Chapter 1: an Introduction to Cognitive Development
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Chapter 1: An Introduction to Cognitive Development
Chapter Outline
I. Basic concepts in cognitive development A. Cognition 1. can’t be observed directly, so must infer cognitive process based on observable behaviors 2. includes unconscious and nondeliberate processes used to solve problems 3. macromechanisms – conscious, higher-order cognitive processing 4. micromechanisms – unconscious, basic processes B. Development 1. Changes in structure (can be physical or psychological) and function (actions related to a structure) over time 2. Structure and function are bi-directional C. Developmental Function and Individual Differences 1. This text covers developmental functioning (age-related changes over time) and individual differences in cognition 2. Assessment of individual functions are based on averages, with individual variations being seen as unimportant.
II. The Five Truths of Cognitive Development A. Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors 1. interested not in whether biology and environment contribute to a cognitive outcome, but how they interact 2. “innate” implies genetically-based constraints on development a. representational constraints b. architectural constraints c. chronotopic constraints 3. dynamic systems approaches 1. development is continuous and bi-directional at all levels b. self-organization – patterns emerge from a complex system c. changes are nonlinear, but stable patterns emerge and can be studied d. phase changes – abrupt move from one stable pattern to another B. Cognitive Development is Constructed within a Social Context 1. the social environment plays an important role in determining a child’s development 2. developmental contextualism 3. sociocultural perspectives 4. evolutionary theory C. Cognitive Development Involves both Stability and Plasticity over Time 1. stability – the extent to which the same rank relative to their peers on some aspect of congnition over time. 2. plasticity – the extent to which some developed cognitive skill can be altered 3. some cognitive skills are relatively stable and static over time, while others may be more dynamic and susceptible to change D. Cognitive Development Involves Changes in the Way Information is Represented 1. representation – the mental encoding of information 2. there are qualitative differences in the way information is encoded as children age E. Children Develop Increasing Intentional Control over their Behavior and Cognition 1. how do children go about solving problems that may have multiple paths to a correct answer? 2. becoming a strategic learner 3. executive functions – basic cognitive processes, including attention, planning, behavioral flexibility, and manipulating information in memory. F. Two Additional Topics 1. The importance of taking an evolutionary perspective 2. Cognitive development involves changes in both domain-general and domain- specific abilities a. Modularity b. Case: are minds a general problem solving devise or a collection of unique modules
Key Terms architectural constraints (or innateness) function bidirectionality of structure and function genetic determinism (structure function) individual differences chronotopic constraints (or innateness) modularity cognition nativism development (ontogeny) plasticity (of cognition and behavior) developmental contextual model representation developmental function representational constraints (or innateness) domain-general abilities self- organization domain-specific abilities sociocultural perspectives dynamic system stability empiricism strategies executive function structure
Additional Suggested Readings (Available Through InfoTrac)
Ablard, K. E. & Mills, C. J. (1996). Implicit theories of intelligence and self-perceptions of academically talented adolescents and children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25(2), 137-148. Article A18395616
Asbury, K., Dunn, J. F., Pike, A., & Plomin, R. (2003). Nonshared environmental influences on individual differences in early behavioral development: A monozygotic twin differences study. Child Development, 74(3), 933-943. Article A102791834 Lawson, A. E. (2002). The origin of conditional logic: does a cheater detection module exist? Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(4), 425-444. Article A95514336 Prichard, O. (July 28, 2003). Father and son on death row: Nature or nurture? Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, K6391. Article CJ105959354
Ridley, M. (June 2, 2003). What makes you who you are: Which is stronger--nature or nurture? The latest science says genes and your experience interact for your whole life. Time, 161(22), 54. Article A102361760
Wilson, K. M. & Swanson, H. Lee. (2001). Are mathematics disabilities due to a domain- general or a domain-specific working memory deficit? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(3), 237-248. Article A75277612
Web Links
For a general overview of cognitive development, click on the cognitive development module at http://cogsci.uncc.edu/# . The other modules don’t specifically deal with cognitive development, but they are good resources on topics in cognitive science. These modules were developed by the Cognitive Science Academy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101030602/ Read a series of articles exploring the relative importance of genes and environment in "making you who you are." http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/socpsy-2.html How much free will do we really have? Read a sociological social psychology perspective at http://www.cogdevsoc.org/ The Cognitive Development Society.
