Joumal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 6, No.1, PP. 19-43 (1984).

Paleoenvironmental Change at Elkhorn Slough: Implications for Human Adaptive Strategies�Strategies DOROTHY PATCH TERRY JONES

INCE the early 1900s when the results of cussed the implications of large-scale Holo­ Sthe first excavations of San Francisco Bay cene environmental changes for prehistoric shell mounds were published (Vhle 1907; central California populations; the former Nelson 1910; E. Gifford 1916; Schenck concentrating on mountainous areas, the lat­ 1926), much emphasis in California archae­ ter on the west-central portion of the state. ology has been placed on time/space patterns, Over the last two decades, California which has resulted in the refinement of archaeologists have initiated examination of numerous cultural chronologies. Coincidental smaller-scale, regional sequences of environ­ with subsequent developments in cultural an­ mental change, particularly in coastal settings. thropology (see Steward 1955; Netting 1977), These studies have benefited a growing inter­ more recent archaeological studies have direc­ est in the archaeology of coastal zones world­ ted increasing attention toward the process of wide (Stark and Voorhies 1978; Quilter and cultural change and the ecology of varying Stocker 1983), as well as the development of human lifeways. Environmental change is a a general theory of maritime adaptations theoretical premise that has frequently been (Yesner 1980). In the early 1960s, several advanced to explain shifts in the California authors discussed the silting in of San Diego archaeological record and associated, hypo­ County coastal lagoons and the resultant thetical population movements. population movement inland (Shumway, By the 1940s, a sequence of large-scale Hubbs, and Moriarty 1961; Warren, True, and climatic changes had been proposed and the Eudey 1961; Warren and Pavesic 1963). More implications of these changes for human recently, Desgrandchamp (1976) and Bickel behavior were discussed (Antevs 1948, 1952; (1978) discussed the influence of rising sea Aschmann 1958). As archaeological and pale­ levels on the coastal environment (Le., the oenvironmental data accumulated, new development of estuaries and associated models incorporating human response to marshes) and the consequent effects upon large-scale environmental changes were pro­ human groups living in that environment. posed (Baumhoff and Heizer 1965). More Bickel (1978: 16) suggested that archaeo­ recently, Moratto, King, and Woolfenden logical features such as "changing settlement (1978; but see comments by Byrne [1979: patterns and shifts in diet may be illuminated 196-198]) and Breschini (1983) have dis- by consideration of local histories of sea level rise and accompanying effects." Subse­ Dorothy Patch, 1 Pearce St., Petaluma, CA 94952, and Terry quently, Erlandson (1980) presented a discus­ Jones, 7725 W. Zayante Rd., Felton, CA 95018. sion of paleoenvironmental change at Teco­

[19 ]� 20 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

lote Canyon in Santa Barbara County that through thousands of years of tectonic activ­ incorporated the influence of sea-level rise. ity into an estuary. It again became a fresh­ In this paper we will discuss the implica­ water feature early in this century as a ti 0 ns 0 f small-scale paleoenvironmental by-product of fault activity (Jenkins 1973). change on prehistoric human populations Consequently, the resource complex it en­ residing in the coastal zone of central Cali­ compassed throughout prehistory has not fornia. The subject area is central Monterey remained constant. These fluctuations are Bay; specifically, Elkhorn Slough, an estuary indicated by several lines of evidence, includ­ situated midway between Santa Cruz and ing archaeological data. Monterey, the mouth of which now forms In order to examine the relationship part of the Moss Landing Harbor (Fig. I). between past environments and remnants of a Although the slough is currently classified as human behavioral system, the investigation an estuary, it has a complex hydrographic presented here incorporates (1) paleoenviron­ past related partially to sea-level rise and mental background research; (2) a palynologi­ partially to other natural events. Over 40 sites cal study aimed at defining the slough's have been recorded in the Elkhorn Slough environmental history; and (3) an analysis of area, all of which can generally be classified as archaeological data) focusing on the location shell middens, with shellfish remains consti­ of sites in relation to the hydrographic land­ tuting the bulk of cultural deposits. Analysis scape, and faunal assemblages present at these of data from two of these sites reveals a sites. changing pattern of shellfish exploitation ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND through time which correlates with the slough's hydrographic history. Elkhorn Slough is the main branch of a Two features of estuarine ecology render system of tidal channels that enters the archaeological sites associated with estuaries coastal plain of northern Monterey County at uniquely valuable to the study of human Moss Landing Harbor and reaches inland for adaptive behavior: (l) they are highly produc­ about seven miles (Fig. l). Alternating salt­ tive ecosystems (Pritchard 1967a) that em­ marsh and mud-flat communities line the body a marked resource potential for human basin formed by this channel system, which is users, and (2) estuaries are, by their nature, bordered to the east and northeast by rolling transient ecological phenomena characterized hills that extend into steeper terrain at the by change through time (Bickel 1978: 8; southern end of the Santa Cruz Mountains. Nissley, Bingham, and Cottrell 1978: 13; Adjacent drainage systems are those of the Ricketts and Calvin 1968: 232). Archaeologi­ Pajaro River to the north and the Salinas cal representations of economic behavioral River to the south. systems that utilized estuarine resources pro­ Elkhorn Slough has had a varied environ­ vide a context through which the dynamic mental history during this century, and evi­ interface between human populations and dence indicates a similarly shifting pattern in environment can be examined. Elkhorn prehistoric times. The current geomorphology Slough is of particular interest because its of the slough dates back only to 1946 and the natural history has involved not only the slough's status as a tidal creek, or estuary, dynamic tendendes typical of estuaries in only to 1908 (Fig. 2). Local drainage patterns general, but has also included drastic fluctua­ may also be fairly recent. Prior to 1908, the tions in constituent environmental regimes. It Salinas River curved northward near the was originally a fresh-water drainage, changed location of its present mouth and ran parallel PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 21

San Jose • SCl-178 • SCL-64 •SCl-I06

SCR-177 SCR-177 .. SCR-33 SCR-33 o Scott's Valley

.' .... , .

MNT-415 MNT-698. MNT-698. MNT-4r4 : :

Location of Pollen Core I i

Sollnoso

Nt 0 2.5 5 i ! SANTA LUCIA Mi 0 5 10 : ! RANGE Km

Fig. 1, Elkhorn Slough and important sites in Santa Clara, Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. tv tv tv tv ~ ""d r Z ...... o o o ,..., ::r: :;0 ~ ~ Z trl Q "r:1 > ~ ~ VJ t:J ttl c:::: Z > "r:1 ?:l ...... o o ...... :;0 r r (J > > o lie lie Castrovi • Castrovi • from from dike dike 1955 1955 Adapted Adapted . ~ Period. '.: Period. :.::~ ? )~: ' . "::~;~:! I ... i~ ' Historic Historic the the Castroville Castroville during during • • area area Bay Bay Monterey Monterey central central the the in in 147). 147). ~ Castroville Castroville changes changes • • (1977: (1977: .... ,.. tD 1875 1875 Hydrographic Gordon Hydrographic Gordon ~ " .so-?.

2. 2...... ' . ~c>-:;.;c > Fig. las Fig. las .. Salinas Salinas ::.~.: de de Rincon Rincon ~ V ~\.::.~"". PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 23

