotes more concentration of soil moisture. The importance of soil-protecting crop rotation and culture seeding between brush of tall-stalked plants is extremely important in all regions vulnerable to erosion. It is useful to introduce meadow grass rotation, correct crop rotation, slicing of fields perpendicularly to wind
66 direction, strip cropping and other methods. Among forest improvement measures the most effective are protective forest strips (fields protected by forest belts). As a whole it will allow minimizing soil disturbance and providing rational land use, and subsequently increased yields.
In order to minimize water erosion benching is applied, drainage terrace and catch-water drains, inclined drop structures are constructed. Antierosion organizational measures are usually developed at land regulation.
Rational management methods of for erosion control can become more effective if consciously applied by farmers. This has been shown by the example of wind erosion control in the USA (Nordstrom, Hotta, 2004).
There is a big variety of agro-ecological zones and territories in terms of density of population and intensity of agriculture in Russia. According to estzimates provided by the Ministry of griculture, intensive agriculture is most developed in the southern regions of RF and the Volga region. Extensive or traditional production dominates in most other parts of the Russian territory. (рис .33).
Fig. 33 Types of rural areas in Russia (2010)
One of the ways for the preservation of biodiversity and soil ecosystems persistence is a transfer from the chemical-technological concept of agriculture to ecologically balanced principles and land use systems. Moreover, adapted farming systems should be developed for each soil- climatic zone. The aim is to find more beneficial combinations between the intensification of arable farming and the preservation of ecological integrity and environmental cleanness in agrarian landscapes.
The low level of fertilization, which doesn’t exceed the nutrient removal by plants can reduce the disturbance of soil and help prevent starting erosion. If hundreds of kilograms of mineral fertilizer per hectare have been applied in countries of Western Europe for years, then mainly due to
67 economic reasons in Western Siberia and other zones of extensive or traditional agriculture only several dozens of kilograms of fertilizers have been introduced into the soil, or the soil has not been fertilized at all. As a result soil erosion progresses in many countries. For slowing erosion it is also necessary to introduce environmentally sound doses of fertilizer, matched to the characteristics of soil-climatic zones and technologies of soil cultivation.
One cause for the continued progression of erosion is the widely taught system of frequent tillage applied in the context of intensive arable farming. Apart from the direct ecological backlash, frequent tillage causes a decrease of biodiversity in the soil microflora and fauna (Stoate et al., 2001;Geiger F. et al., 2010). The advanced method of erosion reduction and recovery of soil fertility requires a minimization of tillage. Worldwide, no-till is applied to 95millions hectares, which corresponds to only 7% of farmed fields (Lal et al., 2007). Before recommending further increase of application it is necessary to take into account not only the upsides of this technology (decrease of evaporation and soil erosion, increasing of economical and energy expedience), but also the downsides (increased need for use of herbicides and other chemicals). No tillage is applied in Germany in regions with light soils, liable to water and wind erosion and also along the water conservation zones. Such technology is applied in USA in regions subjected to deflation (Nordstrom, Hotta, 2004).
Soil compaction control
The detrimental effect of soil compaction can be expressed by the intensification of the drainage of fertilizer elements (Lipiec, Stpniewski, 1995). It is especially dangerous in the Central Black Earth Regions in Russia, where the water erosion has essentialy crippled. Furthermore, the intensification of soil degradation and gasiform losses of nutrients are resulting from soil comapction. The probability of soil compaction increases at low humus content and high soil humidity (Hamza, Anderson, 1999).
Many agronomic measures, targeted at decreaseing the negative effect caused by heavy equipment on soils have been developed. These include:
- working at optimal humidity;
- combination of operations in order to decrease the number of heavy machinery running across fields;
- development of equipment, e.g. soil pressure decrease through increase of contact area of wheels with the soil;
- soil cultivation and promotion of humus content, promotion of organic substance by retention of plant residues;
- remediation of soil compaction by subsoiling;
- targeted crop rotations, including plants with deep, strong roots etc. ( Агроэкология , 2000; Hamza, Anderson, 2005).
There is a tendency to replace machinery with more efficient models in Russia. With provides opportunities for demands not only targeted at productivity but also at the possibility to use machinery for plowing in a more environmentally friendly way. Cúrrently, preference is given
68 to machinery allowing simultaneously for tillage and seeding, and, thus, allowing for a reduced number of machinery runs across fields. Within one run the following operations are accomplished: presowing tillage, mineral fertilizing, seeding-down and rolling down. Due to the great sowing width of such multi-task machiniery it is necessary to use more powerful tractors. The change from low-powered full-track targets to rolling targets (such as “Kirovets”) has lead to soil compaction along the wheel tracks. There is a long-felt need for the tractors’ industry in Russia to provide more wide and coupled wheels. Something already in common practice outside Russia. As the pressure on soil decreases, soil compaction also decreases.
3.3.2 Control of soil and water contamination by fertilizers The main source of nutrient loads in rural areas are cultivated lands, cattle-breeding facilities, warehouses of fertilizers, rural settlements and areas of garden partnerships. In addition natural cover crops and atmospheric deposition contribute to nutrient loads. These sources can be grouped into diffuse sources or areal sources and point sources (sources concentrated within a confined space). Eroded soils, which in Russia exceedhalf of the cultivated area (56%), are the most important source of biogenic matters supply into water bodies. The additional transfer of biogenic nutrients can be dealt with by traditional agronomic methods. For example, an autumn soil preparation for spring or tilled crops instead of a spring soil preparation leads to the reduction of biogenic matter removal, because surface run-off decreases. However, autumn plowing disrupts the resistance of the soil cover which prevents erosion and promotes the removal of biogenic matterstogether with eroded materials.
Intensive arable farming practices introduce nitrogen fertilizers into the soil (as much as 170 kg/ha) Liquid manure is also applied as fertilizer. If too much fertilizer is applied, harmful nitrates accumulate in the soil and in unconfined waters. In the EU t here is a regulation of number of animal stock in each farm in order to reduce the cattle-breeding load (manure) on the environment It is forbidden to introduce fertilizers in winter, on snow and in water conservation zones.
There is an increase of organic matter removal if high doses of fertilizers are applied over a long time and accumulate in the top-soil. The same happens if fertilizer are spread on frozen soil especially in spring on snow slush. Nutrient pollution also increases with erosion. For example, all rivers and lakes are eutrophicated in the Nonchernozem zone of RF ( Агроэкология , 2005) due to erosion damage of soils.
Forest vegetation has significant influence on nutrient removal. For example, forest belts 10 metres wide alsng streams and surface water bodies take up 32% of the phosphorous, woody belts of 20 meters width reduce the nitrogen content in the run-off by 25-40% as compared to run-off without tree buffers. Soft wood coniferous belts are twofold more effective than hardwood belts. Also other agricultural lands influence the movement of organic materials. or example seeded grassland 500 meters wide reduces the concentration of soluble phosphorous 28-fold in the run -off passing through the grassland. Thus, the more surface waters come in contact with nontilled lands, the less nutrients and organic substances are remove into into surface waters (Agrarian Ecology, 2005).
Special programs for the development of rural areas have been introduced in the EU since 1970; special steps have been taken to decrease water pollution. The agro-environment program
69 MEKA is specific for the German State of Baden-Wurttemberg (Germany) (Annex- МЕКА ). It compensates farmers for refraining from maximizing production in order to achieve environmental quality targets. Farmers participate in the program consciously and on a voluntary basis. Easy to control measures promoting the ecological development of rural areas have been developed for farmers. The MEKA includes following measures:
- compensation for decrease of fertilizers and pesticide doses;
- compensation for decrease of land use intensification by means of diversification of crop rotations, the low intensity use of traditional grasslands and pastures, and later haying;
- decrease of cattle-breeding load on landscapes through limitation of livestock densities agro- biodiversity support through native animal husbandry (old breeds), maintenance of traditional orchards, complementary seeding of flowers along field margins;
- use (grazing or mowing) of steep lands not suitable for harvest with standard machinery etc.
Farmers implementing such environmentally sound measures will face reduced profits or increased direct cost. Therefore, farmers are compensated by economically viable additional payments (premiums) to compensate for financial loss or additional effort. Agri-environment policies have positive effects on the environmental situation in rural areas, and at the same time provide an additional source of income for farmers.
Optimization of fertilization in crop production in Russia
Fertilizer application in any zone should be scientific. Heavy fertilizing is applied in Western Europe that leads to soil pollution. At the same time fertilization in Russia often is so low and does not even provide for restoring of soil fertility in most of the territories with extensive and traditional agriculture. It is necessary to increase the volume of fertilizers, first of all organics, especially in the northern regions: animal dung, composted peat, chaff, and green manure. At breaking down of organics mineral compounds come up – nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium. In our experiments (1995-2004) at wheat plantings, after complete fallow the content of nitrate nitrogen in the top-soil was 13,5 mg/kg, but in green-manured fallows it amounted to 14,4 mg/kg. Even after such operations the provision of nitrate nitrogen was still low. The content of nitrate nitrogen in the second-third culture was – 7,8-11,2 mg/kg. This illustrates the necessity of increased fertilizer doses for reasonable yields.
According to V.I. Kiryushkin it is necessary to expand the application of intensification options to an ecologically reasonable level in order to escape the contradiction to extract more nutrients than are replenished.
Application of chemicals under conditions of imperfective farming technologies leads to environmental pollution. Some problems can be solved through the optimization of fertilizers norms according to the needs of the plants, NPK content in soil including culture importance in crop rotations, terms of seeding, weather conditions suitable for application, equipment etc. According fertilizer programs should be realized for every soil-climatic zone.
It is recommended to apply fertilizers into soil for high effectiveness of small fertilizer doses. Nowadays it is the usual practice to introduce ammophos during seeding of summer wheat as
70 the first crop after complete fallow (for example, 20-30 kg of active material of phosphorous on 1 hectare). It will provide an impetus to fuller usage of nitrate nitrogen accumulated during fallowing. Corresponding yield increase will lead to growth of fids of roots, crop-residues and chaff. The volume of organic substance will increase during crop rotation. Minimum dozes of nitrogenous fertilizers (N 20-30) application will lead to the same effects at seeding of the second-third culture after fallowing.
Possibilities of fertilizers application increases while moving to the north and increased moisture saturation of soil and plants. Possibilities of green manure use increases except at those sites that have been pointed out for the steppe zone. However it is necessary to remember that nitrogen fixation will be effective only under the condition of good development of legumes. So, it is recommended to create such conditions purposefully, even including bacterial fertilizer application, which has vanished as a standard agricultural practice.
3.3.3 Pesticide pollution control Development of arable farming systems
Ever since chemical plant protection has been developed it has been known that overuse leads to negative outcomes. For the first time negative outcomes were recorded for insecticides and acaricides, later for herbicides and fungicides (Plant protection, 2003). In 1965 there was a report of the USA Expert President Council “To reconstruct the environmental quality”, where the following factors were listed as negative impacts from chemical plant protection:
- disturbance of natural mechanisms of regulation in agrarian and neighbouring ecosystems;
- negative influence on wildlife species
- soil, surface and ground water pollution;
- pesticide accumulation in the foodchain and possible residues in food-stuff;
- development of resistance to different types of pesticides forms by hazardous organisms; (President`s Science, 1965).
The most effective measure to reduce loads on the environment is to decreasing pesticide application. It has already decreased from 3,09 to 1,79 kg d.v./hectare farmland in Germany in the period of 1988-1992 later the indicator fluctuated between 1,54- and 1,94 kg d.v./h farmlands (Plant protection, 2003). These indicators are much higher in Belgium, Holland, France and Italy. In Russia pesticide doses applied are less, but it is still recommended to further decrease their application for a better environmental situation. The following measures for the improvement of the environmental situation in the EU are recommended to farmers, who get additional payments for applying such measures:
- use of pesticides that are not inclined to leaking into water bodies;
- prohibition or limitation of the use of plant-protecting agents ground water protection zones near wells;
71 - limitation of maximum amount of pesticide use, in relation to frequency and timing of application;
- it is important to pay special attention to production of new chemicals with a low toxic level (minimize side effects).
A major part of pesticides (herbicides) is used for plant protection against weeds.
There are two kinds of measures in weed control: preventive actions and direct control. There is a statutory quarantine against weeds. However many weeds have broken natural barriers. Invasive weeds have appeared in Western Siberia, such as cut-leaved nightshade, Russian centaury and some species of field dodder.
Preventive control in the form of slanting etc. is not always realized. Little attention is paid to valid storing of animal dung, which leads to weed propagation near cattle-breeding farms and settlements. Also little attention is paid to blending. As a result, seeds of some weeds are transfered through the digestive system of life-stock maintaining germinating ability and compounding the problem of animal dung quality. Methods of decreasing the ecological load of cattle-breeding on the environment are described in Module 5.
Preventive non-chemical control of weeds in the context of crop rotations provides unfavorable conditions for individual groups of weeds. For example, the introduction of winter crops in crop rotations creates unfavorable conditions for spring weeds, which prevail in the Siberian region. Certainly, the possibility of including winter crops in the crop rotation is by far better under the conditions of the Stavropol and Krasnodar territories. Decrease of weed infestation on crops can occur with area increase of perennial and annual grasses. Liquidation of some weeds is real a real win as it allows for decreases in pesticide load on tilled farmland as a whole.
Non-chemical control also takes effect through optimal norms of seeding and seeding periods. For example, weed control of such biological groups as early spring weeds should be fostered by using of periods of seeding after the massive sprouting of the weeds. Even for the control of slow growing spring weeds it is possible to use annual seeding of annual grasses in the summer. Preferred time for legume-grass mixtures is June, for spring rape, bird rape and oil raddish it is July. Usually, an interval of optimal sowing norms is recommended for different crops in zonal recommendations.
Different from southern regions of Russia, there is a reduction of the possibilities for weeds removal because of short conversion time – spring and autumn - in Western Siberia. In northern regions with favorable moisture regimes, more possibilities of herbicid load decrease result from the wide use of annual and perennial grasses and moldboard soil tillage.
Complete fallowing should be mentioned in the light of ecologization of arable farming. Often the attention is directed to the upsides of complete fallowing. , This ignores the increase of vulnerability to erosion, the reduction of organic matter in the soil, excessive humus mineralization, nitrate losses, introduction of water soluble salts in the top-soil etc. In addition, fallowing requires herbicides application for weed suppression. The use of herbicides in complete fallows often times decreases a direct contact of chemicals with cultivated plants. Nowadays it is practically impossible to reckon on fair yields of basic crops without direct control of weeds, especially perennials.
72 It is necessary to find ways to minimize environmental harm caused by tillage, if it is to be used to cut pressures from weeds It is possible to decrease doses of herbicides and to reach optimum results if spraying is applied during optimal periods. Chemical industry has made a substantial contribution in decreasing the load of herbicides in agrocoenosis. For example, application of herbicides of the Sulfonylurea group has decreased to milliliters per hectare contrary to 2,5L/ha of amine salt 2,4-D on conditions of simultaneous decreasing of LD 50 indicators.
Also it is necessary to use high-efficiency spraying devices. It is recommended to spray at night when herbicide evaporation into the atmosphere is minimal. Techniques with satellite navigation support such opportunities.
There is a tendency in the EU towards organic arable farming, providing complete rejection of chemical fertilizers and protection tools (Module 5). However acceptable cropping without fertilizers and minimal application of chemical protection tools is problematic in many dry regions with frostless seasons. That’s why it is difficult to generalize about large-scale ecologically clean production. High crop yields can be obtained by adopting of intensive technologies, providing optimal levels of mineral nutrients and protection against weeds, diseases. That’s why it is necessary to aim efforts at minimization of environmental hazards. One solution is integrated plant protection, including agrotechnical and chemical weed control.
Any recommendations towards agricultural practices should be adapted to economic, edaphic-climatic, ecological and other conditions of rural areas reflecting the great variety of Russian regions.
3.3.4 Perspectives of ecologization of arable farming by the example of Western Siberia Western Siberia is characterized by a variety of natural and climatic zones and different degrees of development in rural areas. The design of device to improve the ecological situation in rural areas can be illustrated by its example. There is the dry steppe zone, the forest-steppe zone with more favorable precipitation level, the subtaiga and the taiga zones in Western Siberia.
The global change of natural biogeocoenosis has lead to a wide range of backlashes. First of all, grass cover was disturbed, that has lead to water induced landslides, and more extreme air and heat conditions. Conditions for soil biota were considerably changed. Humus content in the soil has greatly decreased in the past few decades; especially it became noticeable after tilling of wild land. Humus content was stabilized and its losses were reduced based on the fact that stronger heads were kept in soil. However, applying moldboard plowing on vast areas has created favorable conditions for wind erosion. Nowadays, wind erosion is a basic cause of humus loss, in spite of the application of subsurface tillage systems to most of the area.
There is a predominance of grain fallow rotation with maximal saturation of spring wheat in the majority of farming operations in the steppe zone. The economic margins for changes are still minimal. Thus, what could be undertaken in the coming years?
First of all, lots with solonetz and saline soils should be spared from plowing After seeding with grasses the cover will function as soil level protection against wind erosion and provide for scanty pasture forage.
73 Secondly, it is necessary to adhere to a principle of tillage minimization. Nowadays, no-till farming is becoming popular. The most confident follower of this movement is professor V. Dvurchenskiy (Basic agrarian-technological regulations, 2008), professor T King of Saskatun Univesity (Canada) supports him (Seminar in crop cultivation. – Omsk, 2010).
Thirdly, it is impossible to stop processes of soil and landscape degradation without application of fertilizers, ameliorants, and pesticides (Kiryushin, 1996).
Levels of wind erosion have decreased after massive introduction of the no-till farming according to the method of A.I. Baraev in the arid zone of Western Siberia ( Почвозащитное земледелие , 1975). Professors of the Siberian Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture have developed soil-protecting resource-conserving techniques for cultivation in the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia (Kholmov, Yushkevich, 2006). However, during the last years some measures were stopped due to the recommended system of arable farming. First of all, water-storage measures were kept to a minimum.
