Chapter 7 Outline Abbasid Decline and Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and Southeast

Chapter 7 Outline – Abbasid Decline and Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and Southeast Asia

III. The Postclassical Era B. Abbasid Decline and the Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and Southeast Asia 1. Overview - Abbasids took over Arab empire in 750 from Umayyads, but by mid-800s it was losing power  Empire so large, made it hard to move troops and keep local leaders loyal  Most living in empire felt local loyalty, not to Abbasids in distant capital of Baghdad  Many revolts within empire (from Shi’ites and from slave uprisings)  As territory was lost, revenues fell, and harder to maintain control  Mongol invaders defeated empire in mid 1200s (by then it was shell of former self) - Ironically as Abbasid empire declining, Islamic civilization reaching new heights of achievements  Great achievements in architecture, fine arts, literature, philosophy, math, and science  10th – 14th centuries, Islam being spread to Asia and Africa by warriors, traders, and mystics 2. The Islamic Heartlands in the Middle and Late Abbasid Era - Overspending by rulers on lavish lifestyles, plus political divisions appeared early in Abbasid rule  Al Mahdi – 3rd Abbasid caliph (775-785), spent lavishly, failed peace attempt with Shi’ites,  Al Mahdi failed to solve question of succession, had many sons but never picked successor a. Imperial Extravagance and Succession Disputes - Harun al-Rashid (786-809) – one of al Mahdi’s sons, most famous Abbasid caliph  Lived in extreme luxury, hurting empire’s finances  Relied on Persian advisors (set precedent of caliphs losing power to advisors, puppet rule)  Harun’s death set off civil war over who would succeed him  Over next 10 years, four caliphs murdered  Would-be caliphs built huge armies of Turkic nomads to fight for control  Slave armies becoming so strong they killed the caliph in 846 and replaced him with slave - Slaves armies were rowdy wherever they lived (bullied townspeople and often violent)  As Abbasids couldn’t pay slaves, the slaves caused of much social unrest (ex: food riots) b. Imperial Breakdown and Agrarian Disorder - End of 800s, Abbasid dynasty brought slave armies under control, but at huge cost  Abbasids increased taxes, and gave money to local military chiefs to control slave armies  Some local chiefs took care of the people (ex: improved irrigation), but most took advantage  People fled the empire to get away from these chiefs and the heavy taxes  No money for irrigation projects, which were essential  Many peasants died from famine, floods, or violent assaults, or fled to neighboring kingdoms  Peasants often had uprisings (often started by the various Shi’ite sects) c. The Declining Position of Women in the Family and Society - The harem and the veil became symbols of women’s declining status  Under Abbasids it became common for women to be secluded  Many concubines were slaves, could gain freedom by bearing healthy son for ruler  Abbasid elite living in city would have huge amounts of domestic slaves, which were gotten through conquest over non-Muslim regions  Often slaves were best educated people in the empire and caliphs spent more time with them than their own wives (slaves often had more freedom than wives; didn’t have to wear veil for example)  Over the years, veiling spread from women of urban elite to the towns and countryside  Thought that women had insatiable lust and needed to be veiled and secluded except at home (and because it was thought men could not resist lures of women, this accomplished that) - Rich women not allowed a career outside the home, although poor women could to some extent  Poor women could farm, weave clothes and rugs, or raise silkworms to help support family  Often married at the age of puberty (set at 9 years old) women expected to take care of home  Sometimes women could convince husbands and plot to advance careers of their sons  By end of Abbasid era, the rights women had in early Islamic society were mostly gone d. Nomadic Incursions and the Eclipse of Caliphal Power - With so many internal struggles, caliphs couldn’t prevent loss of territory on outskirts of empire  Even areas not that far from capital of Baghdad like Syria and Egypt broke away  Kingdoms that sprung up from parts of empire challenged Abbasids to control Arab world  Buyids – broke away from Abbasids and conquered Baghdad in 945 and ruled Abbasid empire; allowed caliphs to stay as figureheads, but Buyid rulers, called sultans, really ruled - Buyids could not stop the empire from continuing to fall  Seljuk Turks – Nomadic invaders from central Asia (via Persia) who conquered Buyids and took over Abbasid empire in 1055  Seljuks were Sunnis and worked to get rid of Shi’ite officials who rose to power under Buyids  For a time, Seljuks stabilized the empire, stopping threat from Shi’ites from Egypt  Defeated Byzantines who thought they could take advantage of Abbasid infighting; opened way for settling of Asia minor by Turkic nomads (that formed the later Ottoman Empire) e. The Impact of the Christian Crusades - Shortly after taking power, Seljuks faced