toto thethe coastline for about six miles, emptying Hede1 1977; Bloom 1971; Emery 1969; La­ intointo thethe ocean about one mile north of Moss joiejoie 1972). Geological studies indicateindicate thatthat Landing (Gordon 1977: 230). Elkhorn Slough the Elkhorn Slough basin originated as a opened into the river near the present site of fresh-water river (Jenkins 1973) which, during Moss Landing Harbor. The force of the parts of the Pleistocene, drained the area Salinas River's flow was adequate to limit presently drained by the San Benito-Pajaro tidal action and saltwater intrusion in the River system. Activity along the San Andreas slough, and it was more a freshwater lagoon fault throughout the last 200,000 years even­ and tributary to the Salinas than an estuary. tually cut the Elkhorn valley off from this On a few occasions during violent winter original watershed, leaving it periodically de­ rains, the Salinas River reportedly cut through void of fresh running water. Just when and the sand dunes near its present mouth and how the Salinas River was joined to thl emptied into the ocean there (Gordon 1977: slough, forming a fresh-water lagoon, remain: 234). The 1906 earthquake, which was caused in question; however, it is likely that at times by movements along the nearby San Andreas the slough became infused with salt water. fault (Fig. 1), may have had latent effects on Oceanographic features offshore from the the hydrography of this area by offsetting present position of the Salinas River mouth stream courses and altering the pressure of indicate that the mouth was maintained at water flow. This, in turn, created a new major that location over long periods of time, dating opening for the river to empty into the sea back to the Pleistocene (Gordon 1977: 231; (Jenkins 1973: 152). Flood-control darn con­ Yancy 1968: 9). As noted above, the north­ struction after 1908 maintained that outlet, ward curve of the river to join Elkhorn Slough and the former Salinas riverbed lands were near Moss Landing may have been the result reclaimed for agricultural use (Browning et al. of seismic activity and variant drainage pat­ 1972: 18). The former mouth of the Salinas terns. Also, the wave refraction patterns north of Moss Landing was kept open by tidal characteristic of Monterey Bay tend to build action, Elkhorn Slough filled with sea water, up high beach berms south of Moss Landing, and the fresh-water lagoon was replaced by and reports written before the river changed the estuary present today. Dredging of Moss course suggest that the Salinas River mouth Landing Harbor began in 1946 at the present was often pushed northward (Gordon 1977: location of the harbor mouth. Thus, the 232). Thus, past fluctuations in the location current slough entrance is now a man-made of the mouth of the Salinas River are reason­ channel that opens directly into the head of ably evident, as are consequential fluctuations the Monterey submarine canyon. The original in the habitat of Elkhorn Slough. mouth of the Salinas River north of Moss The plant and animal communities seen in Landing gradually silted in and closed Elkhorn Slough today are typically estuarine, (Browning et al. 1972: 2). with the overall environment composed of a Geomorphologically, Elkhorn Slough is of series of zones associated with varying degrees the "classic" estuary type: a drowned river of tidal fill. The littoral zone, which includes valley. These formations are common along mud flats and salt-marsh land with pickle­ coastlines with a wide coastal plain (Pritchard weed (Salicornia pacifica) as the dominant 1967a, 1967b). The evolution of coastal-plain vegetative indicator, contains the most im­ estuaries like Elkhorn Slough probably began portant potential human food resources. Mud with a rapid rise in sea level between 15,000 flats and channel banks of the littoral zone and 7,000 years ago (Atwater, Helley, and are inhabited by at least 28 species of 24 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY shellfish, and the salt marsh provides roosting central California taxonomic system to de­ and feeding grounds for a wide variety of scribe culture change. Although further re­ avifauna. Outlying zones that extend from the gional synthesis is necessary (particularly in salt marsh along borders of tributaries and Santa Clara County), some headway has fresh-water seeps include glasslands and oak recently been made toward the establishment woodlands. These communities also provide of a central-coast chronological sequence. resting and feeding grounds for many species The Monterey Bay area is currently better of the slough's avian fauna and support a wide understood due to efforts made during the variety of terrestrial wildlife. course of several major cultural resource Because historical and geological evidence management projects (Breschini and Haversat indicates that the basin which holds Elkhorn 1980; Cartier I 980a; Dietz and Jackson 1981; Slough has been subjected to a long sequence Breschini, Haversat, and Hampson 1983; Hil­ of fluctuations in regional drainage patterns, de brandt 1983). The following is a brief distributional fluctuations in local biotic com­ overview of available data regarding the munities may also be presumed. Therefore, central-coast sequence of human occupation. biotic communities occupying the slough to­ Evidence for early human presence on the day have not been consistently present central coast comes from two controversial throughout its history, although appropriate sites: SCR-l77, the Scott's Valley site, situ­ habitats may have developed when fresh­ ated 20 miles northwest of Elkhorn Slough, water flow was minimized enough to allow and SCL-178, the Metcalf site, 23 miles north salt-water intrusion. in the Santa Clara Valley (Fig. 1). The Scott's Valley site has yielded four radiocarbon dates ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND between approximately 7000 and 10,000 The relationship between the archaeology years B.P. (Cartier 1980a, 1984; see Table 1). of Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, and Monterey Preliminary excavations at this site yielded a counties and the rest of central California has meager artifact assemblage in association with long been unclear. No data from this area the radiocarbon dates. The lack of a good were used in the formulation of the central assemblage, combined with the fact that the California taxonomic system, which was dates were obtained from loose charcoal, led based primarily on excavation data from the many researchers to question the antiquity of Sacramento/San Joaquin Delta (Lillard, Hei­ the site. Subsequent recovery of a large zer, and Fenenga 1939; Heizer 1949) and the excavation sample (over 200 cubic meters of San Francisco Bay area (Beardsley 1948, earth were removed) has provided artifactual 1954). With the exception of Pohorecky's and other support for a fairly early initial (1964) site report from southern Monterey occupation of SCR-177, and several partially County and several preliminary studies con­ mixed components have been recognized in ducted by University of California, Berkeley, the site assemblage. Tools associated with the graduate students (Pilling 1948, 1955), virtu­ early dates include a preponderance of chop­ ally no significant archaeological research was pers, lanceolate bifaces, large unifaces, and a conducted on the central coast until the single Monterey chert eccentric crescent-all advent of cultural resource management in of which occur in assemblages dated between the 1960s. When study was initiated many 10,000 and 6000 years B.P. in other parts of researchers assumed the culture history of the western North America (see Cartier [1984] central coast paralleled that of the Delta and, for further discussion). Perhaps more import­ for lack of a regional sequence, employed the antly, obsidian hydration measurements of PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 25 flakes and biface fragments from SCR-177 These include: MNT-112, MNT-116 (Dietz support an occupation span from approxi­ and Jackson 1981), MNT-170 (Breschini and mately 4000 to 8000-9000 years B.P. 1 Haversat 1980), MNT-387 (Cartier n.d.), A similar time depth has been suggested MNT-391 (Breschini and Haversat n.d.b), for the initial occupation of SCL-178, which MNT-438 (Cartier 1983), SCR-7 (Roop 1976; yielded a series of radiocarbon dates ranging Lajoie, in Edwards [1984: 2]), and SCR-33 from close to 10,000 years B.P. at depths of (Cartier 1980a; see Table 1, Fig. 1). Following 330-750 em., to around 1000 B.P. at 90-100 this widespread establishment of human occu­ em. (Hildebrandt 1983: 6-3, 8-42; see Table pation, a cultural break at 2000 years B.P. has 1). The stratigraphic context of the multi­ been hypothesized by Breschini and Haversat component cultural deposit appears to be (1980) and Dietz and Jackson (1981). Bres­ consistent with the dating. 2 However, neither chini and Haversat (1980) first suggested this sufficient artifactual materials nor other data break on the basis of two spatially and (e.g., obsidian hydration measurements) that temporally distinct components at MNT-170. would allow for cross-checking of the radio­ The earlier component, associated with the carbon dates were obtained from the site. 3 previously mentioned date of 4040 ±100 B.P., Nonetheless, Hildebrandt (1983: 8-51) felt was thought to represent a pre-Costanoan that the excavation data suggested initial occupation, probably by Hokan speakers, occupation of the Metcalf site between 5000 with a generalized "forager" adaptive strategy and 10,000 years B.P. with continued regular (after Binford 1980). This strategy was repre­ but limited occupation through 1000 years sented by "middens with Shell" (Breschini B.P. 4 Although neither the Metcalf nor the 1980; Breschini and Haversat 1980: 12), Scott's Valley site yielded a substantial arti­ which are distributed both on the immediate fact assemblage, and there are many unre­ coast and inland. The later culture, dating to solved questions about both sites, they do approximately 2500 B.P. was thought to suggest the presence of humans in the central represent the arrival of Utian-speaking groups coast area by 8000 to 9000 B.P. to the Monterey peninsula who possessed a Other evidence of early human presence more specialized "collector" adaptive strategy on the central coast has been reported from (after Binford 1980). This economic mode several sites with basement radiocarbon dates was represented by specialized collecting/ between 5000 and 6800 B.P.: SCL-64 and processing sites on the coast (shell middens SCL-l06 (Cartier 1980b) in the Santa Clara with extremely large, dense accumulations of Valley and MNT-228 (Spanne 1981) in the shell) and inland village sites with less shell central Monterey Bay area (Table 1, Fig. 1). and evidence of more diverse activities (Bres­ While these sites suggest continued human chini and Haversat 1980: 4-15). occupation of the central coast, at present While currently available data do point to they indicate little else since the radiocarbon a major change in settlement and subsistence, dates were obtained during the course of the precise nature of linguistic affiliations small-scale test excavations that produced no remains unclear and the record would perhaps assemblages in association with the dates. be most safely interpreted as in situ cultural By 3500-4500 years B.P., occupation of development rather than intrusion by a new the central coast appears to have been well­ linguistic group (cf. Breschini 1983). Dietz established. A number of sites, particularly in and Jackson (1981) found support for the Monterey County, have yielded dates suggest­ presence of two "cultures" on the Monterey ing initial occupation during this time span. peninsula and elaborated on the settlement/