It must follow from the positive trend that it is necessary to mention increasing volumes of prilling and chaff dispersion on farmlands that decreases evaporation. However, such ecologically helpful measures do not provide for increased crop yields because of deficiencies of mineral nitrogen in the soil. As a result, microorganisms, driving chaff decay, require a part of the nitrogen for their activity. There is a necessity to at least introduce of 10 kg of nitrogen per 1 ton o chaff and to supplement phosphorous under the first crop after fallow. . In our view, such application won’t create ecological problems Usually a major part of the nitrogen accumulates in the soil during the year of fallowing; this nitrogen is partially lost (water logging). Creation of a favorable N:P balance allows for better storing this additional nitrogen in yield. Furthermore, more powerful development of spring wheat intensifies its competitive ability in weed control and increases chaff biomass.
The proposed measures of ecological development are insufficient for the steppe zone. In the steppe zone soil protection against erosion requires suitable soil-protecting crop rotations with strip-cropping of perennial grasses.
In such crop rotation half of any field is stocked with perennial grasses that provides soil protection against erosion and allows for specific diversity of the fauna on the field. Naturally implementation of such systems leads to a major change of tilled farmland by greatly decreasing the areas stocked with cereal crops, but there is a real possibility to develop food potential of animal industry and increasing of its part in a more balanced production system.
It should be recognized that the possibilities of selecting suitable perennial grasses are limited. The most dependable drought resistant perennial is wheat grass (crested wheatgrass). Awnless brome ( Bromus inermis) can be used as an additional. It is a good idea to increase biodiversity by legume grasses: medick and holy clover. At the same time holy clover can support the establishment of associated grass swards in the first 2-3 years. Single-crop sowing of medick is also a possibility, but with a specific purpose – obtaining seed grains. Diversification of crops will increase ecological resistanance and resilience of agrocoenosis and biodiversity.
Different forages are required for developing animal industryin the steppe zone. These are chaff, ensilage, herbage and root crops. Cultivation of such cultures is possible on territories of cattle-breeding farms, as far as the transport of large quantities of biomass for forage is
74 economically feasible due to limited distances to be covered. The possibilities for biodiversity increase are higher in appropriately managing crop rotations on farms. Suitable crop rotations include silage crops, first of all maize, annual and perennial grasses, most of all legume-grass mixtures, root crops and tuber crops. In such a system the possibilities for organic fertilizer application are considerably higher. All of this increases possibilities for environmental protection in rural areas.
Forest-steppe zone. There is a soil water regime better suited for production in this zone. But differences of water provision for plants are very large in connection with the heat regime in this zone.
Cereal-fallow crop rotations are typical for the forest-steppe zone. But possibilities of partial replacement of complete fallows to other kinds of use are greatly higher. First of all, green fallows can be used more effectively ( Рендов , 2008). It is important to find areas where green fallows can provide a maximum effect. First of all these are meadow chernozem soils, where optimal conditions of water supply for green manure cropsare created due to groundwater occurrence (3-6 meters from the surface). There are large areas of such soils even in the southern forest-steppe zone.
There are some options with regards to the selection of green manure crops. It is more reasonable to use Melilot. Its advantages: this is a legume, so additional nitrogen fixation is possible due to the symbiosis with nodule root bacteria. Melilot as a biennial plant can interplant under a forecrop. Melilot plants transfer gypsum-containing compounds into the top-soil by means of their extensive main root system and lead to self-development of solonetz soils. Yielding capacity of green mass amounts to 30 and more tons per hectare, but it is 1.5-2 times lager if stubbles and root mass are included. Another advantage of Melilot is that green manure mass incorporation into the soil can be applied in the second decade of June. This allows to address weed problems by agronomical measures without increase of pesticide load on soil between the last period and the winter.
According to economic conditions it is possible to use spring rape as a green manure crop, but upon the condition of summer-planting (until 30th July) and green manure incorporation at the beginning of September. It is possible to replace spring rape with bird rape or oil radish (Kazantsev, 2001). Using of pea is another possibility for green manuring (Motorin, 1996). Using of sunflower as a green manure plant is effective for the solonetz forest-steppe (Havar, 1997).
Our researches testifies to the fact that the main proportion of green manure mass goes into the formation of mineral nutrition and the minority of green manure mass goes into the formation of labile organic substances. However, availability of mineral nutritients can approximately be timed to the period of their consumption by plants.
There is a possibility for a wider use of seeded fallows in the conditions of the forest- steppe zone as compared with the steppe zone. Seeded fallows can be established in the southern parts on meadow chernozem soils and in the northern parts on any soils. Seeded fallows essentially expend biodiversity. It is possible to create a fuller green forage chain using different fallow-grown crops. It’s a good idea to have seeds of winter cereals in spring and in the beginning of summer. According to weather conditions of spring and winter (II- III decades of May) and winter triticale (III decade of May – I decade of June) can provide the first fresh yield Goat’s-rue and Melilot can
75 provide another fresh yield (I –II decades of June). It is important to begin harvesting in the bud stage – the beginning of blooming.
Fallow seeding grass mixtures of pea and oat (traditional for the region) also warrants attention. Furthermore, there is a realistic possibility to expand time of seeding from the end of April till July. Accordingly, time of fresh yield harvesting can be expanded, too.
For the last years spring rape ranks in acreage structure with cattle-breeding. It provides animals with high-protein silage during a critical period in autumn critical and can still be harvested up to aboveground part freezing. And the nutritive value and palatability of spring rape doesn’t suffer from aboveground partial freezing.
The hay requirement increases according to the development of cattle-breeding in the forest- steppe zone. Perennial grasses are sufficiently various. Awnless brome and medick (ideally their mixtures) are traditional for such zones and provide for a more favorable use of mineral elements and accumulation of organic substances in the soil. According to the development of perennial grasseslegumes can also be seeded (holy clover, melilot and clover).
A partial replacement of spring wheat with cereal legume crops is imperative for a desired increase in biodiversity Efforts of expanding soybean acreages are being made, but this cropper is still problematic. Increasing pea acreage may be a better possibility especially after “leafless” varieties have been introduced in the national registry of local plant breeding. This simplification of harvesting such varieties (straight-cutting) has caught the interest of manufacturers.
Another direction of biodiversity increase is the growing trend towards oil-plants, especially sunflower, spring rape, camelina and flax.
Natural change of tilled farmland has happened in the forest-steppe zone especially in the central solonetz part. Solonetzic and other low mellow soils have been eroded from tilled lands. There are good reasons to transfoprm such areas into grasslands in spite of the low associated production. However, the majority of solonetz, solodized and other soils are still being tilled. That’s why further ecologization of arable farming in such zone should be organized with up to date land development. This includes first of all the application of gypsum on solonetz soil. Only in such situation we can expect an increase of crop capacity and environmental improvement in rural areas.
Subtaiga and taiga zones . Sopil moisture is favorable every year and in some years even excessive in these zones. But there are problems with sufficient heat, provision of mineral elements, and the nature of the soil (soil solution reaction), etc.
Skewed pricing policies have led to seeds of spring wheat occupying a major part of the tilled farmland. However, it is clear that it is hard to get grain of high quality from these farmlands.
It is necessary to change the system of arable farming due to need for a diversification of agriculture and the perspectives for the development of cattle-breeding in this zone. First of all, it is necessary to decrease the importance of complete fallows, because there is less need for a water accumulator under conditions of good moistening.
Secondly, it is necessary to expand crop diversity. Countries of Western Europe almost duplicated crop yielding crop by means of large-scale implementation of clover into in crop
76 rotations. Nowadays, clover is fully absent in the majority of farming systems in Siberia. Meadow clover in virtu of its biological properties allows its introducing in crop rotations. It is better to seedmeadow clover mixed with grasses, for example with meadow catmint, that provides good hay yields during 2 years and allows for the accumulation of organic substances in the soil. Low humus content in the soil is specific for the considered zone and any measure is considered with a perspective for possibilities of increasing humus content . However many soils of the zone are characterized by extremely high acidity of the soil solution, that’s why it is necessary to increase the pH The absence of compounds increasing pH for the last years has led to increase of acidified lands and the general level of their acidity (Krasnitskiy, 1999). Increasing of annual and perennial grasses, cereal-legumes and soil forming crops in the structure of tilled farmlands has lead to a restoration of the production of fibre-flax.
Thirdly, it is necessary to increase fertilization in the subtaiga and taiga zones. If animal dung production drastically decreases due to decrease of cattle stock, then peat stock will increase. Low content of mineral elements, especially nitrogen is specific for a majority of soils in this zone. That’s why more fertilizer is needed in the subtaiga and taiga zones.
3.4 Biological plant protection as the method to reduce pesticides effect
3.4.1 Pesticides effect on ecological situation in agrocoenosis
Pesticides (latin. pestis − pest and caedo − killing) (toxic chemicals) − agrochemicals for weedage control (herbicides), pest control (disinfectants, acaricides, zoocid etc.), diseases control (fungicides, bacteriocide etc.) of agricultural plants, trees, shrubbery, grain etc. Defoliants, desiccants, pheromones, plant hormones are included in the pesticide group. There is a pollution of environment at the systematic application of acutely toxic pesticides that leads to destroying of useful insect, birds, fish, animals and human toxication.
For a long time plant protection was being followed by increasing of values of pesticides application. In fact, chemical pesticides are toxical poisons, which are classified as different classes of chemical compounds: nonorganic and organic (chlor-organic compounds, derivative of carbamino acid, dithiocarbamic acid, phtalic acid; organphosphorous compounds: nitrophenol, carbonhydrates; hetero-ring compounds: sulphonamide derivants, aniline derivants, benzimidazol derivants, sulphourea derivants, carboxamide derivants etc.). Annually hundreds of pesticides were made and most of them could kill or wax microorganisms, pest, and undesirable effect on animals and people. For example, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane consisted of stable molecules, which were kept toxic for many years.
In 1962 Rachel Karson published the book “Silent spring”, where he described dangers of environmental pollution by poisonous chemicals and gave different examples of birds and animals death as a result of pesticides, which interacted through food web. Pesticides caused malignant diseases of laboratory animals and mutations of microorganisms.
Now effective pesticide stock is increasing. With the appearance of organic synthesis products and their implementation into practice (synthetical pyrethroids) there was the impression that it is possible to solve all problems of plant protection in short periods only with chemical
77 control. However worrying lights about negative effects of unreasonably wide pesticide applying has become to accumulate:
1. environmental pollution;
2. pesticide magnification in food;
3. comparatively fast poisons perseverance development of pest;
4. suppression of natural regulating mechanisms in biocenosis by pesticides. It has led to mass reproduction of hazardous organisms, which population had not reached economically meaningful level.
The last third of XIX and the beginning of XX centuries are famous for looking for ways of environmental conservation. The solution of this problem is described as the most important condition of sustainable development (Module 1).
3.4.2 Biological method of pest and phytopathogens control – top-priority route forward, guaranteeing environmental stability Nowdays science and practice of plant protection more and more turn to non-chemical methods. The 15 th International Congress of Plant Protection was arranged (Pekin 2004) defined the biological method of pest control as top-priority route forward.
Biological method of plant protection practically doesn’t have an alternative in forest management, protected ground, resort, water conservation districts, at getting of infant and dietetic nutrition. For the last years the part of biological method in crop growing at cereal farming is increasing. Biological preparations’ applying promotes mechanisms of ecologically safe plant protection. Bioagents provide an active participation of other natural population regulations in phytophage, pest and weedage suppression (Pavlyushin, 1998; Ogarkov, 2000; Shternshis, 2002; Novozhilov, 2003).
The basic direction of biological method was using of natural enemies (pests, antagonists, herbyfages) for plant protection. There are new upcoming trends of biological methods of plant protection (that was named as “biological plant protection” by Rules of International organization of biological control (IOBC), which was published in 1971) due to the last breakthrough in the sphere of physiology, ecology, biological chemistry and microbiology. According to this document “biological method” is using of living organisms or their waste products for prevention of damage by living organisms.
3.4.3 Using of natural regulators of phytophage and phytopathogene population for hardening of agroecosystems by biodiversity preservation Main conditions of development of civilization were recognized the prevention of negative changes of global climate and preservation of biological diversity on the Earth (United Nations conference on environment and development. Rio de Janeiro, 1992, Part 1).
According to “Conception of transition to sustainable development in RF”, providing incremental recovery of ecosystems to stable level, phytosanitary enhancement of agroecosystems is necessary (Pic. 34).
78
Fig. 34 . The scheme of phytosanitary optimization of agroecosystems (V.A. Pavlyushin, 1998)
Biocenotic management of phytosanitary processes in agroecosystems considers maximal use of natural mechanisms of pests development control, where entomophage and microorganisms are the main (microbes-antagonists, fungi-producers of biologically active substances).
According to the scheme of phytosanitary optimization of agroecosystems the key place is for resistant varieties. Their creation was described in Part 3. There are always phytopathogenes and their natural enemies: microorganisms-antagonists and hyperparasites; phytophages of agricultural plants and insects, feeding of them, enthomopathogenes, causing pathological process in pest organisms and results in dead of them. Weedage have their own natural enemies: phytopathogenes, causing weedage diseases and phytophages feeding of them. So, there is a big volume of kinds of different organisms, which always interacts. Factors, leading to stabilization of biocenotic interaction and factors, destabilizing them are shown in the scheme.
There are 8000 known types of organisms, effecting on biocenotic regulation, part of them is included in the basis of microbiological plant protection and comes up to phytosanitary
79 optimization of agroecosystems. By 1980 there were basic scientific directions of microbiological plant protection:
- using of biological preparations against pests, mites, rodents;
- suppression of anticrop agents by antibiotics, biological preparations on the basis of microbes-antagonists, bacteriophages and hyperparasites, by virus vaccinization and microbes’ preparations-inducers of plant protective reaction;
- accounting and forecast of natural insect epizootic diseases in order to raglamentation of direct control;
- using of insecticidal gene at creation of transgenic plants and associated rhizospheric germ cultures ( Павлюшин , 1998).
In 2001 in Russia 65 regional biological laboratories and 40 greenhouse centres organized the production of biological plant-protecting agents. 1640 ton of microbiolical preparations of 23 names were got, that is 360 ton more than in 2000. Biological agents on vegetables in protected ground were applied on 18,7 thousands hectares. 38% of them – are biological preparations and 62% -are entomophage. The average share of biological method in common volume of protective measures in greenhouse centres of Russia is 61%, although it is different in other spheres. So, high indexes in Mordovia are 89%, Nizhny Novgorod, Sachalin, Kemerovo and Saratov regions – over 91%. The average share of biological method in Lipezk region is 14%, Kurskiy region and Khabarovsk territory is 11% ( Ткачева , 2002), in Omsk region − from 52 till 80 % (Petrova, 2002).
Regulation of population of phytophages and agents of diseases by use of entomophages and acariphages, microorganisms and their metabolites, biologically active substances
3.4.4 Bacterial diseases of insects and rodents. Bacterial preparations. Using of microbiological plant-protecting agents in pest control is a possible way of critical ecological situation’ management.
Bacteria are the most wide spread type of microorganisms, connected with insects. There are a great number of bacteria in guts of insects and rodents. Many of them are saprophytes and commensals. Often they are symbiotes, important for animals’ life. Also they are toxical types of bacteria. At the transferring into blood they proliferates and cause common toxication – septic disease and insect’s death. There are primary pathogens which can enter the organism of insect through gut wall and organism cover. It is going by toxin or ferment elimination.
The existence of insect’ bacterial diseases was found in 1879 by I.I. Mechnikov, who described a bacterium Bacillus solitarius, causing disease of cereal chafer grub in the south of Ukraine. At the same time L.Paster was occupied by interpretation of flasheria agent, but F. Cheshier and W.Chain were occupied by European foolbroud agent. Now days there are over 100 types oof bacteria, which cause diseases of insects and rodents. Nowdays many of them are used for bacterial preparations production for indoor pest and rodents control.
80 There are preparations not only included in “The list of pesticides and agrochemicals, authorized for use in the Russian Federation” (2009), but also preparations of historic importance and included in such List for the last years.
Bacterodencid. Production of bacterodencid in Russia is going on strains Salmonella enteritides , supplied by Russian Institute for Scientific Research of Agricultural Microbiology. Since 1970 it has been used both in open ground and in protected ground. In 1980 the area of its applying was about 4 millions of hectares. Salmonella enteritides is obligate pathogen, causing typhoid of murine rodents (mice, voles, ratlike hamsters). Bacteria Salmonella enteritides var.Issatschenko were found by B.L. Isachenko in 1897 in St. Petersburgh. For more than 100 years they have been well characterized and now they are appled in many countries (France, Cuba, Vietnam etc.) (Kandybin, 1995; Kandybin, Tkacheva, 2002).
Dendrobacillin − the first native preparation produced on the basis of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp.dendrolimus (pathovar А). In 1949 E.V. Talalaev, professor of Irkutsk State University during epizootic of Siberian silk moth ( Dendrolimus sibiricus Tchetw.) in cedar forests of Glubokovskiy center’s region set apart from die caterpillars clean bacterial culture, named Bacillus dendrolimus s.sp. (Talalaeva, 2002).
The first party of dendrobacillina of 3 ton produced from such culture was made in 1958 in Moscow bacteria preparations plant and passed successful examination against siberian silk moth. Later dendrobacillin has become useful in agriculture against scale-winged insects: sod webworms (Pyrausta stricticalis L.), cabbage butterfly ( Pieris brassicae L.), cabbage moth ( Plutella xylostella L.) etc.
Mechanism of preparation action on the base of Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ). The specific of Bacillus thuringiensis is development of protein crystals of endotoxin. Besides crystals these bacteria can produce at least 3 other substances: alpha-, beta-, and gamma-exotoxins. Main steps of mechanism of endotoxin action, producing Bt, became clear in 1970-80. Delta-endotoxin melt in insects gut, that depends on pH of its contents, then toxin connects with receptors of epithelial cells of gut and ion channels build up. Protoxins break down in alkaline conditions of insect’s gut and then they are activated by gut protease. There is an opening of membrane and upgrading of its permeability. There is a synergism between crystals and spores Bt. Though crustal action is key point of Bt toxic display, but spore and crystal mixture can display higher insecticidal activity than individual components ( Штерншис , 2000).
Entobacterin. It is a Bt subsp.galleriae - base preparation (pathovar А). In the middle of XX century Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Galleriae agent was found during epizootic of bee moth caterpilla (Galleria mellonella L.). In 1963 the first entobacterin was produced in Berdsk biological preparations plant (Novosibirsk region). The preparation was supposed for protection of vegetable, fruit and berry crops against complex of leaf nibbling scale-winged insects. Nowdays entobacterin in liquid and past form is produced under the conditions of small regional productions.