InfoTrac Keyword Search
Nature and nurture Domain general Stability of intelligence Cognitive Development
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to…
1. Define cognitive development, including the concepts of development, cognition, structure and function.
2. Understand the importance of cognitive immaturity. 3. Describe the nature of the relationship between structure and function. Provide research evidence to support your position.
4. Characterize the extreme views of “nature” influence vs. “nurture” influence, and discuss how the two interact in development.
5. Discuss “innateness” and the contributions of representational, architectural, and chronotopic constraints.
6. Explain the difference between domain-general and domain-specific abilities and how they enter into cognitive development.
7. Identify examples of developmental changes in intentional control.
Discussion Questions
1. Identify an example of cognitive immaturity and speculate on how it might be adaptive at a specific point in development.
2. Do you think intelligence is stable over time or is it subject to change? If it changes, under what circumstances would do so?
3. What is the relationship (if any) between biological and environmental forces and stability and plasticity. In other words, are biological influences stable or plastic? How about environmental influences? Are there any exceptions to your position?
4. Speculate on how a child’s representation of the sun’s apparent movement across the sky might change as the child developed. Are these changes due to qualitative changes in thinking or quantitative changes in knowledge?
Topics/Classroom Activities
Getting to Know You I like to begin each new term by learning the names of all students in the class. This works for small to medium size classes. I have the students pair up with someone they don’t know and interview each other for about 5-10 minutes. They find out the interviewee’s name, class standing, hometown, what they want to be doing five years from now, and one interesting fact about themselves (that they are willing to make public!). Each person introduces the person they interviewed to the class, along with the information gleaned from the interview. The entire class then practices the first names of everyone using cumulative rehearsal (as each person is introduced the class recites all the names learned thus far and adds on the new one). This can take a lot of time for larger classes, but it seems to jump-start bonding, comfort with speaking in class, and helps me learn names. Interaction of Nature and Nurture Plant two of the same kind of seeds in two separate containers. After they have sprouted, provide optimal growing conditions for one container and poor conditions for the other (e.g., dark room, inadequate water). Both plants should be viable, but one should look much healthier than the other. Take these to class and ask students if genetics or environment is responsible for the differences between the two plants. On the one hand, they are obviously the same kind of plant (same leaves, color, etc.). However, one plant is smaller (more wilted, paler, etc.) than the other. Work toward a discussion of how genes and environment interacted to produce the different-but-not-completely-different outcomes. An alternative is to start with two plants as identical as you can find, and proceed as above.
Writing Assignment
How has the concept of stage-like development (with its characteristics of qualitative change, discontinuity, and homogeneity of function) entered into mainstream thinking about cognitive development? Think about how these concepts are illustrated by educational practices.
InfoTrac Exercise
Do people have an evolved, domain-specific ability to detect cheating, or do they recognize cheating due to domain-general logic? If the first possibility is true, then should there be any difference in performance on logical tasks that involve cheating and those that don’t involve cheating? What would you predict if the domain-general hypothesis is correct? Briefly summarize the five experiments presented here. What was the author’s conclusion, and what evidence did he use to support his conclusion? Lawson, A. E. (2002). The origin of conditional logic: Does a cheater detection module exist? Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(4), 425(20). Article A95514336
Test Bank Questions
Select the one best answer for each item.