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" 1977a, 1977a, n.d. n.d. 1979: 1979:97 1976; 1976; and and and and Erlandson Erlandson and and and and and and " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " .­ " " and and Pierce Greenwood Cartier Pierce Cartier Greenwood Roop Cartier Roop Cartier Cartier Cartier Hildebrandt Patch Patch Cartier Hildebrandt Patch Patch Winter Winter Spanne Cartier Breschini Cartier Bresehini Cartier Spanne Bresehini Dietz Breschini Dietz Dietz Dietz Dietz Dietz TEXT TEXT shell shell shell shell shell shell IN IN Dated bone Dated charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal bone shell Mytilusl charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal shell shell charcoal charcoal charcoal shell Haliotis Haliotis charcoal charcoal Mytz1us/ charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal Haliotis Haliotis charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal mixed charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal mixed mixed mixed Protothaca mixed Protothaca Haliotis Protothaca Protothaca Haliotis Protothaca Protothaca charcoal mixed Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis charcoal Mytilus Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Haliotis Mytilus Haliotis HaUotis Haliotis Material Material 4 4 4 ern. em. 3 3 cm. cm.4 cm. em. of of '! '! ? ? ? ? ern. em. em. cm. feature feature cm. ern. em. feature feature em. em. em. cm. em. em. cm. cm. em. em. ern. ern. ern. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. ern. em. - em. cm. ern. em. em. em. em. em. em. ern. em. em. em. em. ern. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. ? ? 90 90 80 74 90 80 80 74 90 80 80 80 80 80 152.4 330 330 880 152.4 880 140 280 280 140 280 280 330 330 610 610 MENTIONED 610 100 100 160 265 265 610 100 265 265 140 610 MENTIONED 100 140 160 610 140 120 120 rock rock 140 rock 140 120 rock 120 140 Cultural Cultural Deposit Depth Deposit Depth 100-110 100-110 100-110 100-110 midden midden cm. ern. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. em. ern. em. em. ern. ern. cm. em. em. with with with with midden midden of of em. em. em. em. em. cm. em. em. em. em. em. cm. em. em. ern. em. cm. em. em. em. em. cm. em. ern. em. em. em. em. ern. em. em. em. em. cm. ern. em. em. em. cm. em. em. em. em. em. 90 90 90 90 midden midden of of DATES 290 750 510 290 110 750 510 DATES 110 350 350 330 330 85 85 60 60 60 60 1 30 1 63 67 80 30 63 63 67 63 80 63 63 250 250 138 of 138 of Sample Sample top top surface surface Depth Depth 122-145 122-145 320-330 80-110 80-110 bottom bottom 90-100 90-100 90-100 90-100 50- 50- 50- 50- 25- 60- 80-110 59- 80-110 59- 25- 60- of 59- 59- 59- of 59- 140-190 140-190 100-110 100-110 100-120 220-250 100-120 220-250 associated associated associated associated 110-120 110-120 130-140 110-120 110-120 base base 130-140 Table Table Lab Lab UCLA-1686A320-330 UCR-0789 GAK-2044 UCR-0789 UCLA-1686A GAK-2044 B-7713 RL-1373 RL-1374 B-7713 RL-1374 RL-1373 UCLA-2354A UCLA-2354C UCLA-2329D UCLA-2354B B-7714 RL-1372 UCLA-2354A UCLA-2354C UCLA-2329D UCLA-2354B B-7714 RL-1372 UCLA-2329C UCR-1294 1-7828 UCLA-2329C UCR-1294 RL-1675 RL-I055 1-7827 1-7828 UCR-0796 UCR-1075 UCR-0608 UCLA-2329B RL-1056 UCR-0796 UCLA-2329B UCR-0608 RL-1675 RL-1055 RL-1056 UCR-0797 UCR-1075 UCR-0797 WSU-2580 WSU-2579 B-6611 WSU-2579 WSU-2580 B-6611 WSU-2578 WSU-2578 Number RL-848 RL-849 RL-847 UCR-1308 RL-1360 RL-0839 RL-0838 RL-0840 Number RL-849 RL-847 WSU-2390 WSU-2389 UCR-130B RL-1360 RL-0839 RL-0838 RL-0840 RL-848 WSU-2390 WSU-2389 RADIOCARBON 7 7 7 RADIOCARBON B.p.2 B.p.2 COAST COAST 3110±100 3110±100 1080±1O1 4710±lO071-7827 - - 4710±100 1080±101 -­ -­ - -­ -­ -­ 4520±101 4520±101 - -­ - - - - 4860±161 .­ 4860±161 ------Shellfish Shellfish Correction Correction Years Years 6 6 90 90 60 90 90 60 B.P.! B.P.! CENTRAL CENTRAL 340±150 660±100 590± 660±100 340±150 590± MASCA MASCA 8000 3550±260 3910±190 8000 3550±260 6170±1060 3910±190 6170±1060 4060± 6320±570 -­ - 6320±570 - 4850±210 4228±240 4040± 4228±240 4060± 4850±210 ------4620±210 - 4040± ------4620±210 - - - - - Correction COrrection Years Years 8 8 990 190 990 190 1700 1250 1400 1290 1690 1060 1330 1150 1840 3440 1330 1840 2090 1600 1150 1520 1060 1690 3440 1520 1250 1290 1690 6480 5020 5230 8010 4930 8130 1340 1850 2250 1710 6480 5020 5230 8130 8010 1850 1710 1340 2090 1690 1400 1600 1700 7010 7250 7240 7370 5100 2100 7010 7250 7240 3250 3590 3410 3410 6550 5100 4930 2250 3590 3410 3410 6550 4640 7370 4640 2100 3250 Years Years A.D./B.C. A.D./B.C. A.D. A.D. B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. B.C. A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. A.D. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. 75 95 70 95 70 75 B.P. B.P. Raw Raw 890±290 260±100 700± 660±100 550±100 890±290 960±200 nO±240 960±200 260±100 770±240 700± 660±100 550±100 Years Years 3550±120 3650±130 8430±200 3640±130 3280±230 3790±100 3550±120 3650±130 1760±100 3280±230 3790±100 3800±240 3470± 6880±135 843o±200 8500±300 1760±100 7180±290 7050±110 3800±240 3470± 9200±1000 9960±S00 9190±600 9320±140 3640±130 6970±150 5390±100 8960±190 8500±300 4200±120 4050±130 4040±100 7180±290 7050±110 9200±1000 9960±500 9190±600 3660±100 3290± 6590±200 6970±150 5390±100 5360±990 896o±190 4200±120 3660±100 3290± 6590±200 6880±135 5360±990 9320±140 5200±100 5540±160 5520±480 4050±130 4040±100 5200±100 5540±160 5520±480 Radiocarbon Radiocarbon 10,080±460 10,080±460 5 5 5 5 5 5 S S 5 5 S S Site Site MNT-I13 MNT-170 MNT-228 MNT-116 MNT-I12 MNT-170 MNT-228 SCR-l77 SL0-2 SCR-33 SCR-I77 8L0-177 MNT-391 MNT-438 MNT-698 SL0-2 SCL-64 SCL-106 SCR-7 SCR-33 MNT-116 MNT-391 MNT-698 MNT-1l2 MNT-1l3 SLo-177 SCR-7 SCL-106 MNT-387 MNT-414 SCL-178 MNT-387 MNT-414 MNT-438 SCL-l78 SCL-64