threat from Christian crusaders (8 crusades in all)  Crusades – Christians tried taking the Holy Land from Muslims through a series of attacks  Early crusades (1096-1099) successful b/c of Muslim infighting and element of surprise  In 1099, Christians captured Jerusalem, slaughtering Muslims and Jews  For next 200 years, European/Christian crusaders controlled the region  Saladin – united Muslims and drove out crusaders (1190s);  Last Christian kingdom remaining (Acre) was defeated by Muslims in 1291 - Impact of Crusades much greater on Christians than they were on Muslims  Hard to tell impact of Crusades b/c had long been contact b/t Muslims and western Europe  Caused Europeans to want more Middle Eastern good (damascene swords), copied Muslim techniques to build forts (ex: William the Conquerors forts in Normandy)  Richard the Lionhearted had legendary preference for Muslim physicians over Christian ones - Europeans regained Greek learning from Middle East (it had been destroyed by nomad invasions)  Europeans mastered Arabic numerals (originally from India) and the decimal system, learned math and science from Arab and Persian thinkers  Europeans had huge demand for Middle Eastern rugs and textiles (Oriental rugs and tapestries adorned homes of wealthy Europeans)  Europeans got names for new types of cloth (fustian, taffeta, muslin, and damask) - Muslim influence affected the culture of western Europe at that time  Persian and Arabic words used by Europeans, games like chess, ideas of chivalry, foods such as dates, coffee, and yogurt, and troubadour ballads  Europeans learned these not only through Crusades, but years of trade that followed  Trade b/t Muslims and Europeans was one-sided (Muslims little interest in Western culture) 3. An Age of Learning and Artistic Refinement - Though Abbasid empire declining, there was economic expansion of professional classes (doctors, lawyers)  People profited selling grain, barley, cotton, and luxuries (gems, citrus fruits, sugar cane)  Trade b/t Middle East and other areas flourished during most of Abbasid era - Artists flourished during Abbasid era (began during Umayyads)  Mosques and palaces bigger and fancier (some of greatest architectural treasures of all time)  Rugs and tapestries in great demand  Muslim artisans also produced fine bronzes and ceramics (deep blue glazed tiles)  Persians used these tiles with great effect on domes and walls of palaces and mosques a. The Full Flowering of Persian Literature - Persian began replacing Arabic as main written language for poetry and literature  Shah-Nama (Book of Kings) – epic poem written by Firdawsi in late 10th and early 11th centuries; relates to history of Persia; shows elegance of Persian language  Sa’di – great poet of the era, blended mysticism with everyday life (much literature did this)  Rubiyat – written by Omar Khayyam; one of best known pieces of Persian literature known to the West, searches for the divine and meaning in life b. Achievements in the Sciences - At first not much Muslim innovation, good at preserving classic learning, but later created on own  Improved algebraic and geometric theories of Greeks, good at trig (sine, cosine, tangent)  2 major discoveries in chemistry: 1) created the objective experiment 2) Al-Razi’s classification system of things into 3 categories (animal, vegetable, mineral)  Al-Biruni – calculated specific weight of 18 minerals in 11th century  Developed astronomy tools: improved astrolabe and armillary sphere to map position of stars  Reorganized/renamed constellations, some of these names still used today (Altair, Betelgeuse)  Europeans and Chinese wanted Muslim maps of the stars - Much of Muslim advancements in science had practical applications (same in other fields as well)  Cities like Cairo had best hospitals in world (doctors had to pass exam to practice medicine)  Scientists did work in optics and bladder ailments  Muslim traders introduced papermaking, silk-weaving, and ceramic firing c. Religious Trends and the New Push for Expansion - Late in Abbasid era, religion reflected life of Muslims (political turmoil yet great achievements)  Resurgence of mysticism injected Islam with new vibrancy  Ulama - orthodox religious scholars who were hostile to non-Muslims  Al-Ghazali – Muslim theologian, fused Greek and Muslim traditions, rejected by ulama  Sufis – mystics who sought a personal union with Allah, played key role in spreading Islam d. New Waves of Nomadic Invasions and the End of the Caliphate - As Abbasid empire being divided within, a new threat emerged in the early 1200s  Mongols – central Asian nomads, united by Chinggis Khan, captured lands east of Baghdad  After Chinggis Khan died, his grandson Hulegu invaded heart of Muslim empire in 1250s  Mongols took Abbasid capital of Baghdad in 1258, killing the 37th and last Abbasid caliph  Mongols conquered westward until beat by the Mameluks (or Turkic slaves) who ruled Egypt  Baghdad never recovered from Mongol and shrunk from one of great world cities to almost nothing, and it was supplanted by Cairo and later Istanbul 4. The Coming of Islam to South Asia - India had long history of foreigners entering in waves  Those who remained in India