1. Evolution has provided each species with tools for survival and the ability to adapt to changing environments. Bjorklund argues that the most important tool provided by evolution for the human species is a. language. b. problem-solving ability. c. consciousness. d. intelligence. REF: Introduction ANS: D
WWW 2. Evolution has provided human beings with the ability to ______, an ability that has not been provided to lower animals. a. use language b. adapt to changes in their environment * c. change their environment d. experience self-conscious emotions REF: Introduction ANS: C
3. Psychologists who study cognition typically measure cognitive function by a. examining different patterns of brain function, such as the patterns in which neurons fire. b. asking people to reflect upon their thinking processes and report how they think. c. inferring cognition from different behaviors that can be observed directly. d. direct observation of the cognitive structures and their functions in the brain. REF: Cognition ANS: C
4. Cognition refers to a. overt, observable behaviors. b. mental processes or faculties by which knowledge is acquired and manipulated. c. the genetic inheritance determining one's level of intelligence. d. the interaction of nature and nurture with regard to one's intelligence. REF: Cognition ANS: B
5. Those mental processes that are within an individual’s conscious awareness are called ______, while those that are outside of conscious awareness are called ______. a. cognitive processes; developmental processes b. macromechanisms; micromechanisms c. developmental processes; cognitive processes d. micromechanisms; macromechanisms REF: Cognition ANS: B
6. Which of the following is an example of a micromechanism? a. Developing a problem-solving plan b. Executing the plan for solving a problem c. The initial encoding of a stimulus related to solving a problem d. Evaluating the success of a problem-solving plan REF: Cognition ANS: C 7. Which of the following is an example of a macromechanism? a. The initial encoding of a stimulus b. The classifying of a stimulus c. Dreaming d. Developing a problem-solving plan REF: Cognition ANS: D
8. Development refers to a. physical growth only. b. mental changes only. c. changes in structure or function over time. d. the maintenance of structure and function over time. REF: Development ANS: C
WWW 9. Developmental function refers to a. the purpose of development. b. the functional value of development. c. the form that development takes over time. d. the patterns of intellectual aptitudes that differ among individuals. REF: Development ANS: C
10.Which of the following best reflects the differences between structure and function, when speaking of cognitive development? a. Structure refers to the brain; function refers to the mind. b. Structure refers to the mechanics of cognition; function refers to the content. c. Structure refers to the organization of thoughts; function refers to their construction. d. Structure refers to hypothetical mental construct, faculty, or ability that changes with age; function refers to the actions related to the structure. REF: Development ANS: D
11. Suppose a child's inherent characteristics, such as her activity level, influence her behaviors and the experiences she has. Further suppose that these influence her underlying cognitive or behavioral structures. This scenario best illustrates which of the following themes in cognitive development? a. the bidirectional relationship between structure and function b. the continuity versus discontinuity view of development c. the stage-like quality of nature versus nurture effects d. homogeneity of behavioral and cognitive functioning REF: Development ANS: A
12. Individual differences in cognitive development describe the
a. substantial variability of cognitive functions both between and within different individuals. b. different growth rates of areas of the brain that differentiate individuals. c. diverse combinations of talents, aptitudes and likes and dislikes that differentiate individuals. d. differential effects of the environment upon children of a given age. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: A
13. Which of the following best reflects the difference between developmental function and individual differences in cognitive development? a. Developmental function concerns processes underlying development, whereas individual differences concern the surface-level changes in development. b. Developmental function concerns changes in the form that cognition takes over time, whereas individual differences concern the patterns of intellectual aptitudes that differ among children of a given age. c. Developmental function concerns the purpose of development, whereas individual differences concern the mechanics of development. d. Developmental function concerns the development of cognitive processes, whereas individual differences concern the development of personality traits. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: B
WWW 14. Piaget believed that the activity of the child (or activity of the child’s mental structures) promoted changes in schemes. This illustrates a. how structures determine function. b. the bidirectionality of structure and function. c. reciprocity of neurons and synapses. d. sensorimotor functioning. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: B 15 Research examining the bidirectionality of structure and function involved disrupting the development of: a. chickens b. rats c. rabbits d. rhesus monkeys REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: A
16. According to Piaget, there is a bidirectional effect of structure and function with regard to cognitive development. This view holds that a. the activity of mental structures is a necessary condition for their change and development. b. cognition is a necessary condition for the proper growth and development of the brain. c. structures must be fully and correctly developed in order to function properly. d. structures follow a fixed pattern of development, regardless of their function. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: A