"" d m m tr1 Z <: o ..... r ~ ~ r > t:c tT:l Z m i:;;i o () ~ ~ n > t:c o ..., ~ ~ > tv ---.l o !Zl r r " " 1983:24 1983:24 " Erlandson Erlandson n.d.a n.d.a " and and Reference Reference " Haversat Haversat Haversat, Haversat, and and " Breschini, Breschini Breschini Breschini, ell shell shell shell shell shell shell shell shell shell shell sh shell Dated Dated Material Material mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed mixed 3 3 of of ? ? ? ? ? ~ ? ~ ~ ~ Cultural Cultural Depth Depth Deposit Deposit ern. em. em. em. ern. ern. ern. em. ern. em. 70 60 50 50 70 60 50 50 20 20 Sample Sample Depth Depth 50- 60- 50- 40- 60- 4()" 40- 40- 10- 10- of of (continued) (continued) 1 1 7 7 is is in in be be on on and and (see (see 95% 95% it it been been show show SCR-7 SCR-7 note note factor. factor. species species species species Table Table only only Lab reside Lab reside at at recalibra­ recalibra­ has has (Edwards (Edwards with with should should A.D.jB.C., A.D.jB.C., WSU-2619 WSU-2619 the WSU-2481 WSU-2482 WSU-2620 the WSU-2481 WSU-2482 WSU-2620 (see (see Number Number WSU-2480 WSU-2480 of of such such clearly clearly B.P. B.P. although that although that MNT-113 MNT-113 Robinson Robinson 2 2 years years paper paper factor factor years years factor factor know know correction correction site. site. factor factor used used of of B.P. 341]) B.P. 341]) in in years years from from conducted conducted 680 680 the the not not this this this this species species short discussion short discussion Shellfish Shellfish of of - - - Mytilus; -- - Mytilus; of of basis basis Correction Correction do do Years Years a data data a (1981) (1981) [1981: [1981: for for correction correction correction correction and and we we 1 other other the the presented presented comparison. comparison. develop develop levels levels factor factor 4740-3715 4740-3715 the the developing developing of of excavations excavations B.P. B.p.1 to to on on is is and and Jackson Jackson in in Jackson's Jackson's B.P. B.P. (1981) (1981) (although (although determination. determination. 103-228] 103-228] the upper upper the ease ease Thompson Thompson usually Haliotis usually Haliotis MASCA MASCA - - - - - used used date date and and Correction Correction Years Years sp.) sp.) and spp. and spp. on on dates dates whether whether for for are are years for years for taken. taken. and and correction from correction from consequently consequently this this 1970s 1970s [1982: [1982: Dietz Dietz B.P. B.P. 3330 6130 3330 3470 6130 3470 4915 Dietz 3200 4915 Dietz 3200 species species was was these these for for or or unclear unclear radiocarbon radiocarbon Years Years available available Thompson's Thompson's early early the the 1976), is 1976)), is A.D./B.C. Saxidomus A.D./B.C. Saxidomus B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. years years obtained shellfish obtained shellfish incorrect incorrect Protothaca Protothaca the the Robinson 8295-7415 Robinson 8295-7415 range range it it corrections sample corrections sample in in the the and and article article is is revised samples. revised samples. and and also also for for for for report report 90 90 in in B.P. B.P. Radiocarbon Radiocarbon this this (1981) given given (1981) range: range: which which spp. spp. full full used used Raw Raw were these were these (see (see in in [Morejohn [Morejohn factor factor valid valid Protothaca, MASCA Protothaca, MASCA habitats. habitats. however, however, no no 8080±100 Years 8080±100 6865±120 Years 6865±120 5280± 5420±120 5280± 5420±120 5150±147 5150±147 here here to to recently recently Radiocarbon Radiocarbon of of recalibrated from recalibrated Robinson Robinson from is shell is shell dates dates this this are are ranges). ranges). Morejohn Morejohn the the unit unit Recalibrated RecaIibrated 1984:2); There discussion of 1984:2); discussion probably published by Lajoie applied probably published by (Protothaca Lajoie There applied of Actual tion that (Protothaca Later Thompson's sheltered Actual tion Later Thompson's below). sheltered Using reliability Estimated. below). Using reliability that Estimated. In Although they sample Although they sample In Site Site 8. 8. 5. 5. 7. 3. 6. 7. 3. 6. 1. 2. 1. 2. 4. 4. SL0-877 SL0-877 28 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY subsistence implications of the fo rager­ ment a number of additional surveys have collector dichotomy. Also following Binford been conducted, including those of Edwards (1980), they described the hypothetical for­ and Farley (1974), Jackson, Holson, and aging strategy of the early culture as includ­ Morris (1977), and King (1981). These and ing; other works resulted in the recording of approximately 40 sites along the slough and seasonal residential moves among a series of resource patches, gathering of foods daily on the lower courses of the Pajaro and Salinas an "encounter" basis with return to a rivers. Excavations have been conducted to residential base near the end of each day, no the south on the Monterey peninsula and to use of storage, a limited foraging radius the north along the Santa Cruz County coast. around residential bases, considerable vari­ A history of these excavations has been ability in the size of foraging groups and the compiled recently by Lonnberg and Morris number of residential moves made in a year, considerable variability in the redundancy of (1981). While Elkhorn Slough is situated on a land use from year to year, and the possible flat, sandy coastline, most previous excava­ occasional occurrence of extended resource tions have taken place in the steep, rocky procurement trips from residential bases shore areas. Until 1974, when two sites on the [Dietz and Jackson 1981: 700] . slough were excavated (see below), no sub­ The aforementioned dates for MNT-112 and surface investigations had been conducted in -116 are associated with components repre­ this environmental setting. sentative of this early strategy. INVESTIGATION RESULTS In contrast, the later "collector" culture was described as "characterized by storage of Palynology food during part of the year, logistically Given the environmental history of Elk­ organized resource procurement parties (labor horn Slough, we hypothesized that past vege­ groups) and the use of residential bases tative communities (e.g., fresh-water river, (permanent and seasonal), camps, locations, fresh-water marsh, and salt-water marsh) stations and caches" (Dietz and Jackson would be readily detectable in a pollen profile 1981:701). Nineteen sites excavated by Dietz from the slough. A soil column of 340 em. and Jackson (1981), including those with was collected from the bank of the slough's early components and a portion of MNT-170 upper reach and eight pollen samples were (Breschini and Haversat 1980) contained com­ taken from the column. Pollen grains were ponents representing this later culture and extracted and analyzed by Pollen Research associated dates between 250 and 2500 B.P. Associates, San Mateo, California. Strati­ Numerous sites in Monterey and Santa Cruz graphy and pollen from the column clearly counties and the San Francisco Bay area date reflected the most recent (1908) shift from a to this period and, in general, human occupa­ fresh-water to a salt-water marsh. The top 10 tion can be considered to have been well em. consisted of brown clay that yielded 93% established in the central-coast region by Chena-Am pollen-the grouping which in­ 2500 B.P. cludes Salicornia. Below 10 em. there was a Archaeological studies undertaken in the distinct shift to a black, silty clay, which immediate vicinity of Elkhorn Slough have continued to a depth of 340 em. This stratum been almost exclusively limited to survey, exhibited a lack of Cheno-Am grains and a with early work done by Golomshtok (1922), preponderance of fresh-water marsh species, Hill (1929), Wood (1930), and Pilling (1948). including willow (Salix sp.) and several species With the advent of cultural resource manage­ of the Cyperacae family. A Eucalyptus grain PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 29 was found at a depth of 340 em. indicating The archaeological research began with a that the time span represented by the column review of site survey records that aided in was no greater than 120 years, and that evaluating trends in cultural remains (particu­ sediment accumulation during the fresh-water larly molluscan dietary debris), size and gen­ period was markedly greater than during the eral nature of sites, and the location of sites in salt-water period. Although the results of the relation to hydrographic features. Excavation pollen analysis do not encompass a sufficient data were available for MNT-414 and time depth with which to address prehistoric MNT-415, two shell middens situated within issues, they do show how a pollen profile can 100 m. of each other on the west bank of the reflect hydrographic shifts, and provide a eastern branch of the slough (Fig. 1). Eleven framework for future studies of deeper 1 x l-m. units with depths varying between columns. 10 and 100 em. at MNT-4l4, and two units 60 and 20 em. deep at MNT-415 were Archaeology excavated in 1974 by Rob Edwards and the Santa Cruz Archaeological Society. The re­ Our archaeological investigations were sults of these excavations were later reported guided by the premise that molluscan assem­ by D. Gifford (1977) and Patch (1979). Shell­ blages in the sites at Elkhorn Slough represent fish data consisted primarily of percentages the process of shifting human subsistence (by weight) of different molluscan species, strategies necessitated by a changing environ­ which quantified the variable occurrences of ment. Fundamental factors influencing the those species within each site and between natural distribution of molluscs are: (1) de­ sites. The only typeable artifacts from the two gree of wave shock; (2) type of available sites were two Desert Side-notched projectile SUbstrate-rock, sand, mud, or some combina­ points of Monterey chert; one from the 10-20 tion of these; and (3) amount of tidal expo­ em. level of unit 47/32 at MNT-4l4 and the sure (Ricketts and Calvin 1968). Tempera­ other from the surface of MNT-4l5. ture, salinity, and the chemical and nutri­ For this study, radiocarbon dates (uncor­ tional nature of the medium further influence rected for secular variation) of 5540 B.P. distribution. Thus each species is endowed ± 160, or 3590 B.C. (UCR-747), and 5200 with a "natural habitat of clearly defined B.P. ±100, or 3250 B.C. (UCR-1075), were nature" (Meighan 1971: 419). Because mol­ obtained for two specimens of clam shell luscs are generally confined to these very (Protothaca sp.) from the bottom level specific ecological conditions, their appear­ (90-100 em.) of unit 52/62 at MNT-414. ance in archaeological sites serves as a paleo­ Because atmospheric mixing with water and ecological indicator. That is, the overall as­ the mixing between water masses is slow semblage of molluscan species in a site can compared to more uniform 14 C activity in indicate the nature of the environments from the atmosphere (from which dating standards which they were collected (e.g., from the are derived), radiocarbon calibrations from open coast, or from a protected estuarine marine shell typically produce excessively old environment). Differences in the nature of the apparent ages (see Gillespie and Temple assemblage throughout a site (e.g., between [1977] for a discussion of the "reservoir levels) or among sites in a given region may effect"). Compensation for this requires cal­ indicate fluctuations in local ecosystems culating 14 C activity of surface ocean water through time and in corresponding shellfish bicarbonates in the growth region of the site consumption patterns. being dated, then comparison of the resultant 30 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