assimilated (converted to Hindu or Buddhism, found place in caste system, and adopted food and dress of the Indian people)  Indians had higher level of material culture than the people entering so they wanted to adapt - In the 600s, Muslims arrived in India, which was 1st time Indians met people as advanced as them  Islam (rigid, single god) very opposite from Hinduism (tolerant, meditation, idol worship)  Socially Islam egalitarian (all equal ) while Hindu had caste system (social hierarchy)  So Muslim invaders religion much more rigid than the adaptive and absorptive Hindus - So many Muslims came into south Asia, interaction b/t invaders and indigenous people inevitable  Early when Muslims came, there was much violence, but more peaceful interaction over time  Muslim rulers used Hindus to help rule the non-Muslim populations they conquered a. North India on the Eve of the Muslim Invasions - When Gupta empire fell in the 400s, regional dynasties fought for power, but no unity until 600s  Harsha – leader of one of local dynasties, built the largest empire in India since the Guptas  His empire was much smaller than Guptas, but still bigger than any in Europe at the time  Harsha’s empire had long period of peace and prosperity  Built roads, hospitals, temples  Kanauj – capital of empire, had formidable walls, huge homes, beautiful gardens with pools b. Political Divisions and the First Muslim Invasion - Harsha died in 646 and his kingdom fell apart by internal fights (India no longer united, leaving door open for Muslim invaders, first of which occurred in 711  Arab trading ship attacked by pirates from Indian kingdom of Sind in west India  Muhammad ibn Qasim – Arab general who captured and claimed region for the Umayyads - Early on, coming of Islam brought little change to India  Many locals surrendered willingly b/c Muslims promised lower taxes and religious toleration  Local leaders able to retain their positions, and Brahman caste was respected  Little effort to convert locals, so most Indians remained Hindu or Buddhist c. Indian Influences on Islamic Civilization - Although early on Arabs only controlled Sind, Indian learning still made its way to Middle East  Indian scientific learning very advanced, Indian algebra and geometry translated into Arabic and astronomical equipment copied and improved by Arabs  Arab used numeral Hindus developed (called Arabic numbers b/c Europeans got from Arabs)  These numerals proved crucial to scientific revolutions ( in Middle East and later in Europe)  Indian doctors brought to Baghdad to run hospitals (many cases where Indian doctors helped save Arab rulers who were assumed too sick to be saved)  Arabian Nights – book that many believe some of the tales based on Indian stories  Indian game of chess became very popular in Middle East - Arabs who moved to Muslim ruled areas in India adopted Indian culture (clothes, food, rode elephants like Hindu rajas, or kings, did)  Additional Arab colonies established in coastal areas like Malabar and Bengal, key in spreading Islam to southeast Asia d. From Booty to Empire: The Second Wave of Muslim Invasions - Other than taking Sind, Arabs took little land in India  Arguments b/t the Arabs ruling Sind and the caliphs actually weakened Arab rule in the area  In 962 Turkish slaves (who were Muslim) invaded India and Muslim rule got stronger  Mahmud of Ghazni – 3rd ruler of Turkish slave dynasty in Afghanistan conquered much of India to spread Islam and gain wealth, beginning 200 year Muslim conquest of north India - In the late 1100s, Muslims tried to take control of all of north India  Muhammad of Ghur – Muslim military leader of Persian descent , took over after Mahmud of Ghazni assassinated in 1206, was able to conquer and control almost all of north India - Muslim made Delhi, in center of north India, the capital of their Indian empire  Showed Muslims not just going to settle for control the northwest outskirts of India  For next 300, series of Muslim dynasties ruled much of north and central India  The leaders called themselves the sultans of Delhi, and they built large armies, with large cavalries and war elephants (that local Hindus had used for centuries)  Sultans set up large bureaucracies , and most tried to make money off the Indian people  Throughout sultanate rule of Delhi, infighting among ruling Muslims, and their dependence on Hindus in local administration limited the control these dynasties had e. Patterns of Conversion - Even though Muslims fought to control India, once there, most interaction was peaceful  Muslim dynasties centered in north in Delhi, but Muslim communities sprung up elsewhere (largest in Bengal to the east, and in northwestern areas of the Indus valley, which was where Muslims first arrived when coming to India) - Few converts were won over forcibly, and most came from specific regions and social groups  Islam spread mostly by merchants and Sufi mystics (who locals thought had magic powers)  Few converts came from the areas of Muslim control, showing limited importance of converting people  Most converts from Buddhism or low-caste groups  Muslim raided Buddhist temples leading some to find Islam appealing and convert  Low-caste