Lepidocide. Bt subsp. Kurstaki-base preparation (pathovar А). In the 80’s of XX century caterpillar disease agent strain Z-52 Bt subsp. Kurstaki was found by E.R. Zurabova during epizootic of meal moth ( Ephestia kuhniella Zell.). After 1970 most of etomopathogene bacterial preparations were produced on the basis of such conspecies, founded in 1962. Bt subsp. kurstaki produced from 2 to 5 endotoxin crystals per spore as against other conspecies of pathovar A. That’s
81 why insecticidal activity of lepidocid against scale-winged insects is higher than activities of dendrobacillin and entobacterin.
Formulation is very important for biological preparations. By the example of lepidocid it is possible to retrace a dependence of bacterial insecticide effectiveness on formulation. The first formulation, proposed by E.R. Zurabova, was named high-analysis lepidocid with titer of 100 bln. Spores in 1 gr. It included nutrient feces and kaolin besides spore-crystal complex. Such formulation didn’t provide realization of potential activity of stock strain, because ingredients protecting activity of biological preparation against environmental hostility were absent. Koalin blocked up creation of stable suspension that led to spray device clogging at preparation applying. M.V. Shternshis together with E.R.Zurabova have developed new lepidocid formulation – stabilized solids ( Штерншис , 2002). New formulation was different in that kaolin was substitute by water- soluble constitnent, which intensified at once insecticidal activity of endotoxin Bt. The licence on LEST (stabilized lepidocid) was received in 1990. It was required two times less of such preparation, than concentrated lepidocid at using it against brown arches. Also keeping period of LEST has increased.
Lepidocide, SC Formulation is suspended concentrate (liquid), developed by scientists of Berdsk biological preparations plant. Liquid form has its advantages, the main is a possibility of using with thinner douche equipment (aerosol dispenser).
Applying of liquid lepidocid in gardens against complex of leaf nibbling pests became widely used. Biological effectiveness at three-stage using reaches 87%, at using on tomato against burdock borer is 85-90% (Borovaya,2001).
Sonit K, SP. Bt subsp. Kurstaki-base preparation with titer at least 70 bln spores in 1 gr. It is recommended for cabbage protection.
Dipel, SP. Bt subsp. Kurstaki -base preparation, developed by “ABBOT” company (USA). It is recommended for cabbage protection against burdock borer and milkfish.
Dipel, SC. It is a preparation of liquid form and recommended for conifers protection against scale-winged insects.
Bitoksibacillin, P , BTB Bt subsp.thuringiensis -based preparation (pathovar А). It belongs to the second group of biological preparations and consists of water-soluble β−exotoxin besides spores and endotoxin. It was developed by Russian Institute for Scientific Research of microbiology. It is the first native preparation containing β−exotoxin. It is recommended for using on many croppers against scale-winged insects, Colorado potato beetle ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata L.) and red spider ( Tetranichus urticae Koch.). The effectiveness of bitoksibacillina was 91-100% at experiments on cabbage against milkfish caterpillars and cabbage moth, and death of useful carnivore was 14-21%, death of pests – 8-11%.
The population of entomophages and species composition is increasing on fields where biological preparations are applied besides chemical preparations. (Yarkulov, 2002).
At the examination of bitoksibacilin against grub of colorado potato beetle in Omsk region it was found out that the effectiveness of the preparation was different for grubs of different instars. The maximal effectiveness of 87% was found for grubs of I and II instars, less effectiveness was for
82 grubs of II and III instars – 79% and the least effectiveness was for grubs of III and IV instars – 25%. Death of grubs from chemical etalon (sumicidin) was higher in all experiences, death percent was properly 100, 89, 40 (Barayshuk, 1994).
The effectiveness of bitoksibacillin and bacikol on potato was properly 69-97%, but yield was increased 16-21 dt/ha. Etalon-fury caused death of 82% of Colorado potato beetle grubs and increasing of yield of 15dt/ha (Borovaya, 2003).
Bikol, SP . Bt subsp.thuringiensis -base preparation, consisting of spore-crystal complex and β−exotoxin. It was developed by Science and Production Association Разработан “Ekotox” (Moscow). It is differ from BTB form by im-proved formulation. The preparation is recommended for cabbage and apple protection against scale-winged insects, potato and tomato protection against colorado potato beetle, protection of cucumbers of protected ground against red spider.
Content of β−exotoxin expands preparations’ application through different mechanism of exotoxins action in comparison with endotoxin. Exotoxin can act not only through gut but through insects cover, and in the combination with spore-crystal complex displays synergism. That’s why exotoxin-containing preparations are recommended not only for caterpillar control but also against colorado potato beetle and red spider.
Turingin . They are representatives of the third group Bt -based preparations (toxin-base without spores). Turingin has liquid form and consists β-exotoxin in saluted from. Primarily it was recommended for animal’s therapy against pests; afterwards it was used for plant protection.
Astur. Astur, developed by Russian Institute for Scientific Research of microbiology on the basis of Вt subsp. Kurstaki endotoxins, according to authors Astur displayed high insecticidal activity against not only scale-winged insects, but also against plant lice (Shternshis, 2002).
Bactokulicid (bacticid). Bt subsp.israelensis -base preparation (pathovar B). For the first time this bacterium was found from gnatworms in 1976. First native preparation on the basis of this conspecies was developed by Russian Institute for Scientific Research together with Kiev State University named “bactokulicid” and primarily it was recommended for population suppression of mosquito and biting midges. Bactokulicid is produced in powder form, consists 100 bln. Spores per 1 gr. Endotoxin crystals of vague form cause destructive changes of gut cells of dipteran insects. There is a possibility of applying this preparation against cricotopus silvestris, champignon cecidomyids and henbane fly.
Decimid. Bt subsp.tenebrionis -base preparation (morrisoni ). This bacterium (pathovar C) was found by german scientist Krig in 1982. Novodor was developed on the basis of such bacterium. This conspecies Bt has platelet shape endotoxin crystals.
The first native analogue of this preparation was Decimid, developed by Russian Institute for Scientific Research “Biochimmachproject”.
Colorado, SC . It is a preparation based on original strain Bt subsp. tenebrionis №16 −8116, which was found in tenebrionid beetles, which live in flour. Endotoxin crystals form is plain and square, β−exotoxin doesn’t produce.
83 Bacikoll. The basis of such preparation is Вacillus thuringiensis subsp. darmstadiensis . It is used against beetles: weevils on strawberry, Colorado potato beetle, cruciferous flea beetles, chaetocnema aridula etc.
Bacikoll led to decrease melanopus population on winter wheat to 81%, bitoksibacilin decreased its population to 80%, fury (chemical preparation) – to 85% (Borovaya, 2003).
Bacikoll was examined in Badachshan against caterpillars of codlingmoth and ermine moth. Bitoksibacilin 202 was as etalon. The experience was arranged on apple-trees of 10-15 years old and on apricots in May 1999. They were sprinkled by manual sprayers (5-7 liters per one tree). Accounting of effectiveness was arranged on the 3 d, 5 th and 10 th days after processing. Death of caterpillars became after 1 day, after the 3 d day the majority of caterpillars died. On the 5 th day death of caterpillars of codlingmoth was 71-76%, ermine moth – 76-79%.
There was no death of all caterpillars. Wind, rain, cool temperature, high insolation, physiological status of pest in the processing time also can decrease mass of the preparation on plant and activity of insect nutrition.
One of the main symptom of pests death is weight reduction of surviving pests after processing of propupas and slugs. So, caterpillars of codlingmoth after 10 days of Bacikoll processing was 2.7 times smaller. Infected slugs didn’t gain in weight till pupation. Denutritive caterpillars died in the period of metamorphosis. It was about 90-97% pests of processed part of tree (Bulbulshoev, 2002).
Bacteria thuringiensis are the most popular microorganism in forest insects control (Whalon, 1998; Thomsen, 2000). Only chemical preparations (pyrethroids) had been applied for forest protection in Poland, but in 1996 the preparation on the basis of Bacillus thuringiensis Berl. became the first. It displayed the effectiveness against 12 types of leaf-nibbling pests (Hilszczanski, 1998).
After biological insecticides applying entomopathogene bacillus can survive in soil and preserve as spores. Spores of entomopathogene bacillus are sustainable to myriapods’ digestion by intestinal liquid (Mozgovaya, 2001).
The perfect example of Bt applying in Omsk region is population suppression of brown arches in 2004-2006. The necessity of special protective measures against brown arches in Omsk region was proved in 2004. Brown arches are included in Tussock moths family ( Lymantriidae) of Lepidopterans order ( Lepidoptera ). It is a polyphagous pest which blasts larch-tree, birch, pea shrub, bird cherry, fruit trees and over 300 species of plants (Гродницкий ,1999). Ground-local forest processing was arranged in 2005 in Omsk region. Forests of 5 forestries were processed by developed biological preparation Lepidocid SC-M (airborne method) against caterpillars of brown arches. There were processed over 4585 ha, biological effectiveness of the preparation was 73-80%. Forest processing of 17 forestries was arranged in 2006 (total area was 22502.9 ha). Biological effectiveness of the preparation based on Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki was also high (78- 94%). Findings testified about high effectiveness of Lepidocid SC-M under the conditions of Omsk region.
There are a great number of biological preparations, produced abroad. Dipel, turicid, baktan, biotrol are produced in USA. Bactosepin and sporin are produced in France. Biospor is produced in
84 Germany, baturin is prodused in Czech republic, baktukal – in Yugaslavia, turigin – in Romania, disparin – in Bulgary, turingin-150 is produced in Poland.
3.4.5 Fungus diseases of insects Fungi effecting insects are widely spread in nature. Fungus diseases infection is associated with diving of hypha fungi through insects’ skin. Fungus spores glue up to insects’ skin by it’s unmoisten oily surface; in the points of contact spore grows out and sprout tube diving into insects corpus through chitinized cuticular. Ferments promotes diving of sprout tube. They are secured by fungus in the point of spore’s growing, which make an osteole in chitinized cover. Fungus diving into insect’s bulk through this osteole.
The first time of germination of mycotic disease in insects usually is associated with mass formation of hyphae, which are dispersed through all organism (blastospores). In the next period there are strands of mycelium and short ramulous haustoriums with spores and conidiums. There are maturation of resistant spores or hyphae grow up the corpus surface and luxuriate as thick mycelium in the third period of germination of mycotic disease. So, entomopathogene fungi cycle in insects’ organisms only the first period, from growing up of spore till their new formation. Temperature and humidity also effect on progress of diseases.
There some fungi, which can eat archaeal, nematode. Mycelium of predacious fungus develops in soil on plant matters, but they get a part of nutrient from tissue of prey. Prey corpus is only food for them and it is not their habitat. Prey occupation is happened only at once, it is not a process of cooperative coexistence as at parasitism.
Select group of predacious fungi include different representatives of different taxonomic groups and classes: chytrids, Oomycota (Zoofagus genus), zygomycetes. However most of predacious fungi belong to hyphomycetes.
Sticky traps develop on fungi mycelium. They are undifferential projections of hyphae, covered by sticker or they are glomerular sticky glomus which are appeared as a result of hyphae branching ( Arthrobotrys oligospora ). Nematode glues up when touching sticky framework and then try to fetch away, but it is more occupied by framework. Soon after encroachment hypha begins to develop, lyses cuticle and enters into nematode’s corpus. Inception process continues 1 day at most.
Effrots of nematophagin (the preparation based on Arthrobotrys oligospora) applying in field conditions still doesn’t give essential effect. However using of such preparation in protected ground is positive-going. Applying of predacious fungus arthrobotrys allowed decreasing of pest larvae from 2600 rogues to 1613 rouges per 100gr of soil in growing houses of Krasnodar territory (effectiveness 62%).
Fungi-based preparation against phytophages Preparations based on fungal toxin (mycoaphidin-T, verticillin-M) were developed in Russian Scientific Research Institute (RSRI).
Mycoaphidin-T and entox. It is based on entomorphthorales. They displayed high effectiveness against aphids, white flies, thunder flies also under the conditions of Western Siberia. Experimental lots of Mycoaphidin-T, developed in 1993 displayed high biological effectiveness
85 against gourds aphids on cucumbers (99.1%), against peach aphid on pepper (88-98%), against pea aphid on pea (93-95%), against apple aphid on apple-trees (98-100%), against plum aphid on plum- trees (100%). Applying of transition product of the preparation (culture liquid) in 1994-1995 also displayed high effectiveness. Spraying of plants by 1% sol. of culture liquid was arranged against pea aphid. Aphid population decreased on the processed areas in 1.4-2.4 times in comparison with unpolished lands ( Петрова , 1995). The culture liquid taken for experiences arranged at Omsk State Agrarian University displayed the biological effectiveness of against plum aphid of 67% (Barayshuk, Maximova, 2002).
Verticillin-M. Entomocid metabolites of fungus Verticillium lecanii (class of inperfect fungi, order Moniliales) were examined with further development of the preparation under the direction of V.A. Pavlyushin. It has been established that toxins accumulates mainly in mycelium, although little part secures into culture liquid. Toxin, removed from biomass fungus V. lecanii , is also phosphotide. Verticillin-M in emulsion formulation was developed on the basis of insecticidal phosphotide emulsion complex.
Fungus parasitizes on sucking insects, acarians, spiders. It affect ovums, imago and larvae of junior white flies, cause death of tabacco thrips and aphids. According to authors, its biological activity can be reach 100%.
Boverin. Entomopathogene fungus Beauveria bassiana is frequent in natural populations of grasshoppers. Its potential as biocontrol agent was found in 1936 in Southern Africa. Boverin is a product based on this fungus. It was the first native fungous preparation. Effectiveness of boverin against Italian locust was found by scientists of Novosibirsk state agrarian university and Berdsk plant, but first experiments were not so successful. Probably it was occurred due to environmental factors effecting on entomopathogene. According to Russian and European scientists effectiveness of this fungus in field conditions is limited by many environmental factors (temperature, humidity, UVR). It was proposed to use oil fungus suspension for decreasing of humidity effecting on B. bassiana . American scientists researched surviving of B. bassiana in soil at application of water and oil suspensions under different croppers. Results depended on formulation and cropper. They displayed the possibility of management of grasshoppers population at fungus applying into soil. The Eeffectiveness of biological suppression of pest by B. bassiana against locusts in Eastern Siberia was 47-84% at ( Огарков , 2000). There are many possibilities to increase fungus effectiveness by shared use of it with dimilin. (Dimiln − insecticide of larvicidal and ovicidal action, destroys chitin synthesis).
Boverin with good results also was examined against apple seedworm, colorado potato beetle, apple fruit sawfly, corn-worm, sunn pest, common hyla, relapsing-fever tick, bedbugs, gelechia hippophaella, monophages of coniferous species(Ogarkov, Ogarkova, 2000).
Metarisin. Good results were got at applying of preparations based on fungi of Metarhizium genus. Optimal agent was M. anisopliae var. acridum , prenominated as M.flavoviride . Strain IMI 330189 was found in grasshoppers’ populations in Africa, where it caused periodic local epizootic. In the framework of International program LUBILOSA («Biological control of grasshoppers») biological preparation based on spores of this strain was developed under the trade mark GREEN MUSCLE. The preparation is produced in formulations of pulvis or oil suspension. High effectiveness against grasshoppers was displayed at little sprinking. The preparation is produced by
86 two companies: «Biological control products» in Southern Africa and «Natural plant protection» in France. There is an experience of mycoinsecticide applying on the base of other strains. So, the preparation based on oil suspension M. anisopliae var.acridum was applied in Brazil, strain CG423 against larvae Rhammatocerus schistocercoides in clouds.
An important problem is a storage time of the preparation. American specialists founded, that formulations of M. anisopliae var.acridum , kept during 30 months fully preserved their virulence in relation to larvae of desert locusts. Optimization of formulation helps to avoid negative effect of sunlight on fungus. It is recommended to take into account dependence of UVR effect on temperature. For example, 20% of conidioles M. anisopliae var.acridum were harmed in field conditions in the sunlight at the temperature of 20оС, at the temperature of 50 оС - 80%. At the same time permanent effectiveness of the preparation can significantly contribute to common death of grasshoppers from mycose. It was demonstrated in field experiences of mycoinsecticide against desert locusts semi-deserts of Mauritania. Estimates of preparations preservation were given by putting of healthy insects to processed areals. It was founded that only the half of insects got direct doze at sprinkling (99% of death).
Russian scientist I.I. Mechnikow was the first who used the preparation based on fungi Metarhizium genus for insects’ suppression. Now metarizin is applied in Russia for control of population of some species of insects. Researches, pursued by Novosibirsk state agrarian university displayed that it is possible to reach high death level of Italian locust’s larvae at M. anisopliae applying (Shternshis, Tsvetkova, 2002).
3.4.6 Virus diseases of insects Virus nature of tobacco mosaic was found in 1892. In the first part of XX century causal viruses of polyedros insects’ diseases of mass pest of agriculture: black arches, brown arches etc. Heavy find workload of entomopathogenous viruses was led in 1958 in the laboratory of insects microbiology of Biological Institute (Siberian branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in Novosibirsk. The first specialized laboratory of insects’ viruses was organized in this institute in 1964 (Guliy, 1981).
Viruses are widely used in insects’ populations and effect on dynamics of insects’ population. Virus diseases have been registered of about 500 species of insects, acarians and other groups of invertebrate animals of world fauna, many of them are serious pests. Researches in developed countries have led to development of a variety of preparations. Such preparations as Biotrol VHZ, Bitrol VTN, Viron H2 based on casual viruses of nuclear polyhedrosis are developed in USA. Virus preparations are applied 5-9 times during a season.
Virus preparations based on baculoviruses are developed in Russia. High specificity of these entomopathogene viruses determines their effect on one pest that is usually expressed in the name of the preparation.
Virin −−−ЭНШ −−− the first native preparation, developed on the basis of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of brown arches. It is produced in liquid formulation – concentrated suspension of virus inclusions in 30% glycerin. The preparation is recommended for process of 10-15% of trees in gardens and tree belt areas in focus of mass reproduction of brown arches (2 ml/ha).