value to modem, terrestrial standard 14 C the slough, MNT-698, in order to determine activity. The latter values are generally low whether differences in shell assemblages ex­ along the central coast of California, but may isted among sites. Twenty-two surface collec­ be more significant for specimens from con­ tion units from this shell midden located on texts like Elkhorn Slough, as restricted circu­ the eastern bank of the northeastern end of lation and admixture of fresh water tend to the slough (Fig. 1) indicated an assemblage impart a lowered 14 C content (Berger, Tay­ similar to that reflected in excavation data lor, and Libby 1966). from MNT-414 and -415. This surface assem­ Robinson and Thompson (1981) pro­ blage was radiocarbon dated at 1760 B.P. posed a "reservoir" correction factor for ±11 0 or A.D. 190 (UCR-796), from a sample radiocarbon dates on marine shell from the of Protothaca sp. ("reservoir" corrected to southern Pacific northwest coast. Using sam­ 1080 ± 11 0 B.P.), ples of Saxidomus spp. and Protothaca spp. Most molluscs represented at sites (one of which was acquired from Monterey MNT-414, -415, and -698 were estuarine Bay), they derived a correction figure of -680 forms that are found in the slough today. The ±15 years to be applied to central California four most well represented species were little­ marine shell dates. Although this correction neck clam (Protothaca sp.), gaper clam (Tre­ factor was apparently intended for applica­ sus nuttallii), Nuttall's cockle (Clinocardium tion to dates obtained from any species of nuttallii), and bay mussel (Mytilus edulis). marine shellfish, it appears to be valid only Table 2 shows the fluctuations in frequency for species that resided in sheltered habitats (by weight) of these species from the surface (such as Protothaca spp. and Saxidomus spp., to the lowest levels in the deeper units used in formulating the correction factor). excavated at MNT-414 and -415. Most of the Data 0 btained by Dietz and Jackson shell at MNT-414 was found between 10 and (1981) from MNT-1l3 clearly show that a 30 em. depth, while units excavated below 30 correction factor of ·680 years is excessive em. at MNT-414 and -415 (one unit, 29/100, when applied to specimens derived from at the latter site) yielded more shell from the exposed habitats. They obtained radiocarbon 30-60 em. levels than from deeper levels dates from a Haliotis rufescens shell filled (Tables 2-4). As shown in Tables 3 and 4, a with charcoal, the charcoal it contained, and general increase in the amount of shell (of all from a Mytilus californianus shell (also found major species except Tresus nuttallii) occur­ within the HatioUs sheIl)-all of which fell red between 30-50 em. in the deepest units of within 400 radiocarbon years of each other each site. At the 70-80 em. level in unit 52/62 (Dietz and Jackson 1981: 702).5 Since the (MNT-414) and at the 30-40 em. level in unit MNT-414 dates were obtained from one of 29/100 (MNT-415), the amount of Proto­ the sheltered habitat species used by Robin­ thaca sp. and Clinocardium nuttallii declined, son and Thompson (1981) to develop the while the amount of Mytilus edulis showed a correction factor, we have employed it as sharp increase. Greengo's (1951) data from a follows: 5540 B.P. ± 160 (UCR-747) is cor­ single subsurface testing unit at MNT-229, rected to 4860 B.P. ±160; and 5200 B.P. situated near the mouth of Elkhorn Slough, ±100 (UCR-I075) is corrected to 4250 RP. showed similar trends although no time frame ± 100. 6 can be assigned to that assemblage. To augment previously gathered data, Most of the molluscan species represented systematic surface collections of molluscan at MNT-414 and -415 are adapted to an remains were made at another site situated on estuarine habitat, and many can presently be PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 31

Table 2 UNIT·LEVEL QUANTITIES OF SHELL1 (WEIGHT IN GRAMS) RECOVERED FROM CA·MNT-414 AND .4152 29/100 37/18 46/92 47/32 47/72 49/22 52/42 52/62 67/36 82/47 92/60 Total 3 0- 9 em. 115A 164.2 16.2 207.7 216.9 116.4 194.1 356.1 308.1 456.8 60.7 2212.6 10-19 em. 175.2 547.6 21.5 229.6 544.0 .. 188.9 636.0 473.0 361.5 .. 3177.3 20-29 em. 182.3 460.4 17.4 489.4 410.3 ....� 398.3 622.4 485.3 228.0 .. 3293.8 30-39 em. 239.1 601.9 .. .. 703.8 ..�.. * 1100.8�1100.8 * .. '" 2645.6 588,4 .. 40-49 em. 215.1 * ..* 635.2.. '" '" 1353.2�1353.2 '" '" 2791.9 50-59 em. 57.0 855.5� * '"�'" '" 1189.1 '" * * 2101.6 em. ..�.. .. 60-69 '" 377.4 � * ..* ..'" * 1107.5 * * 1484.9 70-79 em.�em. '"�'" * **� '" * 1034.0 '" '" '" 1034.0 80-89 em.�em. '" '" * '" '" '" '" 651.6 '" '" '" 651.6 90-99 em.em.� '" '" * * * '" * 330.2 '" '" '" 330.2

1.�1. Species includes Protothaca spp., Clinocardium nuttallii, Mytilus edulis, Macoma nasuta, Tresus nuttallii, Tresus and Macoma, Ostea lurida, Balanus sp., and species unidentified. 2.�2. Compiled from D. Gifford (1977), and Patch (1979). Table does not include shell weights for unit 70/94, the integrity of deposits in this unit was notably disrupted by gopher activity. Unit 29/100 is the only unit listed from MNT-415. Shell weights from unit 60/80, MNT-415, are not included because the unit-levels were incompletely excavated. The pedestal excavated around a rock cluster (labeled Feature 1) between 20 and 50 em. in unit 29/100 at MNT-415 contained 46.7 gm. of shell. The shell tallies for levels 20-29 em., 30-39 em., and 40-49 em. do not include shell weights from this pedestal. 3.�3. Includes surface. •� Not excavated. found in nearby mudflats. Mytilus, however, DISCUSSION does not currently occur in the immediate Environmental History vicinity of these sites. It is found along the rocky banks of the slough's lower reaches. By combining the site shellfish data with Substrates more suitable to Mytilus' habita­ geological history and palynology, the follow­ tion probably existed in the slough near the ing historical/environmental sequence for Elk­ sites during an earlier period in its develop­ horn Slough is evident: ment. As noted above, My tilus appeared in 1. Elkhorn Slough was originally a fresh­ greater quantities in the lower levels of the water river, cut by drainage of inland lakes sites (at least in the units examined). If we during the Pleistocene; postulate that the lowest levels of MNT-414 2. At some point between the Pleisto­ and -415 represent human occupation of the cene and the historic period, the channel was area during the early stages of Elkhorn filled with salt water long enough for a Slough's development as an estuary, rocky well-developed estuarine ecosystem to be basins scoured by the fresh-water stream that established, as evidenced by midden remains. had previously filled the channel may have All species of molluscs represented in the been more common here than mud flats. archaeological sites sampled were salt-water Thus, a more suitable habitat for mussels species, mostly of estuarine habitat. Accord­ probably existed in the immediate vicinity, ing to the dates on shell from MNT-414, -415, and this resource could have been conven­ and -698, the estuarine community existed as iently collected by the site's inhabitants. As early as ca. 4860 B.P. and as recently as ca. the estuary expanded, fill produced extensive 1080 B.P. It may have remained intact until mud flats better suited to forms like Proto­ an even later date, given the occurrence of the thaca, Clinocardium, and Tresus.�Tresus. two Desert Side-notched projectile points in 32 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 33� CA-MNT-414: SHELL TOTALS (WEIGHT IN GRAMS)GRAMS)� BY SPECIES AND LEVEL]LEVEL]� Protothaca Clillocardium Mytilus Macoma Tresus Tresus and Ostrea BalanusBa/anus 2 spp. nuttal/iiIluttal/ii edu/is nasuta Iluttallii Macoma furida sp. Unidentified 0- 9 em. 1159.1 289.1 59.5 27.4 208.6 98.1 18.9 2.0 234.5 10-19 em. 1517.0 524.2 185.3 35.6 431.2 124.3 27.9 5.3 151.3 s 20-29 em. 1346.2 482.1 174.0 35.9 244.2 199.0 22.7 5.2 112.8�112.8 30-39 em. 1089.2 480.1 255.1 16.7 120.8 216.4 0 0 228.2�228.2 40-49 em. 1094.5 529.7 414.3 0 88.2 245.9 0 0 204.2�204.2 50-59 em. 1105.1 258.4 385.7 0 6.5 142.3 0 0 146.6�146.6 60-69 em. 498.9 255.0 365.7 3.6 0.5 95.1 0 0 266.1�266.1 70-79 em. 361.5 185.0 361.6 0 0 81.7 0 0 114.2�114.2 80-89 em. 196.0 141.5 199.4 42.5 0 0 0 0 72.2�72.2 90-99 em. 112.3 35.0 91.0 0 58.3 0 0 0 33.6�33.6 11.�. Compiled from D. Gifford (1977). Table does not include shell weights for unit 70/94 (see note 2, Table 2). 22.�. This category was established during analysis to accommodate shell specimens that could not be clearly distinguished as one or the other form-Tresus nuttallii,Iluttallii, or Macoma nasuta. Non-beak fragments of these two species are very similar. 3.3.� Shell from the 20-29 em. level of unit 47(32 was not sorted. Species tallies for this level do not include materials from that provenience.