Hindus attracted to Islam because of the social equality Islam preached  Some Indians converted to Islam to avoid the head tax on non-Muslims  Muslim intermarried Indians, leading to more conversion f. Patterns of Accommodation - Although many converted to Islam, Islam made little impact on Hindu community as a whole  High-caste Hindus had disdain for Muslims, saw them as polluting minds of low-caste Hindus  Mostly, Hindus and Muslims lived separately and were not friends - Early on, most Indians assumed Muslims assimilate into Indian culture like previous invaders had  Hindus worked for Muslim bureaucracy and made up large part of army  Muslim rulers adopted Hindu traditions (including foods and clothing) - Muslim communities became socially divided along caste lines  On top were recently arrived Muslims (subdivided based if they were Arab, Turk, or Persian)  Second came high-caste Hindu converts  Third were artisan and merchant groups  At bottom were low-caste Hindus, like the untouchables - As more and more Muslims came to India, the status of all women got worse  Muslims adopted Hindu practice of marrying women at younger ages  Also adopted idea of forbidding widows from remarrying (some adopted practice of Sati (widows burning themselves on pyres of dead husbands) g. Islamic Challenge and Hindu Revival - Despite adopting much, Muslim who moved to India kept their own religious beliefs  Hindus realized Islam would not be absorbed into Hinduism, but instead was a competitor  Bhakti – Hindu cults that worshipped gods and goddesses, and membership was open to all, including women and untouchables, popularity of Bhaktic cults helped slow spread of Islam  Bhaktics used chants, dances, and even drugs to reach state of spiritual intoxication that was key to salvation; worshiped Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu  Mira Bai – Famous Hindu religious poet, showed openness of Bhatic cults to women  Kabir – Muslim mystic who downplayed religious differences with Hindus h. Stand-off: The Muslim Presence in India at the End of the Sultanate Period - Attempts by those like Kabir to minimize differences b/t Hindus and Muslims not widely accepted  Brahmans saw Muslims as threat and denounced them  Later Hindu mystics tried to convert Indian Muslims back to Hinduism  Muslim ulama (religious experts) saw Hinduism as threat to Islam and rejected attempts to fuse the two religions  Despite Muslim rule in India, large majority of Indian people still Hindu, and showed no desire to convert to Islam  Despite being ruled by Muslims, Hindus believed they had better religion than the Muslims, and Muslims would soon be absorbed into Hinduism  India remained one of the least converted areas that the Muslims conquered 5. The Spread of Islam to Southeast Asia - For much of world history, the islands of southeast Asia were a meeting place for world trade  By 700s, southeast Asians started trading, particularly Sumatra and Malaya  Products from southeast Asia were luxury items (aromatic woods and spices like nutmeg  Islamic culture began to spread to southeast Asia through this trade  Shrivijaya – Buddhist trade empire in S.E. Asia located on Malacca Straits (between Malaya and Sumatra), resisted Islam, but its collapse in the 1200s led to spread of Islam into region a. Trading Contacts and Conversion - As with most areas, Islam spread peacefully to southeast Asia  Islam introduced to people of S.E. Asia by Muslim merchants, and spread throughout  First Sumatra was won over to Islam in the 13th century, then it spread to Malaya  Malacca – big trading city in S.E. Asia, key to converting large amount of people to Islam  Demak – most powerful trading state of north Java where Islam next spread - People in trading cities benefited from converting to Islam b/c improved trading relations  Muslims could convert most people since only elites had adopted Indian religions  Bali (Hindu) and much of mainland southeast Asia (Buddhist), resisted Islam b. Sufi Mystics and the Nature of Southeast Asian Islam - Sufis who were in India played big role in spreading Islam to southeast Asia - Many Sufis allowed locals to keep pre-Islamic beliefs (orthodox Muslims would not tolerate)  Women had higher status in S.E. Asia than other Muslim areas (dominated trade in markets)  In some cases, lineage remained traced through female family  Javanese puppet shadow plays based on Indian epics allowed to stay and became central to popular culture 6. Conclusion: The Legacy of the Abbasid Age - Although political divisions and succession problems continued, Islamic position in the world was heightened during Abbasid era  Arab trade expanded into new areas  Nomadic people (Turks and Mongols of central Asia and Berbers of north Africa) benefited  Islam’s contribution to growth and refinement of civilization grew (formed great cities and universities, and accomplished much in arts, sciences, and literature) - During this time, Muslims were being put at disadvantage, especially to the Europeans  Muslim political divisions opened opportunity for European expansion  Growing intolerance of the ulama (Islamic religious scholars) made Muslims less willing to accept outside ideas and innovations