87 Virin −−−ЭКС based on experimental strain of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of cabbage looper. The preparation developed in All-Union Research Institute of biotechnology. The formulation is liquid form or pulvis form. It is recommended for spraying of cabbage and other vegetables against cabbage looper. Consumption rate is 0.1-0.15 l (kg)/ha.
Virin −−−ГЯП is used for apple worm control. The preparation is developed in Belarus Research Plant Protection Institute on the basis of apple worm granulovirus. The formulation of the preparation is liquid. It is recommended for 2-3 times a crop season spraying of apple trees during mass birth of pests 5-6 days apart. Consumption rate is 0.3 l/ha.
Virin −−−КШ was developed on the basis of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of lackey. The preparation is jointly developed by Belarus Research Plant Protection Institute and Latvia Academy of Agriculture. The formulation is liquid. The preparation is recommended for spraying of fruit cultures and tree belt areas against lackey caterpillars of 1-3 ages. Consumption rate is 0.2l/ha.
Virin −−−ОС was developed on the basis of turnip moth granulovirus. The preparation was developed by Research Institute of microbiology of Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences and Belarus Research Plant Protection Institute in pulvis form. It is recommended for spraying of vegetable crops, gourds and cotton plants against turnip moth caterpillars of 1-2 ages. Consumption rate is 0.3 kg/ha with ОP-7 inclusion.
Virin −−−ХС was developed in RSRI on the basis of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of cotton budworm in pulvis form. The preparation is recommended for spraying of cotton plants against of each generation 5-7 days apart. Consumption rate is 0.3 kg/ha with ОP-7 inclusion.
Virin −−−ГСШ was developed by Siberian branch of Russian Academy of Sciences on the basis of Siberian moth granulovirus in pulvis form. The preparation is recommended for forest area processing against Siberian moth caterpillars of 1-3 ages. Consumption rate is 0.2-0.3 kg/ha.
Virin −−−ПШМ was developed in The Biological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian branch) on the basis of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of nun moth in liquid form. The preparation is recommended for forest area processing against nun moth caterpillars of 1-2 ages. Consumption rate is 0.5 l/ha.
Virin −−−Diprion was developed in The Biological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences (Siberian branch) on the basis of nuclear polyhedrosis virus of European pine sawfly. It is produced in liquid form. The preparation is recommended for aerial treatment of forest area against 1-2 ages larvae of European pine sawfly. Consumption rate is 0.01-0.04 l/ha.
Virin −−−ГЛМ was developed in Siberian branch of Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences on the basis of sod webworm granulovirus. There are 2 formulations: liquid with glycerin and zeolite-based pulvis. The preparation is effective against 1-3 ages caterpillars. Consumption rate is 100 g (ml)/ha.
Virin −−−АББ was developed on the basis of polyhedrosis virus and granulovirus of fall webworm. The preparation is applied for protection of forest and fruit ranges in European part of Russia (Shternshis, 2000).
88 Effective strains and insect-hosts for strains’ accumulation are necessary for commercial production. There are many ways to increase the effectiveness of natural strains, one of them is the passage process of virus of the one insect through the organism of the another. These strains are experimental as against natural or native strains. For example, experimental strain of nuclear polyhedrosis S11p is 43-fold virulent than native virus of brown arches. Mass rearing of insect-host is arranged on induced environment (Bondarenko, 1986).
Pathogenic properties of virus preparations appear during 5-20 days according to climatic conditions. It is recommended to apply preparations against junior larvae. Processing terms depends on the same conditions. Single-shot processing of plants is enough at low population and optimal temperature (higher than 21 оС). Double processing 5-7 days apart is necessary at high population and the temperature below 21 оС. Epizootic effect appears in pest populations after virus preparations’ applying in other insects’ generations (durable regulation of pests’ population). Virus preparations have some after-effects: decrease of breeding performance of dams, display of teratognesis in other phases of insects’ development.
3.4.7 Use of effective entomofauna Use of effective entomofauna is one of the main regulation methods of pests’ populations. Entomophages and acariphages take a great importance in the regulation of phytophages’ population. When natural population can suppress pest’s population, the main regulation method of phytophages’ population is saturation of biocoenosises by new entomophages – this is an active biological plant protection (Babenko, 2001).
Plant protection was developed as chemically-oriented science after World War II in Europe. Pest resistance (as a result of multiple application of chemical affinities) opposed a further development of chemical method of plant protection. The alternative of chemical method was use of natural enemies, which were applied in growing houses. Use of parasitic hymenopterans and red spider predators is the leading direction of biological control nowdays. (Malsam, 1998; Pas, 2000). Protected ground is a possibility of year-round yield od fresh vegetables. The area of about 10 ha is occupied by growing houses in the Netherlands, which produced 20% of total agricultural goods. The application of natural enemies in the Netherlands began in 1960 (Lenteren, 2000). The area of about 500 ha is occupied by growing houses in Denmark, 375 ha of them are occupied under decorative crops. Biological control began in 1980 (Enkegaard, 1998).
Biological plant-protecting agents have been applied in Omsk region for 20 years. Most of all they are applied in protected ground, where comfortable conditions (stationary temperature and humidity) lead to mass pests’ reproduction of glass-grown cucumbers and tomatoes – red spider, aphid, thrips and white fly. These pests can be fully controlled by their natural enemies. Phytoseiulus − red spider predator was cloned against red spider in the biological laboratory of Omsk greenhouse centre in 1970. Then in 1980 there was a beginning of producing and applying of the aphydophage complex − cicloneds of lady-beetle, introduced from Cuba, and gall gnats predator of aphidimyza, in 1982 it was enkarsia − parasite of greenhouse whitefly. Use of phytoseiulus − one of the most successful examples of using of introduced object against local pest. Chemical agents against red spider are not practically applied in growing-houses of Omsk region, because the predator provide decrease of pests’ populations (Petrova, 2002).
89 This group can survive without prey for a long time by means of fungi spores, pollen, and moisture of plants. So, Phytosiidae at pollen nutrition not only survive, but can propagate their kind. Some species of Phytoseiidae besides Tetranychoidea red spiders can take nourishment of other representatives of blood line (Bondarenko, 1986).
3.4.8 Insects-entomophages Hymenopteran order : Braconid wasp bloodline . This bloodline includes ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasitism is special for species, which populate insects-hosts, leading a close life (grubs, caterpillars, living under bark). Dams usually paralyze insect-host before oviposition. Most of endoparasites’ species live in insect-host’s larva. For example, whitefly apanteles is a parasite of cabbage and turnip whiteflies; silkmoth apanteles – is a parasite of silkmoth caterpillars (gipsy moth, European lackey moth, Siberian moth, pine moth).
Hymenopteran order: Trichogrammatidae bloodline. Gerontic insects take nutrition from flowers’ nectar. Larvae – are exceptionally parasites of insects’ ovicells. Insects-hosts of Trichogrammatidae are usually lepidopterans or homopterans, but also they are chafers, neuropterans, hymenopterans and dipterans. Some representatives of trichogramma genus are artificially produced in Russian biofactories and biological laboratories. There are эупроктидис , yellow seedworm trichogramma, all-female trichogramma.
Dipterans order. Some species, interesting for biological plant protection are in blood lines of gall gnats, robber flies, bee-flies, syrphid flies, chamaemyid flies, flesh flies. Especially valuable species are bristle flies.
Blood line of bristle flies. This blood line is represented by entomophages. Ephebic flies take nutrition from flowers’ nectar and honey dew. Bristle flies larvae parasitize on larvae and ephebic insects of such orders as true bugs, coleopterans, caterpillars of butterflies and sawflies’ larvae. The group of bristle flies parasitizing on shield-backed bugs, cereal bugs and cabbage bugs is the most important. This group includes flies Phasia : grey, gold and parti-colored flies.
Blood line of gall gnats. Ephebic gall gnats don’t take any nutrition. Larvae can be mycetophages, phytophages and zoophages. Mycetophages take nutrition from mycelium and fungi spores. Phytophages take nutrition from living tissues of plants, provoking gallnuts appearance. Zoophages includes predators and parasites of arthropods. For example, larvae of Aphidimyza take nutrition from 61 species of aphid. Aphidimyza is applied for biological control of aphid on cucumbers and other crops in growing houses.
Blood line of syrphid. These are big vivid colouring flies. Interchange of dark and light lines on flies’ bodies which liken them with wasps. Some syrphids are polytrichous and associates with bumblebee. Ephebic flies take nutrition from flowers’ nectar, pollen, participate in prometatrophic process. Predatory larvae of syrphids take nutrition from aphids, some species of scale insects, frog-flies, thrips, and butterflies’ caterpillars.
Order of neuropterans. Most of neuropterans are predators. Representatives of such bloodlines as lion aphids, hemerobiidae and dustywings are the most important.
Bloodline of lion aphids. Lion aphids are active in night, males and females fly in the light. This bloodline has a great number of natural enemies. Their larvae take nutrition from aphids,
90 psyllas, little caterpillars,larvae and ovicells of Colorado potato beetle, red spiders. Ephebic lion aphids take nutrition from flowers’ nectar and honeydew.
Order of coleopterans. Representatives of such bloodlines as ground beetles, staohylinus, blister beetles are the most perspective entomophages for biological plant protection.
Bloodline of ground beetles. A majority of ground beetles are predators, which take nutrition from insects, shells, slugs, worms. Ground beetles eliminate caterpillars of brown arches, black arches, sod webworms, cutworms and other lepidopterans.
Bloodline of blister beetles. Beetles take nutrition from leafage, larvae eliminate ovicells of grasshoppers or apian cache. Blister beetles ( Mylabris quadripunctata) and Spanish flies are considered as parasites of ovicells of grasshoppers.
Bloodline of lady beetles . Beetles and larvae of lady beetles destroyed aphids, psyllas, and scale insects. Some of them are widespread: seven-spotted lady beetle, five-spotted beetle, 14- spotted lade beetle, twin spot lady beetle.
3.4.9 Methods of entomophages’ and acariphages’ use Introduction and acclimatization. Introduction of natural enemy is delivery of effective animal to new area outside its present range. Acclimatization is an adapting of delivered animal to new existence conditions in new areal. The example of successful introduction and acclimatization is Aphelinus parasite in gall aphid control. Nowdays there is an effort of Podisus acclimatization (parasite of Colorado potato beetle) in Russia.
Development of existence conditions for local species of entomophages. This method is more accessible and cheaper. The main idea of such method is smart use of pesticides (in situations when it’s caused by the necessity of yield danger), use of agronomic and other methods, leading to activation of natural enemies of pests. These are the methods of food reserve creation for additional nutrition of pest and predators in adult stage, that leads to increase the age of life and significant increase of their birth rate.
Assistance measures for local entomophages can be various. For example, sowing of bee plants and perennial legumes, bedding of flowering nectariferous shrubs create comfortable conditions for additional nutrition of entomophages and increase of their birth rate. However, nectariferous plants are often weedage, for example it is Tartary buckwheat. Weed destruction starves parasitizing insects (it is not desirable). On the other side butterfly of sod webworm take nutrition from nectar of the same plant, which population decrease is the aim of any agriculturer.
Beeding of seed plants of onion and parsley family near cabbage plants leads to attraction of bristle flies and increases population of cabbage moth. It is reasonable to use anise, coriander, dill as nectariferous plants because they are not vulnerable to similar cabbage diseases and they are not nutrition of pests’ butterflies.
According to Russian Research Institute of Plant Protection nectariferous plants increased infection rate of cabbage moth caterpillars in 2.8 times by therion parasite on cabbage bedding, and infection rate of lepidopterans’ ovicells was increased from 5 to 32%. Population of predators and
91 parasites of cabbage aphid was greatly increased, which controlled aphid’s propagation and didn’t allow increasing of its colonies more than 0.25 sm 2 (Kolesova, 1995).
According to K.E. Voronina and A.P.Sorokina there is a necessity to develop criteria of effective proportion of entomophages and phytophages as a basis of destructive measures’ regulation (2002). There are some accessible methods which saturate agrocoenosises by entomophages and increase their effectivieness: undersow of nectariferous plants, attracting entomophages; creation of reservation parks and flora’s treatment, which doesn’t lead to pests accumulation.
For example, undersow of mustard, rape and medicinal herbs along the perimeter of cabbage fields increased infection rate of cabbage moth caterpillars by Apanteles to 90% in Leningrad region. Russian Scientific Research Phytopathological Station (RSRPS) has developed the saturate method of strawberry plantations and other berrying grounds by red spiedr predators Amblyseius reductus, A. finiandicus. Russian Research Institute of Plant Protection has developed methods of attracting entomophages of sunn pest, cotton budworm, black pine-leaf scale by using of their pheromones. For example, pheromone filters on tomato and paprika beedings had increased the population of parasitizing caterpillars of cutworm to 20%.
There are methods of rational limitation of chemical control for useful importance of local entomophages. For example, it is a belt processing. It allows entomophages to concentrate on non- processing belts and escape effect of poison.
Season colonization. This method is considered as artificial propagation and annual introduction of natural enemies of pests in nature. It is necessary in the situations when local useful organisms can’t control pests’ propagation. That’s why mass introduction of entomophages or plant processing by microbiologically preparations is important in the beginning of propagation is important.
There are some examples:
- wide applying of different Trichogramma species in cutworm’s control; - applying of phytoseiulus in red spider’s control; - applying of gall gnats in aphid’s control; - applying of encarsia in white fly’s control in protected ground (Bondarenko, 1986).
According to Russian Research Institute of Plant Protection elasmus ( Elasmus albipennis ) provides 86% of apple worm death in gardens, and 65% of death of garden tortrix. Russian Research Institute of Phytopathology has found a possibility of colonization of red spiders on berrying grounds against currant gall mites and strawberry mites. The effectiveness was 50-60% at double introduction of these red spiders (Voronin, 2002).
The farm firm “Belaya dacha” is the main provider of glass-grown vegetable production in Moscow region. The firm produces following entomophages: phytoseiulus, encarsia, afidius, ambliseiulus, podisus, picromerus. The firm produced over 300 millions of bions each year.
The firm specialists could destruct thrips by red spider predator Amblyseius cucumeris . Amblyseius is introduced in growing houses by stringing up the pockets with red spiders where they continue to propagate for 3-4 weeks. Different species of cutworms become a big problem at
92 cultivation of paprika, aubergine and tomato. Cutworm greatly damages plants also it breaks the chain of biological plant protection in growing houses. There is the applying of Pentatomidae against Podisus maculiventris Say and Picromerus bidens L. (Gumennaya, 2002).
Introareal migrating. This method involve migrating of effective often special natural enemies of pests, disease agents and weedage from old focus of mass reproduction of pests to occurrent focuses. There were good results at migrating of telenomus (parasite of ovicells of European lackey) in pests focuses in Bashkiria, Krasnodar territory, Ukraine and other regions (Bondarenko, 1986).
Introareal migrating of entomophages was the most successful in forestry. It includes mass production of special predators or pests in focuses of pests by transferring of entomophages from dumping focuses. The theoretical basis of such method is that entomophages are able to effect on limitation of insects’ reproduction.
The method of introareal migrating is not the universal method. It is necessary to combine this method with creation of new optimal conditions in new settlements, providing their normal development. At first, it is necessary to create a basis for entomophages’ nutrition.
Assistance for natural reproduction of entomophages is arranged by primary forest-based measures. It is recommended to preserve grassland vegetation, to plant nectariferous plants on margins and silvicultural areas, to crumb forest litter, to preserve den trees for attracting entomophages and their additional nutrition.
Use of ants. Red ants (bloodline Formicidae , Formica rufa ) are essential destroyers of pest in clean softwood, where herb stratum is not well developed. Their population less depends on special insect-host in forest as compared with other entomophages. Ants easy survive depression periods of pine-nibbling and leaf-nibbling insects. They take their nutrition from single insects, sugaru aphids’ excretions, fruits and berries.
3.4.10 Microorganisms-antagonists and their metabolites for decrease of population of disease excitants Microorganisms-antagonists are natural regulators of populations of plants’ diseases excitants. Most of antagonists-microbes are in soil with rich florula. Antibiotics’ formation is going in cultures of spore-forming and sporeless bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae. Antagonistic interactions are widely used in the practice of plant protection. Their application is arranged in using of antibiotics, produced by microorganisms-antagonists.
Antibiotic’s effect on microorganisms also can be different. There is a statical action (bacteriostatic, fungistatic etc.), microorganism growth receives a check at that action, but cells don’t die. There is a cide-action (microbicide, fungicide etc.) which leads to cells’ death. At lytic action cells die and dissolve (lyse). Microorganisms, causing lysis of bacteria, were named as bacteriolytic. Microorganisms, causing fungi lysis were named as mycolytic.
For the last 25 years many researches of examined antibiotics for diseases excitants control have been arranged. Antibiotics have many advantages in control of phytopathogenic microorganisms as compared with fungicides:
93 1. they easily enter into plant organs and tissues, that’s why their action less depends on contrary climatic conditions;
2. they are antibacterial in plants tissues;
3. they slow inactivate;
4. they don’t have negative effect on growth and development of plants.
Most of antibiotic enter into plants’ tissues through scapes, leaf areas and can enter to seeds. Intensity of absorbing of antibiotics depends on plants age. Young plants are more active in that point. Also intensity of absorbing of antibiotics depends on climatic conditions: the process is faster in dry and warm weather (Barayshuk, 2006).
The antibiosis mechanism is the base of bacterial preparations applying. Antibiosis is the most important in rhizoplane zone (rhizosphere zone, surrounding roots and root-hair of plants inside of 100 мкм ). There are the most widespread bacterial preparations based on bacteria of 2 genuses: Pseudomonas и Bacillus .
Bacteria of Pseudomonas genus. Saprophile pseudomonades occupies phizosphere zone as natural regulators of phytopathogenic microorganisms. These bacteria well take up different organic substrates, grow quickly, and produce antibiotics, bacteriocin, sideraphore and growth promoting factors. These properties determine protective effect of pseudomonades on plants, and also promote their growth.
There are phenazin-1 carboxylic acid, derivations of phloroglucinol, pirrolnitrin among antibiotics, produced be pseudomonades. Sideraphore synthesized by pseudomonades are the most important for limitation populations of phytopathogenic microorganisms. Sideraphore are the compounds realizing transfer of ferrum, forming stable complexes with ferric iron. Sideraphores retard the growth of such fungi as Rhizoctonia solani , Sclerotinia scleorotiorum , Phytophthora megasperme etc. Also they retard the growth of some bacteria, for example Erwinia carotovora . Sideraphore not only decrease pathogens’ populations, but also they promote plants’ growth.