17. Young infants' relatively poor perceptual abilities and preschool children's tendencies to overestimate their physical and cognitive skills are examples of a. the progressive nature of cognition. b. the adaptive nature of cognitive immaturity. c. developmental delays which can be mediated by appropriate intervention. d. individual differences. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: B
18. One practical application of the adaptive nature of cognitive immaturity is a. the view that developmentally delayed children can (and should) be encouraged to attain age-appropriate skills. b. the view that children with learning disabilities can (and should) be encouraged to attain age-appropriate skills. c. the knowledge that developmentally delayed and learning disabled children cannot acquire even surface level advancements in behavior. d. the view that immature cognition may help developmentally delayed children master certain skills. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: D
19. Ariel, a four-year-old, tends to overestimate her ability to do various things. She is probably a. developing normally and her overconfidence is actually beneficial. b. at risk because she doesn’t have a realistic idea of what she can do. c. in need of psychiatric intervention because she is in denial about her self- efficacy. d. in need of evaluation; she apparently has a disability that must be overcome. REF: Developmental Function and Individual Differences ANS: A
20. Dr. Peterson, a developmental psychologist, thinks that children are born with only species-general learning mechanisms. Cognitive development is the result of experience. Dr. Peterson holds the philosophical view called a. systemic development. b. structuralism. c. nativism. d. empiricism. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: D
21. There are many views of how nature and nurture interact in the development of the individual. The view that holds that nature provides only species-general learning mechanisms, with cognition arising primarily as a result of experience, is known as a. nativism. b. empiricism. c. transactionalism. d. interactionism. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: B
WWW 22. A ______would believe that some aspects of human intelligence, such as knowledge that a solid object can’t pass through another solid object, are innate. a. nativist b. empiricist c. developmentalist d. dualist REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: A
23. A behavior that is subject to some genetically-based restriction is best thought of as a. innate. b. developmental. c. an expertise. d. environmentally determined. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: A
24. Basic ideas about the world that seem to be hard-wired into the brain are known as a. architectural constraints. b. representational constraints. c. developmental constraints. d. modular constraints. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: B
25. Some suggest that infants are born with some innate ideas about simple addition and subtraction. This is a(n) ______constraint. a. architectural b. representational c. innate d. numerical REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: D
26. The ways in which the brain is organized at birth, governing the type and manner in which information can be processed by the brain, are referred to as a. architectural constraints. b. representational constraints. c. developmental constraints. d. modular constraints. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: A
WWW 27. There is research that suggests that human children are born with certain parts of the brain that are hard-wired to recognize the appearance of upright faces. This is an example of a(n) ______constraint. a. architectural b. representational c. developmental d. modular REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: A 28. Chronotopic constraints refer to a. representations that are hard-wired into the brain so that some types of knowledge are innate. b. ways in which the architecture of the brain is organized at birth. c. limitations on the developmental timing of events. d. general, underlying cognitive abilities that influence performance over a wide range of situations. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: C
29. Some young birds can learn their species-typical song at only one point in development (not before or after that time). This is an example of a(n) ______constraint. a. contextual b. representational c. chronotopic d. song acquisition REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: C
30. Young Jorian, at just 8 months of age, is starting to repeat some of the sounds that his father and mother make to him. First he will babble the consonants he hears, and in a while he will probably say his first full word. The fact that babbling must come before his first word is spoken is an example of a ______constraint. a. representational b. innate c. empirical d. chronotopic REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: D
WWW 31. According to the ______approach to development, complex characteristics emerge from the spontaneous interaction among simpler components. a. stage theory b. transactional c. dynamic systems d. empirical REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: C 32. ______is the process in which pattern and order emerge from interaction of the components of a complex system; it is neither exclusively innate nor the exclusive result of learning. a. determinism b. self-organization c. linear change d. attractors REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: B
33. Which statement best represents the dynamic systems view of development? a. Development is emergent. b. Structures are innate. c. Structures are formed from experience. d. Cognitive style is highly heritable. REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: A