Table 44� CA-MNT-415: SHELL TOTALS (WEIGHT IN GRAMS)GRAMS)� BY SPECIES AND LEVEL]LEVEL]� Protothaca C/inocardium Myti/usMytilus Macoma Tresus Tresusand Ostrea BalanusBa/anus 2 spp. Iluttallii edu/is nasuta Ilutta//ii Macoma [urida sp. Unidentified 0- 9 em. 55.7 36.7 6.5 1.1 4.9 10.0 0 0.2 0.5 10-19 em. 70.2 45.8 17.0 0.8 29.5 11.3 0 0 0.6�0.6 20-29 em. 71.9 31.8 24.8 8.0 32.5 10.8 0 0.3 2.2�2.2 30-39 em. 50.3 42.2 87.3 0 20.1 38.1 0 0.4 0.7�0.7 40-49 em. 58.4 40.6 76.5 4.8 26.3 7.8 0�0 0.2 0.5 50-59 em. 22.1 14.2 12.7 0 5.2 2.7 0 0.1 0 1.�1. Compiled from Pateh (1979). Shell totals for unit 60/80 not included (see note 2, Table 2). 2.2.� See note 2, Table 3.

the upper levels of MNT-4l4 and -415 that movements along the San Andreas fault, date to between A.D. 1300 and A.D. 1700 in and/or meanders of the Pajaro and Salinas other parts of the state (Baumhoff and Byrne Rivers, imposed additional changes. Short­ 1959); term periods of fresh-water infusion probably 3. At a later time, the slough became a occurred at various intervals during the course fresh-water lagoon, connected to the Salinas of slough development. River, as described by early historic docu­ ments and indicated in the pollen profile; Human History 4. Between 1908 and 1910, the slough What, then, were the effects of paleoen­ was again filled with salt water and estab­ vironmental shifts at Elkhorn Slough on local lished as an estuary when the Salinas River prehistoric human populations, and how can shifted course, as historically documented and they be recognized archaeologically? We pro­ indicated in the pollen profile. In addition to posed the following chronology of cultural these fluctuations, it is highly probable that events. PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 33

Available data suggest that humans may tants would have had different shellfish have entered the central coast region as early species available to them, depending on the as 8,000 to 9,000 years ago when the slough time of their entry. was still primarily a fresh-water drainage. Simple availability of shellfish would not Many other California sites that date to this necessarily have dictated their exploitation. period (e.g., Borax Lake, Tulare Lake, and Other processes must have operated to en­ Buena Vista Lake sites) indicate a lacustrine courage adoption of a general marine resource adaptation with a probable emphasis on hunt­ utilization strategy in the Monterey Bay area. ing (Fredrickson 1974; Fredrickson and Gros­ Although he was referring to an open coast sman 1977). People infiltrating the coastal situation, Osborn (1977) argued that marine areas, including the central coast region food resources are, in general, inferior to around Elkhorn Slough, would presumably terrestrial resources in terms of caloric yield have continued such an adaptive strategy. versus human labor investment. Earlier, Gould Sites occupied during this era would have (1964) made similar observations about estua­ been most efficiently located inland rather rine resources. According to this viewpoint, than on the immediate coast, in order to aquatic resources would only be exploited accommodate a subsistence strategy in which when the terrestrial resource base was de­ terrestrial resources were emphasized. The pleted as a result of intermittent environ­ SCR-177 and SCL-178 sites may represent mental stress or when over-exploitation occur­ such a lifeway. Shellfish were probably in­ red as a result of human population growth. cluded in the diets of people who occupied Yesner (1980) proposed an alternative view. these sites to a minor degree, as suggested by He noted that although the overall biomass of the relatively low frequency of shellfish re­ oceans is lower than the terrestrial environ­ mains in the lowest component of SCL-178 ment, coastal zones are highly productive; (Hildebrandt 1983: 8-111). No shellfish re­ particularly estuaries and upwelling zones. mains were recovered from SCR-177, the Further, while marine foods are generally low Scott's Valley site (Cartier 1984). It should be in caloric yield, they supply an adequate noted, however, that preservation was ex­ protein complement and are high in impor­ tremely poor at the latter site and recovery of tant nutrients, especially calcium. Also, shell­ all types of faunal material was very limited. fishing is a highly efficient strategy because The rapid rise in sea level, which was costs are low. It requires no specialized or completed by 7000 B.P., inundated the elaborate technology, food sources are highly mouth of Elkhorn Slough with salt water. As corlcentrated, and it allows a low dependency salt-water infusion continued, and changes in ratio because all members of the group can local drainage patterns decreased the flow of participate (Yesner 1980). Yesner (1980: fresh water into the channel, a suitable 734) suggested that maritime pro curement environment for estuarine species developed. strategies became fully operative throughout In the early stages of the estuary, shellfish the world during the Holocene as a conse­ species such as My tilus edulis and Ostrea quence of the "push and pull" of changing lurida which prefer denser clay or rock environments. Holocene climatic changes im­ substrates, would probably have predomi­ posed pressure on inland resources and forced nated until sufficient sediments accumulated human groups to orient food-getting activities to suit burrowing species like Tresus nuttallii, closer to the coast. Sea-mammal hunting may Protothaca staminea, and Clinocardium nut­ have pre-dated intensive shellfishing and intro­ tallii. Thus the region's earlier human inhabi­ duced humans to a maritime lifeway. As 34 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY coastlines stabilized geologically, the resource exploitation of shellfish, necessitating in­ base expanded and shellfishing became a creased sophistication of procurement strate­ viable economic pursuit. With subsequent gies (e.g., the later "culture" defined by population growth, this strategy was intensi­ Breschini and Haversat [1980] and Dietz and fied and groups were ultimately locked into a Jackson [1981]). An influx of new peoples at maritime lifeway. this time (as suggested by Breschini 1980, The overall reduction in land area follow­ 1983) would have compounded the effects of ing the Holocene sea-level rise undoubtedly local population growth, and may indeed have imposed on central California groups a type been a catalyst for accelerated change. The of stress akin to that outlined by Yesner new strategy may have included establishment (1980). Settlement locations and territorial of shellfish processing stations on the immedi­ boundaries would have been required to shift ate coast around the mouth of Elkhorn almost generationally as an increasing expanse Slough, on the Monterey peninsula, and on of terra firma was lost to the encroaching sea the northern Santa Cruz County coast. The (Bickel 1978: 8). Radiocarbon dates on shell­ increase in overall shellfish remains between fish remains from MNT-414 indicate that 30 and 60 em. depth in unit 29/100 at slough resources were being utilized by 4860 MNT-414 may represent such increased ex­ B.P., and that an at least partially sandy­ ploitation, while the shift in dominant species bottomed estuary must have been developed indicates development of the mud-flat habitat there by that time. The success of an earlier, (Fig. 3). terrestrial-based adaptive strategy may have Estuarine shellfish exploitation continued brought the region's population close to the in the Elkhorn Slough vicinity through 1080 carrying capacity (cf. Glassow 1978) of that B.P., as indicated by the radiocarbon date on resource sphere, or rendered maintenance of shellfish remains from MNT-698, and prob­ that lifeway too costly. In-migration of new ably as late as A.D. 1300-1700, based on the groups may have added further stress. The time-span of Desert Side-notched projectile cost-effective strategy of shellfish collection points (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959: 60). provided a useful supplement to the subsist­ In 1769, Fr. Juan Crespi of the Portola ence base. A developing salt marsh at Elkhorn expedition described Elkhorn Slough in his Slough would have provided a substantial diary as a branch of the Salinas River (Bolton habitat for bird life, giving the area still 1927: 201). Thus at some point between A.D. greater potential for food sources. 1300 and 1769, a shift in hydrography The molluscan assemblage at MNT-4l4 occurred, returning Elkhorn Slough from an may reflect the maturation of Elkhorn Slough estuary to its original fresh-water environ­ as an estuary, as well as related changes in ment-an incident that may have taken place patterns of resource utilization. Similar chan­ at other times since initial development of the ges are reflected in shell middens in the San estuary. Estuarine shellfish exploitation sites Francisco Bay area (Greengo 1951; Gerow such as MNT-4l4 and -415 were probably with Force 1968; Bickel 1978), although abandoned when the estuarine regime was Elkhorn Slough differs from the Bay area in altered by the shift in the river's course, as that it has probably been subjected to more indicated in unit 29/100 at MNT-414MNT-4l4 by the drastic fluctuations in environmental regimes. marked decrease in shell above 30 em. depth As population growth continued in the (Fig. 3). While the loss of shellfish resources central coast region, demographic stress undoubtedly forced changes in food procure­ would have waITanted still more intensive ment strategies and quite probably in the PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 35