Wide application of the preparations based on pseudomonades began from development of rhizoplane, based on Pseudomonas fluorescens strain AP-33 in 1980 in Russia.
These pseudomonades are wide spread in rhizoplane of wheat, maize, sunflower, medick and other plants. The possibility of suppression such bacteria as Septoria tritici, Xanthomonas campestris, Ervinia carotovora, Agrobacterium tumefaciens is shown by different scientists.
Bacteria of Bacillus genus. Bacillus subtilis is the most important as biological agent of suppression of phytopathogenes’ population. This bacterium is famous as hay bacillus. The bacterium is widespread in soil, water and air. Genes interpretation in Bacillus subtilis genome found a great variety of transport protein. It is evidence that this bacterium is flexible to interact with environment.
Bacillus subtilis well develops in rhizosphere of barley, maize and rice. This bacterium is also in salt water and in the structure of epiflora. Bacillus subtilis is the most productive bacterium of Bacillus genus for synthesis of antibiotics (over 70). Some of these antibiotics exert bacteriostatic influence. It was found by specialists of SSC (State Science Center) of applied microbiology in
94 point of strain ИПМ −215 Bacillus subtilis . Specialists of RSRI have found strain Bacillus subtilis −10 −RSRI with high biological activity at inhibiting action of germination. The preparation alirin-B was developed on the basis of this strain and consists of living microbe cells and products of their metabolism. Another strain Bacillus subtilis −M−22 −ВИЗР was patented as the basis of gamair for protection of tomatoes against bacterial blight agents. (Pavlyushin, 1998).
The main bacterial preparations against disease excitants of plants are the following:
Agat −−−25 К. The preparation is Pseudomonas aureofaciens-based. It was developd by Limited Partnership «BIOBIZ» (Moscow). It is applied against dust-brand and stinking smut, root rot, snow rot, fusariose, Septoria spot, odium on wheat, barley, and oat, also it is applied against bare patch on potato.
Good results were got from processed potato. Potatoes processed by agat −25 К didn’t suffer from buck eye rot and moisture stress (Свиридов , 2002). agat −25 К decreased a number of rhizoctonia root attacked plants for 1.8-2.4 times (Glez, 2003).
Agat −25 К was examined on cereal crops. Preplan processing by agat −25 К practically protected spring wheat, oat and barley against root rot, and decreased its development up to 2-4% (biologically effectiveness was 71-78%, 88-100% and 73% accordingly).
Preplan processing by agat −25 К promoted successful seeds overwintering and increased number of spring wheat up to 11-20%, winter ruttishness – 28-50% and over. So, research results have shown that agat −25 К is in fungicidal activity towards root rot agents, snow rot and many leaf- caulis diseases. (Nazarova, 2002).
The results (Dovgalenko, 2002) have shown that examined mixtures of Агата −25 К with fungicides (alto super, rex С, amistar F) have a prolonged effect. So, the mixtures were practically about reference standard (64-74%) against septoria spot, but they were even higher (95-98%) against rubigo disease. Application of agat −25 К-based mixtures has 2-fold decreased pesticides load on environment and greatly reduced costs of resources for protecting of winter wheat against pathogenic complexes.
Also, there were qualitative indexes of production. The highest effect was marked at processing of seeds and vegetative plants of cereal crops. Gluten content in berries of winter wheat in this case increased up to 25-32%. The volume of bread at test bake increased in time and half. Maximal efficiency of the preparation applying was 500-800% (Sviridov, 2002).
Seeds and halo of flax are materials for textile with hygienical and anticeptic properties, for medical preparations, oils etc. That’s why there are severe requirements of ecological safety. Applying of agat −25 К at flax cultivation promotes high yield by contrast to non-processing control (Kudryavtsev, 2001).
Pseudobacterin −−−2 G. It is the Pseudomonas aureofaciens-based preparation, strain BS 1393. It was developed in Institute of biochemistry and microorganisms’ physiology of Russian Academy and Sciences. It is recommended for wheat disinfection against cercosporella spot, helminthosporium and rot. Also it is recommended for disinfection of barley against root rot, and for disinfection of cucumber against leaf blotch.
95 Many researches of the possibility of applying biological preparations (alirin B, C, bactophit and psseudobacterin) for protection of winter wheat against diseases by seeds’ processing were perfomed in 1998-99. The biological preparations were high active towards phytopathogenes. (Gavrilov, 2001).
Pseudobacterin-2 suppressed root rot of harley (86%), rye (69-72%) and oat (84-94%) at seeds’ processing at middle level of disease development ( при среднем уровне развития болезни (expansion - 15 −20 %, development 3 −5 %). Biological effectiveness of pseudobacterin-2 at low and middle levels of extension and development of wheat root rot was 95%. Preplant treatment and retreatment were necessary for protection against development of diseases. In this case the effectiveness of the preparation in root rot control was 83%.
Processing of cereal crops on vegetation intensifies protective action of preparation in septoria spot control (65% - at daily processing, 74-80% at additional processing on vegetation) at middle level of disease development. There are 2 processing on vegetation at high level of expansion of brown rust that allows suppression of disease up to 85-90%. The analysis of applying and examine of pseudobacterin-2 has shown that the preparation is cheaper than chemical pesticides and biologically active at high level (Boronin, 2003).
Federal state Institution «Omsk Station of Plant Protection» has produced pseudobacterin under license since 2001. There is a disinfection of 18-20% seeds of cereal crops in Omsk region every year. There was a comparative evaluation of effectiveness of chemical fungicides and pseudibecterin-2 on wheat plantings (137 ha) in Close Company “Solyanoe” in Cherlak district. This experiment has shown that the effectiveness of the biological preparation in 2001 was identical with chemical fungicides. Processing by tilt, folikur and pseudobacterin-2 was perfomed in the beginning of the third decade of June, when the expansion of diseases was 15% (oidium) and 25% (septoria spot). The yield was the highest at applying of the biological preparation (29hwt/ha), and diseases development was the lowest (12%). So, applying of pseudobacterin-2 under the conditions of Omsk region has shown the high effectiveness of the preparation in diseases control and its high competitive ability towards chemical fungicides (Petrova, Krivko, 2002).
Planriz, G The preparation based on Pseudomonas fluorescens , strain АР −33, developed by Research Institute of genetics and cytology of Belarus Academy of Sciences. It is recommended for semidry disinfection of cereal crops seeds against root rot, for processing of potato tubers against diseases complex, and also for processing seeds and spraying of cabbage against bacterial diseases.
Evaluation of disease resistance of potato after winter keeping has shown that processing of potato seeds by rhizoplane and trychodermin promoted decreasing of potato sensibility to bare patch 1.2-fold, to silver surf (1.9-fold). Cooperative applying of the preparations maximally decreased the incidence of potato diseases (silver surf and bare patch).
Furthermore the biological preparations stimulated tuber sprouting 2-6 days previously activated plants growth and caulis formation. There was a bigger yield at application of rhizoplane (up to40 hwt/ha) and the biological preparations complex (up to 9 hwt/ha) (Evstratova, 2001).
The results of the experiences have shown that planriz is effective as protectant and fungicide at low and middle infection rate of seeds by helminthosporium (Lapina, 2003). However, it is not effective against ustilaginales diseases.
96 Preplanting cultivation of seeds by planriz and agat-25 К has led to 6-Fold decrease of root rot and helminthosporium . The effectiveness of planriz was 73-82%, agat −25 К − 67 −74%. Yield increase was 7-9 hwt/ha.
Planriz decreases expansion and development of root rot in 2 times and increases gluten content in Omsk region. A good result was got at planriz application against buck eye rot of potato and cabbage bacteriosis (Petrova, 2002).
There were many experiments of planriz application for root development of Lubskaya cherry tree in Omsk State Agrarian Universitysince 1995. It was found that application of planriz increased root development up to 38% (Sukhotskaya, 1998).
Also planriz was examined for soybean seeds treatment. Plants prevalence of black steam, dawny mildew and bacteriosis was 7-fold decreased. The effectiveness of the preparation was 78- 84%, there was additional 4hwt/ha of soybeans (Yarkulov, 2002).
Bactophyt. It is the Bacillus subtilis-based preparation, strain ИПМ 215. Biological effectiveness is determined by crop’s antagonist, antibiotic (aminoglycoside group), synthesized in the growth process. The preparation is low-toxic for homoiotherms.
It is recommended for protection of cucumbers in the protected ground against oidium by spraying; against root rot by seeds treatment; for protection of apple-trees against oidium and scurf by spraying and for protection of medicinal herbs (Bushkovskaya, 1995).
Phytosporin. The Bacillus subtilis-based preparation, strain 26D. It was developed by Scientific development and production center «Bashkiriya», SDPC «Immunopraprat» and «Biophag». It is recommended for seed treatment of winter and spring wheat against mold deteriorate and seeds rot, root rot and snow mold.
Integral − is the biological preparation based on Bacillus subtilis with high fungicidal and growth stimulating activity. The formulation is liquid, including metabolite products of microorganisms and physiologically active substances.
Performed researches in Ural region has shown that wheat seed dressing by Integral (1.5 l/ha) improved phytosanitary state of seeding by far.
Good results were got in the experiences with rape. Seeds dressing by integral provided practically contemporary and earlier (3-4 days) seedling emergence. Yield of seeds for 3 years was 22 hwt/ha (Satubaldin, 2002).
3.4.11 Biological preparations based on actinomycetes There were found new biological active substances – avermektines ( Streptomyces avermitilis producers). Some preparations against helminthes and phytonematodes are produced on avermektines basis. Their effectiveness against gallic nematode is 95-98%. Avermektines sparingly effect on useful fauna, they are low-toxic for red spider predators, trichogramma and dew worms. Phytotoxic effect of the preparation was not found (Vyalykh, 2001).
Phytoverm. The preparation based on S. avermitilis. Действующим началом является аверсектин С. It is the composition of 8 copounds of avermektin group. Aversektin C extracts from
97 actinomycet group, which is cultivated by submerged cultivation. Phytoverm is produced in emulsion formulation against insects and red spiders; also it is produced in pulvis formulation against nematodes. Phytoverm acts against nematodes as repellent, measleads invasion larvae, which die from attrition.
Avermektines acts as neurotoxins against insects and red spiders, causing palsy and death of pests. There is a production of the preparations of semisynthetic avermektines, derived by chemical modification of natural avermektines (vertimek).
Phytoverm has displayed its high effectiveness against red spider, Colorado potato beetle and other danger phytophages in European Russia and Siberia. Phytoverm is tested under the conditions of protected ground against aphids, red spider, whiteflies in Novosibirsk region. The effectiveness against red spider after 3 days was 99%, against cotton aphids – 98%. The preparation was inefficient against whitefly (Shternshis, 2002).
There is a possibility of phytoverm application and perspective of biological suppression of grasshoppers. The productive situations for biological control of phytophages are possible despite the fact that most of grasshoppers are migratory species, and biological preparations are not fast- working.
Laboratory and field experiences were performed against Italian locust. There was high effectiveness of the preparation compared to the effect of chemical insecticide of Adonis. The effectiveness of Adonis and phytoverm after 4-5 processing days was 87-98%, although phytoverm turned out to be long-delayed. (Boikova, 1995).
Aktinin and aleycide are famous as the preparations based on actinomycete metabolites. Aktinin was developed under the supervision of N.V. Kandybin 20 years ago on the basis of tetrelides of actinomycete S. globisporus . Two metobilite formulations – aktinin L and aktinin M were produced. At first the preparation was recommended for Colorado potato beetle control. Later its effectiveness against red spider and flower thrips was shown.
Aktinin suppressed the population of flower thrips with high effectiveness, compared to chemical insecticide effect. Its application leads to increase of wheat yield. Aktinin is perspective for suppression of the population of flower thrips in the phase of wheat stem elongation (Shternshis, 2002.)
Aleycide is the preparation based on the active complex of S. aurantiacus mycelium and was developed in RIPP under the supervision of V.A. Pavlushin. The main metabolite − 9 −methyl piercidine В. The preparation is effective against whitefly, aphid, thrips, red spider. (Pavlyushin, 1998; Boikova, 1995).
Using of microbially-derived ferments as biological plant-protecting agents is also interesting. Specialists of “Monsanto” company found insecticidal activity of protein – cholesterol esterase, received at cultivation by Streptomyces spp ., and showed the possibility of thurberia weevil suppression. Novosibirsk State Agrarian University finds the possibilities of using of microbially-derived chitinase in plant protection. In fact, chitinase destroyed chitin of cell walls of plant pathogenic fungi. Tests of the preparation against spur blight in Siberia.
98 Furthermore chitinase enhances insecticidal action of entomopathogenic virus and bacterial preparations through destroying of chitin of insect’s peritrophic membrane. Enzyme preparations are still inapplicable in plant protection (Shternshis,2002).
Avertrol . Actinomyces avermitilis (crop mutant of saprophile soil actinomycete) was selected as a result of mytagenesis and step selection. It is morphologically stable and have unsoluble pathogenic metabolites-avermektines for many species of pests: insects, red spiders, nematodes. Strain Actinomyces avermitilis doesn’t effect on growth and development of fungi and bacteria, which are producers of famous biological preparations. That’s why there is a possibility to use avertrol together with biological preparations for plant protection. Avertrol is not phytotoxic (Besaeva, 1995).
Phytolavin −−−300 was developed on the basis of Streptomyces lavendulae , Streptomyces gtiseus . It is applied at preplanting seeds treatment of tomato and cabbage against bacterial wilt, bacteriosises, black stem.
3.4.12 Fungi-based preparations against plants’ diseases Trichodermin . It is the most famous and popular preparation based on Trichoderma viride , which is wide spreaded in nature and breeds in soil. This fungus is concentrated around different organic residues or near root system. It is reasonable to artificially propagate and implement fungus into soil. Fungus produces antibacterial and antifungal antibiotics.
The formulation is liquid and granule. Nowdays pastelike preparation mycofungicide based on Trichoderma viride is tests and examined for preplanting seeds treatment of winter barley.
These fungi suppress development of other microorganisms by direct parasitizing, excretion of enzymes, antibiotics and other biologically active substances. They produce many antibiotics (glyoxine, viridine, trichodermine), which suppress development of many species of disease excitants.
Fungi of trichoderma genus absorb substrates, participate in decaying of organic matters, ammonification and nitrification processes, enhance mobilization of phosphorous and kalium, saturate soil by nutrients. Antagonistic properties of these fungi:
- life activity of pathogens is suppressed by toxical activity of anitibiotic substances;
- small gyphae of fungi run all over pathogens’ gyphae and destroy their cellular texture, that leads to death of pathogens’ gyphae (Tverdyukova, 1993).
There are following registered preparations in Russia: Trichodermine G (the formulation is granules); Trichodermine L (the formulaion is liquid); Trichodermine –BL (pulvis). There are 12 preparations produced in the USA: Bio −Fungus, Binab −T, RootShield, Supresivit, T −22G, T−22HB, Trichodex, Trichopel, Trichoseal, Trichoject, Trichodowels, Trichoderma 2000. They are recommended for control of different pathogens, including Botrytis, Fusarium , Gaeumannomyces, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium, Verticillium and others. (Burges, 1981).
Fungicidal preparation Trichocetine based on Trichotecium roseum is also famous (Shternshis, 2002). This fungus is included in hyphomycetes of imperfect fungi class. It develops on
99 sclerotia of different fungi, on scab agents of apple-trres and pear-trees, on other species of fungi. Thrichothecuim is able to parasitize on fungi because it excretes the antibiotic of thrichothecene. The antibiotic rills fungi gyphae. Fungi’ strains, which not produce antibiotic, are not able to parasitize on fungi. The preparation is recommended for spraying against oidium, antracnose of cucumbers, root rot of pine-trees.
Immunophytum . Many preparations for plant protection are developed on the base of elisitors, which effect on intruding phytopathogenes and induce its defense reaction. Elisitors are different. Phytopathogenic fungi produce them. Biotechnology Institute (Puchshino) has developed immunophytum. Its active substance is arachidonic acid, picked up at cultivation of mucoraceous fungus. Immunophytum increases plant resistance to phytopathogenes and acts as phytohormone (Shternshis, 2002).
So, application of environmentally safe plant-protecting agents is effective and necessary for stabilization of phytosanitary situation in Omsk region and other territories in Russia.
3.5 Plant breeding for stress resistant crops pesticide decrease and increase in cropdiversity
3.5.1 Significance of plant breeding for sustainable development of horticulture Sustainable development of rural territories depends on various factors, the most important of which are economic efficiency of production and quality of life for rural populations. As a rule, the agriculture lead branch in rural areas is horticulture connected with life-stock keeping and the processing industry. For high economic efficiency of horticulture and sustainable production it is necessary to implement high-yield varieties and proper agrarian systems for existing soil and climatic conditions. Improved yields can be achieved by using varieties best adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of a specific region (Koshkin, 2010).
Plant breeding aims at continued plant improvement. Since the time agriculture appeared people started to select the most eatable plant varieties and then began to improve their yielding capacity and properties. An example for the importance of plant for food production is the “green revolution” which took place in the 60-ies of the XXth century. It resulted in the creation of low high-yield rice and wheat varieties resistant to lodging. Dwarf and semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties are widely used in the world, resulting in great increases in cereal production and solution of the problem of hunger in less developed countries ( Борлоуг , 2001). Heterosis maize hybrids rich in the essential amino acid lysine resulted in the production of valuable food and forage corns and improvement of cattle reproduction (Частная селекции , 2005). Analysis of the factors influencing crop yielding capacity of the main agrarian crops in the world since 1948 to 1980 shows that more than half of the increase took place due to improvement resulting from plant breeding and the other half – due to improved horticulture technology (pic. 35.).