34. Phase transitions happen in a ______manner. a. continuous b. domain-specific c. discontinuous d. quantitative REF: Cognitive Development Proceeds as a Result of the Dynamic and Reciprocal Transaction of Internal and External Factors ANS: C
35. The model of cognitive development that emphasizes the importance of interaction between adults and children, and specifies that the nature of these interactions is mediated by culture, was forwarded by a. Urie Bronfenbrenner b. Lev Vygotsky c. Jerome Kagen d. Theodosius Dobzhansky REF: Cognitive Development is Constructed Within a Social Context ANS: B 36. Which of the following children is the most likely to learn by observation? a. A child raised with siblings b. A child raised without siblings c. A child raised in a schooled society d. A child raised in a traditional society REF: Cognitive Development is Constructed Within a Social Context ANS: D 37. Which model of developmental analysis focuses on the development of psychological processes over an individual’s lifetime, beginning before birth? a. Developmental contextualism b. Sociocultural models c. Evolutionary theory d. Continuity-Discontinuity paradigms REF: Cognitive Development is Constructed Within a Social Context ANS: A
38. According to Bjorklund, which model of cognitive development is the most useful for explaining why children and adolescents behave as they do? a. The functional theory b. The sociocultural theory c. The evolutionary theory d. The dialectical theory REF: Cognitive Development is Constructed Within a Social Context ANS: C
39. Young Emma is an only-child and has never really had to learn how to share her toys. She has recently started pre-school, and over time has become better at the “give and take” that is necessary in her classroom. This ability of a cognitive skill to be shaped by experience demonstrates: a. stability b. resilience c. plasticity d. pedagogy REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: C
40. The degree to which children maintain their same relative rank order over time in comparison with their peers on some aspect of cognition refers to a. stability b. plasticity c. a chronotopic constraint d. an architectural constraints REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: A
41. The stability of intelligence refers to a. the degree to which children's level of performance remains stable over time b. the homogeneity, or even-ness, of cognitive skills within a stage c. the invariant sequence of stages in cognitive development d. the degree to which children maintain their relative rank order over time in comparison with their peers on some aspect of cognition REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: D
WWW 42. The plasticity of intelligence refers to a. the extent to which children's patterns of intellectual competence can be altered by their environment b. the fact that children come into the world as "blank slates" and are molded only by their environment c. the flexible and variant sequence of stages of cognitive development d. the heterogeneity, or unevenness, of intellectual functioning within stages REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: A 43.The tape recorder model of development (Kagan, 1976) states that early experience is greatly influential and resistant to later experience. Studies with institutionalized infants and isolate-reared monkeys have shown that the theory is a. correct; it is nearly impossible to undo the effects of early experience. b. correct for human infants and early experience, but incorrect for other species. c. incorrect; there is plasticity on the part of a young organism and resilience concerning the negative effects of early environment. d. incorrect; early experiences play an unimportant role in development; only later experiences influence development. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: C
44. Kagan (1976) proposed that humans are resilient, and developmental outcome can be positive even when early experience is negative. One situation in which Kagan would not predict resilience of cognitive ability is a. when the cognitive ability does not go through transformations in its development. b. when the environment goes through drastic changes between adjacent cognitive developmental stages. c. when the cognitive ability goes through drastic changes between adjacent cognitive developmental stages. d. when the level of performance changes, but the child's rank order among other children does not change. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Both Stability and Plasticity Over Time ANS: A
45. Representation refers to a. the process of reading. b. the mental encoding of a stimulus. c. strategies involved in problem solving. d. children's tendency to “speak for” their peers. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in the Way Information is Represented ANS: B
46. Most cognitive developmentalists agree that how children represent knowledge and encode events a. changes developmentally. b. remains stable throughout the lifetime. c. remains stable for some children and changes developmentally for others. d. is not possible to understand because these processes are abstract and unobservable. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in the Way Information is Represented ANS: A 47. When researcher Karen Wynn placed a 5-month old infant in front of a screen and then presented a visual representation of an impossible math problem, what did she find? a. The infants stared equally at an “impossible” and a “possible” outcome. b. The infants were not able to focus their attention long enough to perceive either a “”possible” or an “impossible” outcome. c. The infants spent more time looking at a “possible outcome.” d. The infants spent more time looking at an “impossible outcome.” REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in the Way Information is Represented ANS: D