6-.------__-. 6..,.------, CA-MNT-414�CA-MNT-414 CA-MNT-415 a. b. UNIT 52/62�52/62 , ...... � UNIT 29/100 / ...�... 5 , \ / \�\ 5­ / \ /� \ 4 -- Protothaca sp. /� \ 4 --_.�--_. Mytilus edulis "�" ~~ Clinocardium nuttallii ~ l�l ~I • _ ••�•• Tresus nuttollii ~ I�I I ~ I�I / o 3 I�I t. '\ I 11 ~ I , 1 \ I f- I I, \ / :I: I / " \ I ~ I .' /.... \ ./ jjj� I / .....\'. , ~ 2�2 I I ~., v·... \~ 2 I /1� .~. \\ I�I I "'. \\. I�I *. \...... ;1�;1 '. \�\ I � / .....~ ... ; \ /'---­ ,,----.1 ...... --~-- ; "�" .-.... ""-. "'"~~ , // ./'...... �...... / / . --. ::-..:._::::..,s.::'..:.. __ -'-,~~ .. ~~ ...... " .�. _..--�_..-- "'- .... o�o 2 £! ~ I I�I I I 66� o ~ o o 601 LEVEL IN CENTIMETERS

Fig. 3. Shellfish remains recovered from two representative units at MNT-414 and -415. distribution of local populations, it apparent· specialized adaptive strategy, similar to the ly did not result in crisis. Fr. Crespi noted "foraging" strategy described by Breschini that Costanoans were present in the immedi­ and Haversat (1980) and Dietz and Jackson ate slough vicinity at the time of the Spanish (1981) for the Monterey peninsula. MNT-414, expedition, from which we can infer that which probably first functioned as a "location local, non-estuarine resources were exploited or low bulk procurement site" (Binford 1980: during fresh-water phases. 9; Dietz and Jackson 1981: 669) visited by small groups of foragers for short periods of SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS time (as indicated by the low density of The archaeological sites at Elkhorn Slough artifacts and shell in the lower, older portion do not reflect intense exploitation of shellfish of the site), may be representative of this over the last 6,000 years. Harvest of slough strategy. As Elkhorn Slough's hydrography shellfish was probably first necessitated by changed and habitats were altered, people population increase, as one of many resources were forced to adjust the amounts of differ­ exploited through a broad-based, non­ ent species being exploited. This adjustment is 36 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

reflected in intrasite vertical/temporal fluctua­ cline of various species (cf. Botkin 1980). In tions in shellfish species percentages. order to more precisely define the relation_ Perhaps due to additional population pres­ ship between past Elkhorn Slough environ­ sures, exploitation of the resource increased, ments, its resources, and their utilization by although it was probably never used as a aboriginal populations, future work should staple or truly "marketed" item. Rather, include; (1) deeper, temporally controlled shellfish supplemented a varied diet when pollen columns defining the slough's environ­ hydrographic conditions rendered them avail­ mental history; (2) determination of the sea­ able. The amount of shellfish remains at sonality of collecting activities to assess varia­ MNT-414 did increase through time, however, tions in intensity of exploitation through time indicating that exploitation of the resource (Weide 1969; Shackleton 1973; Drover 1974; was intensified. Whether this means that the Killingley 1981; but see comments by Koerp­ site became more of a specialized collecting er [1980], Baily et al. [1983], and Killing1ey and processing station as part of an adaptive [1983] for problems with the methods used strategy similar to that of the later "collec­ in making seasonality determinations); tor" culture on the Monterey peninsula (Bres­ (3) chemical analyses of soil samples to deter­ chini and Haversat 1980; Dietz and Jackson mine the extent of shell disintegration and to 1981) remains unclear. Shell density in the compensate for taphonomic bias in shell Elkhorn Slough middens never reached the tallies (Koloseike 1968, 1969); (4) examina­ magnitude of later occupations on the Mon­ tion of changes in intensity of exploitation terey peninsula or in the San Francisco Bay through differences in shell size averages area. Hydrographic changes, which periodic­ (Strauss et al. 1980); (5) examination of dif­ ally altered slough habitats and shellfish popu­ ferential deposition of certain parts of the lations, would have provoked greater use of endo- and exo-ske1etons of intertidal organ­ non-aquatic resources. A more fluid overall isms that may be indicative of processing for subsistence strategy probably existed at Elk­ storage and/or trade as suggested by Layton horn Slough throughout prehistory as a pro­ (1982); (6) attempts to obtain better tem­ duct of a fluctuating environment, allowing poral control of midden assemblages through some targeting on specific resources, but establishment of a central coast estuarine shell preventing over-rebance on anyone item. radiocarbon correction factor, dating of non­ shell midden constituents, and use of other FUTURE WORK dating methods (e.g., obsidian hydration Because Elkhorn Slough has clearly had a when obsidian is present); and (7) quantifica­ varied hydrographic history we have invoked tion of energy expenditure versus food yield environmental change to explain horizontal values for various shellfish species, to deter­ and vertical differences in molluscan assem­ mine the role of such factors in selection of blages in archaeological sites. Changes in the exploited species. relative frequencies of certain species Multiple group migrations into the central through time may also reflect fluctuating coast region may have played a role in exploitation patterns, including changing pref­ population growth, consequent initiation of erences for certain species and over-use or shellfish harvesting, and eventual increases in exhaustion of one species with consequent shellfish exploitation. Expansion of the resi­ replacement in the ecosystem and subsistence dent population may also have resulted from strategy with another. Human over-use could internal growth promoted by the initial addi­ have accentuated the natural population de­ tion of shellfish to the subsistence system. In PALEOENVIRONMENTALPALEOENVIRONMENTALCHANGECHANGEATATELKHORNELKHORN SLOUGHSLOUGH 3737 orderorder toto substantiatesubstantiate hypotheticalhypothetical centralcentral buriedburied "A""A" soilsoil horizons,horizons, whichwhichsuggestssuggests stratigraphicstratigraphic coastcoast linguisticlinguistic groupgroup movements,movements, soso thatthatthethe integrity.integrity. However,However, therethere areare problemsproblems withwith hori­hori­ distinctiondistinction betweenbetween inin situsitu populationpopulation growthgrowth zontalzontal relationshipsrelationships betweenbetween componentscomponents (Hilde­(Hilde­ brandtbrandt 1983:1983: 8.50).8.50). andand migration-inducedmigration-induced growthgrowth cancan bebe recog­recog­ nized,nized, futurefuture researchresearch mustmust alsoalso focusfocus onon thethe 3.3. EighteenEighteen piecespieces ofof obsidianobsidian werewere recoveredrecovered fromfrom thisthis sitesite duringduring thethe coursecourse ofof testingtesting (Dietz(Dietz locallocal culturalcultural historicalhistorical sequence.sequence. SuchSuch workwork 1977)1977) andand finalfinal excavation.excavation. TwelveTwelve werewere sourcedsourced forfor shouldshould focusfocus onon artifactartifact styles,styles, archaeologicalarchaeological geologicgeologic origin,origin, andand threethree werewere subjectedsubjected toto obsidianobsidian manifestationsmanifestations ofof ethnolinguisticethnolinguistic boundariesboundaries hydrationhydration measurement.measurement. OfOf thethe latterlatter threethree speci·speci· andand tradetrade networks,networks, asas wellwell asas aa numbernumber ofof mens,mens, oneone (from(from thethe deepestdeepest portionportion ofof thethe site)site) otherother subjects.subjects. Finally,Finally, shiftsshifts inin thethe naturenature ofof showedshowed nono hydration.hydration. TheThe remainingremaining twotwo (both(both ofof NapaNapa obsidian,obsidian, foundfound aboveabove 9090 cm.cm. depth)depth) hadhad rimrim subsistencesubsistence strategiesstrategies (e.g.,(e.g., fromfrom "forager""forager" toto valuesvalues ofof 1.541.54 andand 1.931.93 microns.microns. "collector") cannot be substantiated until further data are available regarding duration 4. Although unrecognized by thethe authors, one further data are available regarding duration artifact recoveredrecovered fromfrom thethe lowerlower depths of thethe sitesite of residenceresidence inin thethe sites discussed and settle­ (300(300 em.) supportssupports thethe radiocarbonradiocarbon dating. Specimen ment patterns for the region as a whole. No.4307, a wide, side-notched projectile point of Ultimately, synthesis of these various lines of Franciscan chert, isis a typetype thatthat has been recovered inquiry should lead to a regional model of from all sites with dates inin excess of 8000 years B.P. Monterey Bay area prehistory that incorpor­ inin San Luis Obispo County (cf. SLO-2, Greenwood [1972]; SLO·877, Breschini and Haversat n.d.a; ates human response to changing environ­ SLO·I77,SLO·I 77, Pierce [1979] ; see Table 1). ments, and which is applicable to other areas 5. These radiocarbon dates, which were ob· with similar environmental settings. 5. These radiocarbon dates, which were ob· tained from MNT-113, were as follows: Haliotis NOTES ru/escens, 550 B.P. ±100 (RL·838); Mytilus cali/or­ nianus, 660 B.P. ±100 (RL·840); and charcoal, 26C 1. Twenty-eight obsidian samples were sourced B.P. ±100 (RL·839) (Dietz and Jackson 1981: 341) for geologic origin and measured for hydration band 6. No other radiocarbon dates from Monterey thickness. Of these, twenty-one were derived from or Santa Cruz county sites have been derived from the Napa Glass Mountain source. Two of the Napa the appropriate species, therefore we have made no specimens exibited diffuse hydration, leaving nine· further corrections. One attempt has been made to teen with readable bands. Band thickness ranged from correct two dates from SCR·7, but it is unclear 4.3 to 8.0 microns. Average band thickness for the whether or not the factor should be applied to those Napa specimens was 5.7 microns and the mean was samples (see Table 1, Note 7). 6.2 microns (Origer 1984: 11). Origer (1982) pro­ posed a hydration rate for Napa obsidian recovered inin Marin and Sonoma counties thatthat converts microns ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS intointo years. According toto his formula, thethe Scott's Valley sitesite obsidian hydration data suggestsuggest human We express our deepest thanksthanks toto The Nature occupation fromfrom 2836 toto 9817 years B.P. This Conservancy, Mr. Tom McCarthy, and Mrs. Bernice conversion isis given only forfor thethe purpose of compari· Porter forfor granting us access toto portions of Elkhorn son,son, sincesince ultimately a regionalregional obsidian hydration Slough. We are also grateful toto Rob Edwards and thethe raterate mustmust bebe established.established. However,However, climaticclimatic differ·differ· staffsstaffs ofof bothboth thethe CabrilloCabrillo CollegeCollege andand SonomaSonoma StateState encesences betweenbetween Scott'sScott's ValleyValley andand SonomaSonoma CountyCounty areare UniversityUniversity RegionalRegional InformationInformation CentersCenters ofof thethe Cali­Cali­ notnot soso greatgreat thatthat anan occupationoccupation spanspan betweenbetween 40004000 forniafornia ArchaeologicalArchaeological InventoryInventory forfor allOWingallowing can·can· andand 8000-90008000·9000 yearsyears B.P.B.P. wouldwould bebe unreasonableunreasonable forfor tinuedtinued useuse ofof sitesite recordrecord data.data. OurOur workwork benefittedbenefitted SCR-l77.SCR-l77. fromfrom commentscomments mademade atat variousvarious stepssteps byby JamesJames Bennyhoff,Bennyhoff, GaryGary Breschini,Breschini, DavidDavid A.A. Fredrickson,Fredrickson, 2.2. FourFour culturalcultural componentscomponents werewere defineddefined atat DianeDiane P.P. Gifford,Gifford, WilliamWilliam R.R. Hildebrandt,Hildebrandt, JamesJames W.W. SCL-178:SCL-178: 1-10,0001-10,000 toto 50005000 B.P.;B.P.; II-SOOOII-SOOO toto 30003000 Nybakken,Nybakken, SuzanneSuzanne Stewart,Stewart, DwightDwight Simons,Simons, SteveSteve B.P.;B.P.; III-3000III-3000 toto 10001000 B.P.;B.P.; IV-post-lOOOIV-post-lOOO B.P.B.P. TheThe Dietz,Dietz, TomTom Jackson,Jackson, andand JamesJames Quinn.Quinn. GraphicsGraphics werewere lowerlower componentscomponents correspondcorrespond fairlyfairly wellwell withwith thethe providedprovided byby NelsonNelson ThompsonThompson ofof thethe SonomaSonoma StateState 38 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