100 4
9 4 verage New 9 varieties 4
9
4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 35 Significance of plant breeding for the increase of the average yields in the main agrarian cropsin the world (Riva, 1987, Shamanin, 2002)
Due to the geographical position and historical development of rural areas in Russia, intensive technologies are implemented in only a few regions (Stavropol, Krasnodar and Volga region) and Pic. 35. Most crop production in Russiais extensive with special attention to high-yield varieties. Increase in production due to plants’ genetic capacity enables to increase the value of agrocoenoses in agrarian land and at the same time to increase the efficiency of remaining territory for environmental improvement with forests, meadows, especially protected areas, etc. Plant breeding can enrich the gene pool with new genes for increase in biodiversity of the most important varieties. Development of pest and disease resistant varieties lowers the need for use of pesticides and thus further contributes to improved ecological conditions in agrocoenoses and rural areas. Therefore, plant breeding is important for sustainable development of rural areas.
3.5.2 Adaptation of varieties to stress factors The Russian territory has different soil and climatic conditions: from wet and cold to hot and dry. The most of the former USSR territory (72%) is very cold or dry and only 8% of it is comparatively suitable agriculture Climatic imbalance is hazardous for agriculture. In many regions there are great seasonal or even diurnal changes in temperature, moisture, freezing periods, etc. It is hard to achieve sustainable yields in these regions, which are called “hazardous agrarian zones” (Agrarian meteorology, 2002).
Cultivated plants are affected by diseases caused by abiotic and biotic factors. Normal growth and development determining yield occurs only, if the influence of biotic and abiotic factors is within the limits of the plants adaptive potential (Koshkin, 2010). The more the factors reach beyond these limits, the higher their negative influence (Plant protection, 2003).
Plants are always stressed by uncomfortable climatic conditions, lack of nutrients, anthropogenic influence, etc. The factors causing stress are called stress factors (Чиркова , 2002). Abiotic factors cause great damage, i.e. lack of moisture, high temperature, etc. Depending on the weather conditions, yield capacity can decrease 2-3-fold in the zone of sustainable moisture and 5-6-fold in the zone of unsustainable moisture (Коваль , Шаманин , 1999). Yield decrease becomes more severe if the influence of stress factors coincide with the “critical periods” of plant growth and development. Critical are those periods important for morphological development. For instance, freezing at the stage of the seedling decreases peas’ yield capacity by 60-100%, droughts during
101 tillage and earing considerably decrease the yields of cereals. If the stress is long standing and intensive, the whole harvest can be lost. Losses are also possible due to long droughts, frosty winter, floods, etc. (Частная физиология , 2005). In addition, biotic factots such as disease cause destruction of plant organs.
Insufficient or low resistance of plants to abiotic and biotic stressors results in harvest losses. Plant breeding today has achieved good results for yield capacity of the most important agrarian plants ( рис . 36). The global data on the eight main cops show that biotic factors can cause 70% of harvest loss if no chemicals are applied pests and diseases have comparable negative impacts (pic. 37). This calls for special attention to the creation of varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stressors and the implementation of scientifically based technologies for better yields.
Harvest, c/ha
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Рис Сахарная свекла Соя Сорго Ячмень Овес Кукуруза Пшеница Картофель
record high average
Fig. 36 World average of main agrarian crops’ harvest ( Шпаар и др ., 2002).
Real harvest Biotic caused losses Pest caused losses Disease caused losses Weed caused losses
Fig. 37 Distribution of harvest losses of the main agrarian crops as a result of biotic and abiotic factors (Oerke et al., 1994).
Plants adapt to changing environments. Adaptation is the process resulting in changes in structure or functions providing the organism the ability to survive in the environment (Specialized
102 physiology, 2005). A species’ ability to occupy different habitats is called ecological flexibility (Zhuchenko, 2001). The regional distribution of cultivated cropsdepends on their ecological flexibility. High flexibility is typical for the main crops, i.e. wheat, oats, potatoes, rye. The southern crops are not so flexible (maize, rice, soy). Adaptive ability of plants can be increased with the help of plant breeding. Thanks to plant breeding maize and potatoes coming from hot areas of the American continent now extend to cool and cold zones (Zhuchenko, 2004). In Russia potatoes are cultivated in all agrarian climatic zones and maize has started to be grown in northern western and eastern areas. Creation of well yielding early season hybrids able to make a early harvest and thereby avoid freezing is utterly important (Trunova, 2007).
Plant varieties in the process of evolution get adapted to the certain environmental conditions, i.e. ecological niches. In Russia there are 11 ecological groups of soft wheat including groups fopr cultivation in the most important ecological zones– Northern Russian, steppe and forest steppe (Zykin, 2000).
Growth and development of cultivated crops is determined by climate, weather during the growth period and soil (Chirkova, 2002). The Russian territory includes differentsoil climatic zones and plants have to get adapted to them (Zhuchenko, 1988). Placement of crops in agrarian zones must be matched to climatic and soil conditions for better adaptation to the growing conditions and better stress resistance (Zhuchenko, 1994, 2001). Well cultivated soils with sufficient content of organic materials better retain moisture and provide aeration (Kiryushin, 2000).
The number of pathogens and pests depends on which crop varieties are used under certain soil and climatic conditions. As a rule, in dry areas pest species are more importantwhereas fungus and bacteria are more commonly found in wet areas. Annual shifts of meteorological conditions are connected with the degree of damage caused by pests and diseases (Zubkov, 2000; Plant protection, 2002).
As a rule, after exposure to stress factors plants become more vulnerable to pests and diseases causing dying-off and damage to vital organs. For example, asphyxiation often causes dye-off in winter cereals at the same time it creates favorable conditions for moulds, e.g. snow rot (Plotnikova, 2007).
3.5.3 Plant breeding for adaptiveness to abiotic factors Yields in agriculture depend on the combination of productive capacity and resistance to stress. Varieties from abroad are often not suitable for Russian regional climatic conditions. At the same time, it is possible to create favorable conditions for the growth and development of plants in greenhouses In this case, varieties and hybrids created in other regions can be-yielding well.
Creation of a new variety is a complicated, science based process. To create plants with improved properties the following genetic recourses are used:
- wild and cultivated plants with different adaptive features. For instance, bluegrass (breed Agropyron) is well resistant to winter, sordic soil and different diseases. Derived from them hybrids of wheat-bluegrass varieties are widely used in wheat breeding;
- the best foreign and local varieties (land-races) ;
103 - new plant lines obtained through experimental mutagenesis, cell and matter variability and genetic engineering (Merezhko, 2005; Konovalov, 2002)
Combination of good productive capacity, good quality of ingredients and resistance to disease and pest organisms is difficult due to negative correlation between these features. As a rule, good adaptiveness will decrease yields. That is why, it is reasonable to create not universal varieties but varieties for special technologies and environmental conditions (Zhuchenko, 2001). Highly productive varieties are for favorable conditions and for intensive technologies. For regions with severe climate and therefore hazardous agriculture, it is reasonable to breed for optimized adaptiveness and ecological flexibility. Breeding the same crop for different regions, it is necessary to introduce different features. Winter wheat varieties for southern regions must be resistant to asphyxiation, winter rot, ice cover. At the same time in the Volga region and in Siberia where winters are dry and cold, frostdrought- resistant varieties are necessary.
As a rule, an agrarian climatic zone varies in landscape features, soil quality, moisture pattern, etc. That is why, plant breeding institutions create varieties for different ecological groups (Пыльнев и др ., 2005). In order to achieve constant yields it is necessary to cultivate not only one best but a set of varieties resistant to different stress factors (Zhuchenko, 1994). Such an approach supports genetic diversity of crops in agrocoenoses.
In numerous regions of the world local varieties appeared (land races) under the influence of natural conditions and human ambitions. Land races typically have a complex of genes for adaptation to the different regions. Advantages of local varieties are most clearly visible under severe climatic conditions, e.g. droughts. Under these specific conditions the specific local varieties provide for a sustainable yield, but under more favorable conditions they would be less productive than modern high yielding varieties. Local varieties are used for the breeding for adaptiveness to abiotic factors (Merezhko, 2005). Land races are important for organic and traditional agriculture.
World experience in plant breeding showed the necessity of involvement of local varieties and varieties from isolated areas into joint crossing. The local varieties are to carry the gene complex for ecological adaptiveness, and foreign varieties are for the improvement of product quality, disease and pest resistance, etc. A considerable increase in wheat productivity is connected with the implementation of the varieties created according to this concept by the famous plant breeders P.P. Lukyanenko, V.N. Remeslo, F.G. Kirichenko and others. When creating the well-known Bezostaya 1 variety P.P. Lukyanenko used 20 forms (varieties) of wheat taken from 12 countries located on different continents. This variety is utterly ecologically flexible, provides for high yields and corn quality. In 1971 this variety was cultivated on 13.3 million ha in the USSR and abroad. Also, vast areas were occupied with the winter wheat variety Mironovskaya 808 developed by V.N. Remeslo. Thanks to the efforts of Russian scientists the merger of good quality and high productivity was achieved (Лукьяненко , 1973).
The success of Russian breeders has resulted in the implementation of the best varieties in productivity and adaptiveness as parent forms. In 1998, overall 95% of winter wheat included into the State register of Russian plant breeding achievements, came from two big groups one of them
104 derived from Bezostaya 1 and the other one from Mironovaskaya 808 (pic. 38.) (Martynov, Dobrotvorskaya, 2001).
Decrease of genetic diversity is also happening for different other crops and abroad. Vast implementation of a limited set of the best varieties catalyze the decrease of diversity Implementation of maize hybrids in Europe resulted in the elimination of local centers of this crop in Italy and in the Balkan Peninsula. In the 1920-ies Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov obtained vast collections of wheat, oats and other crops in the regions of the Mediterranean, the Middle East and central Asia. In just half a century in these zones some crops disappeared or became endangered (Smirnov, 2005).
Fig. 38 Genetic contribution of some varieties (w) into the breeding record of winter wheat varieties cultivated in Ukrainian and Russian regions in 1998 (Martynov, Dobrotvorskaya, 2001)
Some big economics have already become aware of the biodiversity loss and try to stop it. Plant genetic recourses are kept in scientific institutions as big collections including hundreds of thousands of varieties and samples. In Russia, preserving genetic resources is a duty of the Russian institute of plant breeding named after N.I. Vavilov (Saint Petersburg) (Smirnov, 2005). There are other activities for improvement of varieties and gene diversity in agracoenoses. In the USA there is a committee for taking measures against the extension of single-crop varieties of the main agrarian crops. In Germany and Italy farming of local varieties ios supported by government funds
In Russia the creation of new agrarian crops is conducted by the network of plant breeding institutions spread over the whole territory from Kaliningrad to Vladivostok in the main agrarian climatic zones. The network is motivated by the need to create varieties adapted to various soil climatic and biotic factors. After a 3-year-long testing period, they are recommended for cultivation in the specific agrarian climate zone. The description on the varieties and the recommendations for their cultivation are on the web-site of the State commission of the Russian Federation for testing and protection of plant breeding achievements – www.gossort.com. Farmers can choose the variety they need.
105 3.5.4 Plant breeding for disease and pest resistance Human influence on the evolution of hazardous organisms
There are thousands of plant, microorganism and animal species. Their interaction is balanced and they do not suppress each other. In agrocoenoses, biodiversity decreases and some fungus, bacterium and insect species become hazardous. Properties of pests and disease agents change, there are continuously new forms overcoming plant resistance (Dyakov, 1998).
Human activity influences the biosphere and pathogenic microorganisms in particular. People determine the placement of agrarian cropsand agrarian policy in general. In specialized agrarian areas there is little apart from single, most productive crops. In North America. wheat is grown in the huge area from Southern Mexico to the central Canadian provinces occupying about 30 million ha. This crop also occupies large areas in Australia and Russia, he central US states farmed area is predominantly covered with maize and the countries of South- and East Asia have specialized on rice growing (Eversmeyer, Kramer, 2000).
Agrarian intensification results in a reduction of crop rotation, increase of fertilizer and pesticide application and the rise of new mutations. The diversity of pathogens and pests varieties decreases, there is no inter-variety competition. In such a situation, the areas of the main agrarian crops become large grounds for breeding aggressive microorganism and pest which are capable to overcome the natural resistance of plants (virulent races, strains). Mass diseases become common (Monastyrskiy, 1998). New diseases infesting agrarian crops appear because of a fungus that had previously existed on plant remnants only (saprophytes). In the 1980-ies and 1990-ies Septoria spot, Fusarium blights become more hazardous. The evolution of toxic soil fungus causing fading and rot of plant was enhanced (the families of Fusarium, Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium), Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc.). There are more strains producing more hazardous microtoxins. Their development results not only in yields loss, but in the intoxication of corn making ears affected not eatable (Monastyrskiy, 1998) Similar processes of microevolution occur in pest populations. In a number of Russian agrarian areas the population of Colorado beetle, wireworms, grasshoppers, etc. are increasing (Sanin, 1997).
The biggest problems are connected to the protection of the key agrarian crops providing most of the world’s food supply (table. 1). The most hazardous diseases are transferred with wind and water over long distances. These include rust and buck eye blights. Sometimes evolution of pathogens is quicker than plant breeding that is why sometimes newly created varieties are soon to lose their resistance.
Table 1 Important diseases of agrarian plants
Crop Disease
Wheat Stem rust, brown rust, yellow rust, oidium
Maize Rust
Oats Crown rust
Barley Dust brand, oidium, rhynchosporium
106 Potatoes rhynchosporium
Rice Body blight
Trade between regions and countries results in the spread of pests and diseases. Pests and diseases can be transferred with seed grains and agrarian and forestry products. For instance, the Colorado potato beetle was transferred from North America to Europe and has now reached western Siberia (Shapiro, Vilkova, 1986). Buck eye rot is hazardous for potatoes. Its agent Phytophthora infestans was introduced from Mexico to Europe. After World war II, new fungus strains were also transferred from Mexico to Europe. Croosing of phitoflora strains resulted in an increase of hazardous diseases (Dyakov, 1998 ; Kiselev, Novoselov, 2001).
Human activity disperses pathogens that otherwise are restricted in terms of natural migration, i.e. bacteria, viruses, soil fungus. In Western Europe, where agriculture is well developed and international trade is intensive, virus caused diseases become more hazardous. For the recent 40 years, 58 out of 88 known viruses have been found in the EU. For the recent 17 years most of German lands have been infected with barley yellow and weak mosaic virus (pic. 39.). This has been caused by intensification of agriculture and trade between the countries (Spaar, 2002).
Fig. 39 Extension of barley yellow and weak mosaic virus in Germany (Spaar, 2002)
Creation of pest and disease resistant varieties
Resistant varieties provide an opportunity to avoid pesticides for richer yield and better quality of the final product. In Germany, some agri-environment premiums were cancelled as a result of achievements of plant breeding towards resistance and thus avoidance of pesticides in the regular farming operation (program МЕКА ).
In all countries including Russia plant breeding is focuses on resistance to the most hazardous microorganisms. But in Russia the percentage of resistant plant is small, according to the State commission data it was only between 8 to 20% in different regions in 2006 (Meshkova, 2006). One of the reasons is loss of resistance. It was mentioned above, that to gain rich yields it is necessary to cultivate local varieties. It is important as some pathogens attack weak plants. The improvement of plant adaptiveness through breeding programs protects them from diseases.
107 The number of pests and diseases of the key agrarian crops cultivated in Russia varies (Sanin, 1997). There are constant outbreaks of pests and diseases diminishing yields (10-50%). Plant breeding aims at resistance to the most hazardous organisms (Plotnikova, 2007).
Gene sources can be either natural or anthropogenic plant varieties. The most valuable gene sources are the forms derived from a long-standing joint evolution with hazardous organisms. The highest concentration of gene sources is found in areas where cultivated plant have been grown longest. (Vavilov, 1986). The most opulent diversity of pest and disease resistant cereals therefore is in the middle East gene pool including the Caucasus area, and for potatoes it is Mexico and Peru. Introduction of foreign genes into gene pools is an important source for the increase of genetic diversity in agrarian crops For instance, to protect cultivated potatoes from virus and fungus diseases their, gene pool is saturated with not only numerous genes of wild potatoes varieties. but of eggplant, tobacco, tomatoes (Frazer, 2000; Kiselev, Novoselov, 2001).
In the XX century, scientists began to create strains of resistant plants firstly with the method of experimental mutagenesis and then with biotechnology. As long as genes are not transferred between different species, this process is similar to useful mutations in the wild and their maintenance with natural selection, but plant breeders achieve the result sooner (Goncharov, 2009). It turned out that cell crops can include huge amounts of mutations and provide for efficient selection of rare but useful mutations. Today research focuses on the creation of new plant varieties resistant to fungus with increasing taxation (class Fusarium, Cochliobolus и др .) (Agrarian biotechnology, 2003).
In the context of research for enlarging the gene pool of cultivated crops, informational exchange takes place within the framework of international cooperation. For instance, such kind of interaction is conducted in the cooperation of Russian institutions with the International centre of wheat and maize improvement CIMMYT (Mexico) (Goncharov, Goncharov, 2009). Gene description and their interaction schemes are available on the internet, e.g. http://www.cdl.umn.edu/Res_Gene/res_gene.html gives information on cereals resistant to diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provides information on the resistance of different crops. There are a lot of international programs for creation and study of gene resources of cultivated crops. These programs focus on resistance to the most hazardous diseases, especially in theinter-continental monitoring of epidemic hubs. This information is necessary for plant protection against pathogens transferred with the wind over long distances.
In order to create a resistant variety parents carrying the resistance feature are chosen for crossing and subsequent selection of the most resistant forms. Then the resistant progeny is selected and crossed. As each resistant gene decreases yield, it is preferable to breed for single disease resistance (Krupnov, Sibikeev, 2005).
Pests and disease agents regularly produce new races and strains capable of overcoming the plant defense mechanisms. The whole experience of plant breeding is the history of loss of resistance as a result of pathogens adapting and acquiring resistance’ (Russell, 1969). The processes of breeding and development of resistance has recently accelerated and become a competition between hazardous microorganisms and people (Leach, 2001). Phyto sanitary monitoring assesses the health conditions of field crops in order to forecast diseases, pests and their hazardous capacity
108 (Phytosanitary diagnostics, 1994). In Russia, the monitoring is conducted by the network of research institutions located in agrarian areas.
The resistance of varieties depends on the biology of pathogens and pests. By the end of the season, vectors of disease accumulate huge amounts of propagules. Most pest species produce less progeny that’s why the plants’ resistance to them is long-standing.