48. According to Bjorklund, most researchers today believe that children a. have multiple ways of representing information. b. represent information in virtually identical ways that do not change until the children enter school. c. are incapable of truly representing information prior to entering Piaget’s concrete operational stage of cognitive development. d. lack plasticity when it comes to cognitive functions. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in the Way Information is Represented ANS: A
WWW 49. Mental operations that are aimed at solving a problem, and are used deliberately to achieve a goal, are called a. representations. b. strategies. c. basic processes. d. codes. REF: Children Develop Increasing Intentional Control Over Their Behavior and Cognition ANS: B
50. The use of a strategy involves a. the concerted effort of a group of children. b. the activation and manipulation of instincts. c. deliberate mental operations aimed at solving a problem. d. the use of trial and error methods in solving a problem. REF: Children Develop Increasing Intentional Control Over Their Behavior and Cognition ANS: C
51. The use of strategies has been observed in children as young as: a. infancy b. 18 months of age c. 24 months of age d. 36 months of age REF: Children Develop Increasing Intentional Control Over Their Behavior and Cognition ANS: A
52. The ability to regulate attention and to determine what to do with information that has been retrieved from long-term memory is called: a. metacognition b. strategizing c. typifying d. executive function REF: Children Develop Increasing Intentional Control Over Their Behavior and Cognition ANS: D
WWW 53. Theories of cognitive development which assume that, at any point in time, a child's thinking is under the influence of a single set of factors, with these factors impacting different aspects of cognition equally, are referred to as a. domain-general theories b. domain-specific theories c. homogeneity theories d. heterogeneity theories REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: A
54. Which of the following best reflects Fodor's (1983) ideas about modular brain functions? a. Full appreciation for the mechanics of cognition requires a componential, or modular, approach to neurosurgery. b. Certain areas of the brain are dedicated to performing specific cognitive tasks and are impenetrable to other aspects of brain function. c. The brain is composed of different units of analysis, with each unit working in concert with all other units on any particular cognitive problem. d. The brain is run by a central processor, or executive module, which selects and runs each subprocess. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: B
WWW 55. Cognitive modules that represent special-purpose systems and are not subject to the influence of other parts of the mind are called: a. membranously impermeable b. developmentally structural c. strategically typified d. informationally encapsulated REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: D
56. Research by Wolfgang Schneider has supported the use of which type of theory in explaining the cognitive development of children? a. domain-specific theories b. domain-general theories c. a combination of both domain-specific and domain-general theories d. neither domain-specific nor domain-general theories REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: C
57. The inflexibility that is implied by the modularity suggested by Fodor can be beneficial to human beings. Why? a. It increases the likelihood that complex information will be properly processed and understood. b. It increases the likelihood that insignificant information will decay from memory in a timely fashion. c. It increases the ability of human beings to multitask; that is, to effectively focus their attention on multiple stimuli simultaneously. d. It decreases the ability of distracting stimuli to influence the way in which incoming information is retrieved. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: A
58. Bjorklund argues that the hallmark of human cognition, which has allowed us to solve problems that biology could not have imagined, is a. language b. intelligence c. consciousness d. flexibility REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: D
59. According to your textbook chapter, cognitive developmentalists value the goal of producing research that can: a. effectively support only domain-specific theories of development. b. effectively negate long-valued yet oft-questioned theories from past developmentalists. c. be applied to real-world contexts. d. effectively support only domain-general theories of development. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: C
60. Bjorklund argues that the principle goal of cognitive developmentalists is to discover a. representational changes. b. changes in intentionality. c. ways to accelerate development. d. the underlying mechanisms of developmental change. REF: Cognitive Development Involves Changes in both Domain-General and Domain-Specific Abilities ANS: D
Essay Questions
1. Define cognitive development. Include in your answer a consideration of development, cognition, structure and function.
2. Generally, young children are cognitively immature compared to older children and adults. Discuss the importance of this immaturity. Is it harmful, beneficial, or both? Why?
3. Describe the nature of the relationship between structure and function. Provide research evidence to support your position.
4. Characterize the extreme views of biological influence vs. environmental influence, and discuss how the two interact in development.
5. Discuss “innateness” and the contributions of representational, architectural, and chronotopic constraints.
6. Explain the difference between domain-general and domain-specific abilities. Of what importance are these concepts to cognitive development?
7. Discuss the use of strategies as they relate to intentional control over one’s actions. At what age do we see these strategies emerge? Provide evidence cited in your text to support your answer.
8. Discuss developmental changes in representation and intentional control.