University Cultural Resources Facility. Financial Beardsley, Richard K. assistance was provided by grants from the Sonoma 1948�1948 Cultural Sequences in Central California State University Anthropology Department, the Uni­ Archaeology. American Antiquity 14(1): versity of California at Santa Cruz Environmental 1-28. Studies Field Program, and the University of Califor­ 1954� Temporal and Areal Relationships in Central nia at Santa Cruz President's Undergraduate Fellow­ California. Berkeley: University of California ship. Lastly, we wish to gratefully acknowledge Rob Archaeological Survey Reports Nos. 24-25. Edwards and the Santa Cruz Archaeological Society without whose efforts there would have been no Berger, R, R E. Raylor, and W. F. Libby excavation data from MNT-4l4 and -415. 1966�1966 Radiocarbon Content of Marine Shells from the California and Mexican Coast. Science 153(3738): 864-866. REFERENCES Bickel, Polly Antevs, Ernst 1978�1978 Changing Sea Levels Along the California 1948 Climatic Changes and Pre-White Man. Uni­ Coast: Anthropological Implications. Jour. versity of Utah Bulletin 38(2): 167-191. nal of California Anthropology 5(1): 6-19. 1952� Climatic History and the Antiquity of Man Binford, Lewis R. in California. Berkeley: University of Cali­ 1980�1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails: Hunter­ fornia Archaeological Survey Reports No. Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archae­ 16: 23-31. ological Site Formation. American AntiqUity 45(1): 4-20. Aschmann, H. H. Bloom, A. 1.L. 1958�1958 Great Basin Climates in Relation to Human 1971�1971 Glacial-Eustatic and Isostatic Controls of Sea Occupation. Berkeley: University of Califor­ Level Since the Last Glaciation. In: The Late nia Archaeological Survey Reports No. 42: Cenozoic Glacial Ages, K. K. Turekan, Ed., 23-40. pp. 355-379. New Haven: Yale University Atwater, Brian F., Edward J. Helley, and Charles W. Press. Hedel Bolton, H. E. 19771977� Late Quaternary Depositional History, Holo­ 1927�1927 Fray Juan Crespi: Missionary Explorer on cene Sea-Level Changes and Vertical Crustal the Pacific Coast, 1769-1774. Berkeley: Uni­ Movement, Southern San Francisco Bay, versity of California Press. California. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1014. Botkin, Steven 1980 Effects of Human Exploitation on Shellfish Bailey, Geoffrey N., Margaret Deith, and Nicholas Populations at Malibu Creek, California. In: Shackleton Modelling Change in Prehistoric Subsistence 1983�1983 Oxygen Isotope Analysis and Seasonality Economies, T. K. Earle and A. 1. Christen­ Determinations: Limits and Potential of a son, Eds., pp. 121-140. New York: Aca­ New Technique. American Antiquity 48(2): demic Press. 390-398. Breschini, Gary 1980 Esse1enEsselen Prehistory. Paper presented at the Baumhoff, Martin A. and J. S. Byrne Annual Meeting of the Society for California 19591959� Desert Side-notched Points as a Time Marker Archaeology, Redding. in California. Berkeley: University of Cali­ fornia Archaeological Survey Report No. 48: 1983 � Models of Population Movements in Central 32-65. California's Prehistory. Salinas: Coyote Press. Baumhoff, Martin A., and R. F. Heizer 19651965� Postglacial Climate and Archaeology in the Breschini, Gary, and Trudy Haversat Desert West. In: The Quaternary of the 1980 Preliminary Archaeological Report and Ar­ United States, H. E. Wright and D. C. Frey, chaeological Management Recommendations Eds., pp. 697·707. Princeton: Princeton Uni­ for CA-MNT-170, on Pescadero Point, Mon­ versity Press. terey County, California. Report on file at PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AT ELKHORN SLOUGH 39

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1977b1977b TestTest ExcavationsExcavations atat FourFour ArchaeologicalArchaeological Yancy,Yancy, T.T. E.E. SHesSHes inin thethe AlmadenAlmaden Valley.Valley. ReportReport onon filefile 19681968 RecentRecent SedimentsSediments ofof MontereyMonterey Bay,Bay, Cali­Cali­ atat thethe NorthwestNorthwest InformationInformation CenterCenter ofof thethe fornia.fornia. HydraulicHydraulic EngineeringEngineering LaboratoryLaboratory CaliforniaCalifornia ArchaeologicalArchaeological Inventory,Inventory, Sono­Sono­ Report,Report, HEL-2-18,HEL-2-18, UniversityUniversity ofof California,California, mama StateState University,University, RohnertRohnert Park.Park. Berkeley.Berkeley. Wood,Wood, AveryAvery E.E. Yesner,Yesner, DavidDavid R.R. 19301930 MontereyMonterey BayBay Mounds.Mounds. ManuscriptManuscript onon filefile atat 19801980 MaritimeMaritime Hunter-Gatherers:Hunter-Gatherers: EcologyEcology andand thethe ArchaeologicalArchaeological ResearchResearch Facility,Facility, Uni­Uni­ Prehistory.Prehistory. CurrentCurrent AnthropologyAnthropology 21(6):21(6): versityversity ofof California,California, Berkeley.Berkeley. 727-750.727-750.