Extension of hazardous organisms enhances the ability to overcome plant resistance Soil fungi and viruses remain in the soil and in the remnants of plants left on the field. Spores of rust and oidium fungus can migrate in the air current between the continents. There are some known cases of rust fungus spores migrating from Africa across the Pacific Ocean to Australia. Rust infections can migrate from the Middle East to the territory of the Northern Caucasus. Subsequently, the spores are transported by the wind to the Ukraine and the Volga region (pic. 40) (Pavlova, Mikhailova, 1997). During the season, Atlantic cyclones transfer the spores from the Volga region to Northern Kazakhstan and Western Siberia. Phytophthora infestans produces several generation in a season, its spores can be transferred with moist air over 800 km a day, crossing borders of different countries. That is why buck eye rot resistance is overcome in 1-3 years.
Currently, plant breeders feel nervous because of a new extremely aggressive variety of wheat stem rust. It was found in Uganda in 1999 and was named Ug99.Within 10 years it spread from Uganda to Turkey. Russian and European territories may be infected in the way described above Stem rust may causes 70% harvest loss, that is why world plant breeders join their forces to fight it (Singh, 2009).
109
Fig.40 Spread of brown rust spores in the air current from the Middle East. Number of spores deposited is depicted by the size of the arrows (Pavlova, Mikhailova, 1997)
There is a special international scientific organization to study plant resistance to changing rusts and fungus and the phyto sanitary control over the world-wide extension of these diseases, i.e. the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative. Besides, a great contribution is made by the International centre of wheat and maize breeding CYMMIT. Thus, it is evident that plant protection is an international problem.
Today it is known that in biocenoses rich in biodiversity new races are not so quick to appear due to long-standing resistance. Genetic diversity ioof corps can be achieved with special sowing schemes, i.e. “variety mosaic”. The sowing must correspond to the recommendations made by plant breeding insitutions. One of the best plant breeding institutions is the Krasnodar Research Institute of Agriculture named after P.P. Lukyanenko. Its scientists have explored a vast collection of different ecological varieties resistant to different diseases (Bespalova, 2001). There are 5-7 varieties recommended for each soil and climatic conditions. Mosaic varieties (pic. 41.) can prevent diseases in the Krasnodar region and resulting in a decrease of fungicide implementation for better environmental conditions.
110
Fig.41 Winter wheat mosaic in the Krasnodar region in 2007 (Ablova, 2008).
Russian is huge, the areas under cereals and potatoes cover its territories from Ukraine to Siberia. Infections have to be stopped by the cultivation of resistant crops, i.e. “zonation of resistant genes” (Novozhilov, 1998). This can prevent development of new pathogenic strains and preserve resiostence of cultivated plant resistance. The strategy of zonation is discussed at regular meetings of specialists.
Mixed sowing composed of different plant varieties can cause genetic and species diversity. These sowings are efficient against stem and root diseases. Resistant and vulnerable plants must be sowed homogenously, the corns must be mixed before sowing. It is possible to conduct inter-line sowing of different crops. The beast mixtures are made of agriculturally similar crops. Mixed variety populations of one or several crops increase resistance and subsequently yields A disadvantage of mixed sowing is the resulting difference of technological properties and quality of products’. Therefore, mixed crops usually are used for forage.
The most efficient way to decrease disease and prevent plants from losing resistance is crop interchange and rotation, restoration of natural meadows, pastures, and forests. This increases species diversity in rural areas, creates barriers for the spread of pests and pathogens.
Continued plant breeding is necessary for sustainable yields and protection from unfavorable environmental factors, pests and diseases. To make plant production sustainable it is necessary to ground crop placement scientifically Implementation of resistant varieties improves economic efficiency of production and ecological conditions of rural areas due to absence of pesticides.
3.5.5 Genetic engineering of plant and biosecurity Genetic engineering appeared in the 1970-1980ies as the knowledge on functions of nuclear acids and mechanisms governing the cell metabolism had sufficiently increased. Research on molecular genetics and biology showed a surprising similarity between living beings with regards to basic processes, i.e. the cell processes of lower organisms are identical to those of higher organisms (Zhimulev, 2006). That is why genes can be transferred between different species (transgenes). The
111 first transgenic bacterium was created in 1972, plant – in 1983, animal – in 1985 (Chshelkunov, 2004).
First genetic experiences were made in laboratories (in vitro) on cultivated cells and substances. Isolated DNA/RNA fragments were isolated for multiplication. Today genetic engineering is implemented in different industries.
To be aware of the prospects of genetic engineering and the problems with its products it is necessary to be aware of the methods applied. The tools are specific for molecular biology and rely on specific enzymes (endonucleases) generating DNA or RNA fragments and vectors to transport such fragments into different organisms. Fragments contain genes, gene structure can be decoded and multiple copies are produced (gene cloning).
The transport of genes into cells is accomplished with vectors. Vectors can be attached to any DNA/RNA fragment. Usually vectors are natural virus strains or plasmids ( Глик , Пастернак , 2002). Frequently used are vectors created from T-plasmids, derived from the bacterium of Agrobacterium tumefaciens which causes stem growth in plants (root cancer). Only the T-area is introduced into plant chromosomes ( рис . 41). Natural plasmids are deprived from disease genes and desired genes are introduced into the T-area (Potrykus, 1991). For efficient selection markers are introduced, i.e. genes with special functions. Usually markers are genes resistant to antibiotics (Gelvin, 2003; Chshelkunov, 2004).
112
Fig. 42 .Creation of GM cotton plant with Bt-gene for pest resistance
Starting in 1994 genetically modified commercial crop varieties have been cultivated in the US and later in other countries. At least initially, GM-plants allowed for higher yields and cultivated area subsequently increased (pic. 42) (Devos et al., 2009). The most popular GM-crops are soy and maize, but more genetically modified crops are now available (pic. 42). There are currently many GM-crops on the market. In 2003 GM-crops contributed 47% to the total profit in US agriculture (Economic Research, 2003). The leaders for GM-crop cultivation are USA, Argentina, Brazil, India and Canada. Globally, 99% of the area stocked with GMOs is recorded from these 5 countries. In 2007 in the US 75% of the land stocked with maize was covered with GM varieties. For GM-soy the share rose to 94-96% of the total area stocked in some States (Abbott, Schiermeier, 2007; Bonny, 2009). Recently GM-varieties have also become popular in China.
113 120
100 га
80 млн , 60
40 Площадь 20
0 1997 2002 2007 Годы
Fig.43 GM-plants’ cultivated area, million ha
Соя Кукуруза Хлопчатник Рапс Картофель Тыква Папайя
Fig.44 Area (%) cultivated with GM crops in 2003
However, in EU countries in particular, GMO related hazards have been widely discussed. These include health problems (e.g. allergies), development of resistance (e.g. against originally effective broad-scale herbicides), loss of biodiversity due to extensive use of broad scale herbicides, outcrossing (uncontrolled, pollen mediated gene flow), ecological interactions (invasiveness) and social dependencies (patents on seeds).
In the EU the area stocked with genetically modified crops is just about 115,000 ha, mostly in Spain. Only Monsanto maize containing the Bacillus thuringensis Cry1 Ab gene against corn and root borer, and the starch potato Amflora can legally be cultivated within the EU. In Germany and France, use of GMOs in farming operations is generally prohibited. The EU continues its restrictive policies on GMO imports In Russia, too, cultivation of GM-plants is currently prohibited.
The main areas for genetic engineering of plants
Today genetic engineering is popular for plant protection in some parts of the world (mostly the US). Efforts are applied to improve plant product quality and plant development (growth).
114 The main trend of plant protection:
- against herbicides. Creation of herbicide-resistant plants can follow two paths: 1) a gene coding for herbicide resistance is introduced into the chromosome of the target plant (e.g. maize); 2) a gene for a protein destroying herbicides is introduced into the chromosome. It is most profitable to cultivate plants that destruct herbicides in their cells (herbicide tolerant plants). As a rule, seeds come to the market together with the relevant herbicide to which they are tolerant. In 2006 four countries – the USA, Canada, Argentina and Brazil grew 88% of the GM-plants, 81% of those were herbicide resistant (James, 2007). Ecological advantages include the application of lower doses of pesticides, minimization of cultivations (tillage) and avoidance of toxic hazards for the soil (Gardner, Nelson, 2007; Bonny, 2009).
- against droughts and extreme temperatures. Plants are enriched with genes creating natural resistance mechanisms. Genes can be extracted from different sources, for example, tomatoes can receive a fish gene for cold-resistance (Sakamoto et al., 1998; Щелкунов , 2004)
- against pests. Most of the work is done with an insect toxin derived from the bacterium Bacillus thurigiensis (Bt-genes) (Alstad, Andow,1995). This bacterium is used for biological treatments.
- against viruses . To protect plants from virus diseases it is necessary to introduce genes of cell proteins and also the proteins suppressing migration of the virus across cell membranes. The first method imitates “cross defense” when a weak virus strain blocks an aggressive one. Before commercial GM-varieties appeared, vaccination with non-aggressive forms was practiced (Pausl., 1995).
- against fungus diseases. Recently important discoveries on fungal diseases have been made. These data have been used to search for plant genes coding the main protective mechanisms against fungal diseases. Introduction of such genes strengthens the natural defense of plants against diseases creating a wide non-specific effect against numerous fungal varieties(Dyakov, 2001).
Product quality improvement
Product quality improvement is often targeted at improving protein quality (content of essential amino acids). The main agrarian crops lack essential aminoacids. That is why human food is unbalanced. There are two ways to improve proteins composition: 1) introduction of genes coding for essential amino acids into the target plant genome; 2) transfer of high-protein crops (Rybchin, 1999; Glik, Pasternak, 2002). Apart from proteins, researchers have tried to improve the fat and vitamin composition of plants (Topfer et al., 1995; Ye et al., 2000).
Currently, there is a promising research on the improvement of nitrogen fixation and improvement of photosynthesis efficiency. This research is targeted at reducing the application of nitrogen fertilizers (Chshelkunov, 2004).
115 GM-plants’ biosecurity
GM-plants often are economically efficient (Alston et al., 2002; Demont et al., 2004, 2007; Marra, Piggion, 2006). But the attitude towards their security is not unanimous. In a number of well-developed countries, and the EU in particular, they are considered hazardous. Some scientists believe that rather a long research period (since 1972) and extended cultivation of GM-plants in Southern and North America have proven GM-plants not to be hazardous to human health and the environment. That is why it was suggested to simplify the procedures for their certification and pay attention only to the affect of the transferred genom and its influence but not on the methods of its introduction. This method makes natural and GM-plants equal (Bradford et al., 2005). At the same time EU politicians have declared a moratorium on GM-plant admission (Devos et al., 2009). This moratorium is motivated either by the population’s attitude or political measures against the import of certain crops.
GM-plants have been produced in the US since 1994. The US therefore has the background of long sanitary-and-hygiene and ecological expertise, and development of legislation. There are independent US institutions to provide for the biosecurity of GM plants (FDA, USDA, ЕРА ). The supplementary control is conducted by international organizations of the UN, e.g. Food and Agri- culture Organization of the United Nations. There is a system for GM-organisms monitoring. In the US GM-products are considered to be safe, and therefore they are not specially marked (Surzhik, 2000). Most of the GM-products are consumed within the country.
There is a special EU body providing independent expertise on the safety of agrarian food products the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). They developed the rules for labeling and tracing of GM materials to make the consumers aware of GMO content in finished products. Regulations in the EU make it very difficult or even impossible for GMO farmers and conventional farmers to co-exist. In the EU the farmers therefore have to choose between traditional agriculture and GM-crops.
In the EU the attitude towards GM-plants tends to be negative. This is based on the following arguments and notions (Muir, Howard, 2004; Devos et al., 2009):
- religious and moral-aesthetic; - political and legislative; - hazard for health and reproduction; - a possibility for transgene dispersal in the environment; - the loss of plants’ genetic identity; - weeds, pests and diseases resistant to GM-plants; - increase of microflora’s resistance to antibiotics; - destruction of biotic communities including agrarian ecosystems; - negative changes in chemical, physical and biological soil properties
.There are a lot of radical religious objections. But they do not consider the fact that humanity has been living thanks to anthropologically created animal breeds and plant varieties. Political and legal objections are usually motivated by the willingness to protect internal markets (Bradford et al., 2005) and by the lack of popular support for GMO application.
116 When GM-plants were first introduced there was a lot of discussion over the vector constituents remaining in the trarget plant chromosomes. There was an idea that they can provoke transfer of genes between different species. There was an opinion on negative influence of viruses and plasmids upon human and animal organisms. Still, the horizontal transfer of genes was not proved, then. At the same time foreign sequences were found in the nucleic acids of traditional agrarian crops (Hardwick et al., 1994; Harper et al., 2002). People and animals eat a lot of plant food infected with viruses, bacteria and fungus and containing a lot of alien information. Butno hazards have ever been recorded.
When cultivating xenodamy (maize and rape) there is a problem of invasion of genes into varieties grown in neighboring areas. This problem is relevant either for traditional or GM-varieties but for GM-varieties it is more serious as traditional or organic farmers can lose their certificates and subsequently their higher prizes. That is why the EU tolerance limit for GM pollution is only 0.9%. Otherwise products have to be labeled as containing materials from GM-plants, which decreases their market price (European Commission, 2003). There are preventive measures against the dispersal of transgenes, i.e. space isolation between the fields of one crop; making barriers for pollen etc. (Sundstrom et asl., 2002; Devos et al., 2004; Gruber et al., 2008). The ultimate measure is the location of GM-fields in special areas.
Consumers must know what they eat. However, according to the EU regulations for product labeling d/d 2003 there is no required information whether meat, milk or eggs had been obtained from GM feed animals. GM components must be provided (labeling) only for human food.
It must be mentioned that GM researchers always take into account ecologists’ objections and adjust their tactics. To avoid increased risk for resistance to antibiotics in the environment, the relevant genes are not used as markers for GM-varieties. To prevent spread of transgenes with flower dust, the genes are introduced into cytoplasm which is not transferred to other plants (Heifetz, Tuttle, 2001; Hou et al., 2003). As genes and their functions are increasingly decoded the genes of plants instead the genes of prokaryotes (bacteria) and viruses are more commonly used.
In all countries with well developed genetic engineering infrastructure there are laws and regulations for biotechnology and bio engineering. Usually the laws of different countries correspond to the international guidelines. In Russia, the Federal Law “About state regulation of gene engineering” was confirmed by the state Duma and signed by the President on the 5 th of June, 1996 № 86-ФЗ . The law provides a legal framework, direct and indirect. It regulates relationship in nature management, environmental protection for gene engineering for biological objects except people, his cells what is regulated with special laws. The law establishes the main goals of state regulation and the system of genetic engineering safety.
The law regulates the requirements for standardization and certification of genetically engeneered products (service). It should correspond to the requirements of ecological safety and to sanitary norms. The products and services derived with GM organisms must be certificated and have quality labels. The law determines the responsibility for environmental damage caused by genetic engineering.
According to the Federal Law “About state regulation of genetic engineering” the Government has confirmed a number of decrees for its implementation.
117 According to the Government’s decree d/d the 16 th of February 2001 № 264 “About state registration of GM organisms” the Ministry of Industry and science founded an expert council for the matters of bio security and confirmed its point according to which it is the body for supervision of the data on bio security. Bio security meaning the absence of actual or expected undesired influence upon the environment (Donchenko, Nalyuta, 2001). This council defines the risks for bio security caused by GM- organisms, issues statements on bio security for state registration of GMOs or raises objections against such registration.
The state bio security control is responsible for the use of GM-derived organisms. In Russia there is a special system for labeling of food made from GM-products. Its introduction allows the customers to buy products conforming to their attitude towards genetic engineering. In 2004, after active debates the bio security limit was decreased to 1%. These rules do not encompass processed products from GM-plants, if the chemical composition of such products is identical to traditional ones.
Russian researchers have created varieties and lines of crops with different introduced genes (Goncharov, 2001). Still, the industrial implementation of these varieties in Russia is scarce.
The economic efficiency of GM-organisms can greatly influence future agrarian production. But it should be implemented with all precautionary measures regarding the prevention of environmental pollution (Shevelukha, 2001 а, б).
3.6 Ecological seed breeding
3.6.1 Seed breeding and seed science for more ecological sound plant breeding Seeds are one of the key agrarian commodities. Annually in Russia seeds are sown over thousands of millions of hectares. Cost of certified seeds is 15-20% below the cost for intensification and associated means of fertilization and plant protection. It must be mentioned that seed properties not only determine yield, but the efficiency of the above-mentioned factors of intensification. That is why seed quality is considered to be important. Seeds mirror the genetic capacity of selection for productivity. It is reasonable to buy seeds with good sowing and yield properties for extra positive result from cultivation. Still, it must be mentioned that existing systems of seed quality in Russia and abroad assess only sowing and breeding properties. The yield properties are not estimated. There are no relevant methods for laboratory pre-planting. Sowing properties being important for current seed assessment do not correlate with productivity (amount harvested). Sowing properties are determined by the peculiarities of their formation on the maternal plant under certain ecological conditions and they are represented in the level of differentiation of the embryo and albumen of the seed connected with the expression of the genes which control the differentiation of the embryo’s organs and determine their modifying changeability [Larionov,2003]. It determines the further size of the plantlets’ organs, their growth and yielding capacity. Why is such an important assessment feature absent in Russia and abroad? Firstly, the genetic theory of seed breeding is low-developed and it is considered to be just a more or less important appendix to plant breeding. Secondly, the objective of seed breeding is incorrect. It is preservation of genotype completeness and clean reproduction of elite selections, but not the realization of genetic productive capacity in the process of reproducing [Larionov,2003; Spaar,2001]. Sowing and breeding properties of seeds are estimated by testing, on-site control and with molecular methods: electrophoresis of additional proteins, or DNA splitting into separate
118 fragments for electrophoresis according to the length of restrictive fragments (RFLP). The RFLP method is one of the most reliable for estimation of genotype completeness, but it does not provide information about the yield capacity of seeds. Unfortunately, yield capacity is underestimated by modern science as there are no international official methods for yield capacity estimation confirmed by the «International Seed Testing Association – ISTA» [Spaar, 2001; ISTA, 1999, 2000].
Ecological seed breeding is necessary to examine yield properties of seeds from different climatic zones. Well developed countries such as the USA, Canada, etc. have a rich experience in industrial zone seed breeding [Spaar, 2001, G.Gold, 2001]. It is a separate agrarian industry. Seed breeding for certain varieties is located in the most convenient climates. It is accomplished based on interacting but economically independent bodies for fast seed production and seed quality. Cash grain producers in seed breeding. They buy seeds that have been bread. New cereals’ varieties occupy the area of zonation in 3-4 years. It is advertised and state funded. The absence of methods to assess the yield capacity of seeds in Europe, USA, etc. is caused by the prevalence of winter crops which yielding depends on the productive tillering of sprouts but not on the their number of spring crops. In Europe the difference in seed quality is less important as the countries are smaller and the climate is not so continental as it is in Russia. The condition of seed breeding in Russia is illustrated in Table 1, containing the numbers of non-standard seeds in 1996-2005. It can be seen that there is no 100% quality of seeds in Russian Federal Subjects. That is why yields of cereals and beans are low (14-16 centner/ha).
Table 2 Amount of non-standard seeds (%) in Russian Federal Subjects in 1996-2005.
Below 10% 10-20% 20-30% 30-40% Above 40% Rostov Stavropol Altai Khabarovsk Krasnoyarsk Krasnodar Astrakhan Primorskiy Kray Vologda Arkhangelsk Volgograd Kurgan Vladimir Irkutsk Perm Belgorod St. Petersburg Ivanovo Kemerovo Komi Bryansk Lipetsk Kaliningrad Novgorod Voronezh Omsk Kirov Ekaterinburg Kaluga Orel Kostroma Khakas Republic Penza Pskov Moscow Saratov Tymen Nizhniy Novgorod Tambov Ryazan Novosibirsk Ulyanovsk Samara Orenburg Adygeya Republic Smolensk Tver Bashkortostan Kalmyk Republic Tula Tatarstan Crachay-Cherkessia Chelyabinsk Chuvash republic Tyva Chita Mordovia Buryat Republic Dagestan Karelia Mariy-El Udmurtia
The highest percentage of non-standard seeds (above 20%) is encountered in colder and wetter areas. There, ecological seed breeding becomes more important for guaranteed production of seeds with high yielding capacity.
119 3.6.2 Ecological seed breeding and estimation of yield properties of reserve seeds for improvement and maintenance of plant breeding There are two levels of biological seed value, i.e. breeding and sowing properties.
Sowing properties of seeds is the complex of biological features and properties determining the sowing capacity.
The term “seed sowing properties” was suggested by the German scientists Nobbe and Ayhelle in the early XX century and was used for an estimation of sowing capacity. Today the requirements for seeds are different. The sowing capacity does not correlate with prospective yield (pic. 47).
Yields of certain seed series/lines are estimated by morphological features and properties of the organs of their sprouts (table 3). For the indexes used today to assess sowing properties it is more appropriate to use the term “seed sowing properties”. These indices hardly correlate with yields. However, seed certification is based on such indices. Sensitivity to diseases and pest infections are also estimated. But everything mentioned above does not give values for breeding that focuses on yield (table 3).
Ecological seed breeding is practiced in climatic-and-soil areas where seeds with high yielding properties are guaranteed. Usually it is thought that breeding seed properties is their ability to yield. To detect seeds with highest yields comparative field methods are being used. However, currently only researchers are interested in estimating yielding properties of seeds. It is a mistake that agrarian industry is not interested in breeding high yield seeds. There are lab methods for the estimation of yielding properties of seeds [Ю.Ларионов ,2003]. It is known that morphological and physiological features of breeding seeds comprise the main criteria for an estimate of biological value and yield capacity under certain ecological conditions (table 2). Sowing indexes (table 3) are suited only for an estimate of their germination capacity.
Table 3 Correlation between sprout development and sowing properties of spring wheat Eritrospermum 59 with the yielding capacity (1999-2001)
Correlation with yielding capacity Index Х 1999 2000 2001 Sprout 0,67 0,65 0,68 0,67 Radicle 0,83 0,70 0,78 0,77 Coleoptil 0,93 0,92 0,85 0,90 Radicle number 0,86 0,85 0,84 0,85 Energy 0,33 0,43 0,28 0,35 Germination 0,44 0,35 0,21 0,33 Purity 0,01 0,003 0,002 0,005 Infection rate 0,08 -0,31 -0,24 -0,116 Remaining > 0,4
Diversity determines yield. Depending on agrarian methods and growth conditions the cereal seeds form their blossom clusters not simultaneously but spread over 10-14 days. There is a correlation between the yield obtained in the field and the growing power [Larionov,2003]. There is a correlation between protein and phosphorus content and the sowing properties of seeds.
120
Fig.45 Dependence of the yield in the spring wheat variety Eritrospermum 59 on the level of development of sprout organs at the first reproduction in comparison with the 2 nd and 3 rd reproductions.
There are many factors affecting seed quality. In some regions, the conditions for gaining better quality seeds are better than in others. Summing up the Russian and foreign research [ Ю. Ларионов ,2003; Д.Шпаар ,2001; Mj.Holdsworth,2008] we can conclude that ecological seed breeding must be expanded for sustainability of horticulture in Russia.
Fig.46 .Herbicide’s stress release with adaptogen Gumi-M.
121 Productivity of one and the same variety changes in different locations. Lab methods to assess sprout development already exist [ Ю. Ларионов ,2003].
Experiments conducted in different soils and climatic zones show different yielding capacity. [Larionov,2003].
Varieties growing in southern areas are less easily infected. Mostly such seeds produce better yields. This is ecologically and economically important. Weed control and leaf infection control are based on herbicides and fungicides. Herbicides and fungicides harm the microflora and entomofauna of agrocenoses, thereby stressing cultivated crops (pic. 45).
The experimental fields showed that seed processing of 1,2,3 class of sowing standard increase germination at 5-11% (table 4).
The experiments show that: 1) yield is higher if seeds of spring wheat Eritrospermum 59 are treated with preparations of Riftal and Gumi-M; 2) Riftal and Gummi-M. It increases the index of breeding seeds reproduction and positively influences agrocenoses.
Table 4 Influence of the pre-sowing treatment of seeds on field germination and productivity of the spring wheat variety Eritrospermum 59 (2002-2004). Treatment with the growth regulating agents Riftal and Gumi-M
Field Number of Mass of Quality Versions germination , productive 1000 grains, Yielding, t/ha Fibrin content, % control % stems per m 2 gr
Control, 1class 72,3 372 37,6 2,24 25,6 I
Riftal 77,2 394 37,7 2,59 26,9 I
Gumi-M 76,8 397 37,9 2,66 27,5 I
It can be shown that water-physical soil properties and its thickness increase from the south to the north of Western Siberia. Increasing soil thickness results in decreased yield. The protection of plants needs herbicides and seeds are formed with low yielding capacity. That is why seed breeding of cereals must be conducted in the southern forest-steppe region.
Ecological seed breeding is necessary for economic and ecological sustainability. Target selection of seed runs with high yielding capacity for increasing of variety rotation efficiency becomes the main goal for increase of efficiency of intensification factors for better yielding in any region.
3.6.3 Monitoring and technological methods of seed breeding The correlation between sprout organs and the yielding properties of seeds proves that to improve ecological status and economic efficiency of the agrarian industry, it is necessary to have
122 information on yielding properties of seeds. There are special methods that have to be applied. There is a need to look at the significance of sprout organs as indexes of seed yielding properties.
Yields depend on the quantity and power of sprouts which are determined by morphological and physiological seed properties. But current lab indexes [ Семена , ГОСТ -2005; JSTA, 1999, 2000.] do not include these attributes. To estimate the biological capacity of seeds with respect to yields, it is necessary to estimate their ability to develop these organs. There is a special series of lab methods for the assessment of seed quality according to sprout development.
The series of indicators for yielding properties of seeds includes the following parameters: germination, germination power, length of the sprout, coleoptiles, roots, etc. [ Ю.Ларионов ,2003].
Seed quality assessment provides an opportunity to estimate the necessity of applying a certain seed strain taking into account economical and ecological requirements. Therefore, the monitoring of seed yielding capacity for selection of better yielding seed runs at the market and implement special technological, economical and ecological activities for seed breeding in the country.
Further stabilization of plant breeding and improvement of its economic efficiency must be based on ecological seed breeding. The main requirements for seed breeding include monitoring for yielding capacity under different conditions to find out about the adaptiveness of a variety and genetic constituency determining the level of productivity in the next generations.
123 The list of literature and electronic informational resources
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135 Annex: Training material The elaborated RUDECO modules serve for the purpose of “Vocational Training in Rural Development and Ecology” in Russia. They target on representatives of local and regional administrations and advanced students in the different fields of rural development.
All below listed RUDECO partners can be addressed in case of training interest in one of the modules. For readers of the module textbooks and training participants the project website provides the possibility to download additional material on http://tempus-rudeco.ru/en/modules (required password RD-modules ), e.g. presentations and other didactic material used in the conducted trainings.
136 RUDECO partners and contact information Contact persons for the presented module
Please specify: Adress of the Insitution(s) Names and emails Can be several
All RUDECO partners
Russia/ Россия
Russian State Agrarian University-Moscow Timiryazev Российский государственный аграрный университет – Agricultural Academy МСХА имени К.А.Тимирязева Sustainable Rural Development Center Центр устойчивого развития сельских территорий Moskva, Timiryazevskaya 49 Тимирязевская , 49 Moscow 127550 г. Москва , 127550 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.timacad.ru/en/ http://www.timacad.ru/
Russian Ministry of Agriculture Министерство сельского хозяйства РФ Department of Rural Development and Social Policy Департамент сельского развития и социальной 1/11 Orlikov pereulok политики Moscow 107139 Орликов переулок , 1/11 http://www.mcx.ru/ г. Москва , 107139 http://www.mcx.ru/
All-Russian Alexander Nikonov Institute of Agrarian Всероссийский институт аграрных проблем и Problems and Informatics of the Russian Academy of информатики им . А.А. Никонова Российской академии Agricultural Sciences (VIAPI) сельскохозяйственных наук B. Kharitonievskiy per. 21/6 Б. Харитоньевский пер . 21/6, Moscow 105064 г. Москва , 105064 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.viapi.ru/ http://www.viapi.ru/
Tambov State University named after G.R.Derzhavin Тамбовский государственный университет имени Г.Р. Internatsionalnaya 33 Державина Tambov 392000 Ул . Интернациональная , 33 [email protected] г. Тамбов , 392000 http://tsutmb.ru/ [email protected] http://tsutmb.ru/
Administration of Tambov region Администрация Тамбовской области Internatsionalnaya 14 Интернациональная , д.14 Tambov 392000 г. Тамбов , 392000 http://www.tambov.gov.ru/ http://www.tambov.gov.ru/
Orel State Agrarian University Орловский государственный аграрный университет Generala Rodina 69 ул . Генерала Родина , д. 69. Orel 302019 г. Орел , 302019 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.orelsau.ru/ http://www.orelsau.ru/
Samara State Agricultural Academy Самарская государственная сельскохозяйственная settl. Ust-Kineskiy, 2 Uchebnaya str. академия Samara region 446442 п. Усть -Кинельский , ул . Учебная 2 [email protected] Самарская обл ., 446442 http://www.ssaa.ru/ [email protected] http://www.ssaa.ru/
Yaroslavl State Agricultural Academy Ярославская государственная сельскохозяйственная Tutaevskoe shosse 58 академия
137 Yaroslavl 150042 Тутаевское шоссе , 58 S. Shchukin: [email protected] г. Ярославль , 150042 http://www.yaragrovuz.ru/ С.В. Щукин : s.shhukin @ yarcx.ru http://www.yaragrovuz.ru/
Kostroma State Agricultural Academy Костромская государственная сельскохозяйственная Karavaevo Campus академия Kostromskoy rayon Учебный городок КГСХА Kostromskaya oblast, 156530 пос . Караваево , Костромской район [email protected] Костромская обл ., 156530 http://kgsxa.ru/ [email protected] http://kgsxa.ru/
Stavropol State Agrarian University Ставропольский государственный аграрный Per. Zootekhnicheskiy 12 университет Stavropol 355017 пер . Зоотехнический 12 [email protected] г. Ставрополь , 355017 http://www.stgau.ru/english/official.php [email protected] http://www.stgau.ru/
Omsk State Agrarian University named after P.A.Stolypin Омский государственный аграрный университет Institutskaya Ploshchad 2 им .П.А.Столыпина Omsk 644008 Институтская площадь , 2 [email protected] г. Омск , 644008 http://www.omgau.ru/ [email protected] http://www.omgau.ru/
Novosibirsk State agrarian University Новосибирский государственный аграрный Dobrolubova 160 университет Novosibirsk, 630039 ул . Добролюбова , 160 [email protected] г. Новосибирск , 630039 http://nsau.edu.ru/ [email protected] http://nsau.edu.ru/
Buryat State Academy of Agriculture named after Бурятская государственная сельскохозяйственная V.R.Philippov академия им . В.Р. Филиппова Pushkina 8 ул . Пушкина , 8 Ulan-Ude, 670024 г. Улан -Удэ , 670024 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.bgsha.ru/ http://www.bgsha.ru/
Association of organic and biodynamic agriculture Некоммерческое Партнёрство по развитию "AGROSOPHIE" экологического и биодинамического сельского Krasnaya 20 хозяйства « Агрософия » Solnechnogorsk ул . Красная , 20 Moskovskaya Oblast, 141506 г. Солнечногорск , [email protected] Московская область , 141506 http://www.biodynamic.ru/en/ [email protected] http://www.biodynamic.ru/ru/
LLC Company "Gutelot" ООО компания « Гутелот » Marshala Katukova Str. 20 ул . Маршала Катукова , д. 20 Moscow 123592 г. Москва , 123592
The National Park "Plescheevo lake" Национальный парк « Плещеево озеро » Sovetskaya 41 ул . Советская , 41 Pereslavl-Zalesskiy г. Переславль -Залесский , Yaroslavlskaya Oblast, 152020 Ярославская область , 152020
Service on environmental safety, protection and use of Управление по охране и использованию объектов fauna, aquatic bioresources животного мира , водных биоресурсов и экологической Sauren Shaumyan Str. 16 безопасности Orel 302028 Улица Сурена Шаумяна ,16 г. Орел , 302028
138 Moscow State Agroengineering University named after Московский государственный агроинженерный V.P. Goryachkin. университет им . В.П.Горячкина Timiryazevskaya Str. 58 ул . Тимирязевская , 58 Moscow, 127550 г. Москва , 127550 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.msau.ru/ http://www.msau.ru/
All-Russian Association of Educational Institutions of Ассоциация образовательных учреждений Agro-Industrial Complex and Fisheries агропромышленного комплекса и рыболовства Listvennichnaya alleya 16A, build. 3 ул . Лиственничная аллея , д. 16 А, корп .3 Moscow, 127550 г. Москва , 127550 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.agroob.ru/ http://www.agroob.ru/
Germany/ Германия
University of Hohenheim Университет Хойенхайм Institute of Landscape and Plant Ecology (320) Институт ландшафтной экологии Eastern Europe Centre (770) и экологии растений (320) 70599 Stuttgart Центр Восточной Европы (770) [email protected] 70599 Stuttgart https://oez.uni-hohenheim.de/ [email protected] https://oez.uni-hohenheim.de/
Agency for Development of Agriculture and Rural Areas of Агентство по развитию сельского хозяйства и сельской the Federal State of Baden-Wuerttemberg (LEL) местности федеральной земли Баден -Вюртемберг Oberbettringer Strasse 162 (LEL) 73525 Schwäbisch Gmünd Oberbettringer Strasse 162 [email protected] 73525 Schwäbisch Gmünd https://www.landwirtschaft-bw.info [email protected] https://www.landwirtschaft-bw.info
Academy for Spatial Research and Planning (ARL), Академия пространственных исследований и Section WR IV "Räumliche Planung, raumbezogene планирования (ARL) Politik" Отдел WR IV " Пространственное планирование , Hohenzollernstr. 11 территориальная политика " 30161 Hannover Hohenzollernstr. 11 [email protected] 30161 Hannover http://www.arl-net.de/ [email protected] http://www.arl-net.de/
Terra fusca Ingenieure Терра -фуска Marohn, Lange Partnerschaftsgesellschaft Marohn, Lange Partnerschaftsgesellschaft Karl-Pfaff-Str. 24 a Karl-Pfaff-Str. 24 a 70597 Stuttgart 70597 Stuttgart http://www.terra-fusca.de/ http://www.terra-fusca.de/
Poland / Польша
Warsaw University of Life Sciences Варшавский университет естественных наук Laboratory of Evaluation and Assessment of Natural Лаборатория анализа и оценки природных рессурсов Resources Nowoursynowska Street 166 Nowoursynowska Street 166 Warsaw 02-787 Warsaw 02-787 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.spoiwzp.sggw.pl http://www.spoiwzp.sggw.pl
Association for Sustained Development of Poland Ассоциация устойчивого развития Польши Grzybowa Street 1 Grzybowa Street 1 Warsaw-Wesola 05-077 Warsaw-Wesola 05-077 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.ekorozwoj.pl/ http://www.ekorozwoj.pl/
France / Франция
139 L'Agence de services et de paiement Агентство сервиса и платежей (ASP) Mission des affaires internationales Служба международных отношений Rue du Maupas 2 Rue du Maupas 2 Limoges 87040 Limoges 87040 [email protected] [email protected] http://www.asp-public.fr/ http://www.asp-public.fr/
AgroSup Dijon Национальный институт высшего образования в 26 Boulevard Docteur Petitjean сфере агрономии , продуктов питания и окружающей 21079 Dijion cedex среды (AGROSUP), Дижон [email protected] 26 Boulevard Docteur Petitjean http://www.agrosupdijon.fr/ 21079 Dijion cedex [email protected] http://www.agrosupdijon.fr/
Italy / Италия
University of Udine Университет Удине Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Институт сельскохозяйственных наук и экологии Via delle Scienze 208 Via delle Scienze 208 33100 Udine 33100 Udine [email protected] [email protected] http://www.uniud.it/ http://www.uniud.it/
Slovakia / Словакия
Slovak University of Agriculture Словацкий университет сельского хозяйства International Relations Office Отдел международных отношений Tr.Andreja Hlinku 2 Tr.Andreja Hlinku 2 94976 Nitra 94976 Nitra [email protected] [email protected] http://www.uniag.sk/ http://www.uniag.sk/
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