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Race and Sport in the Sun: The Rollins/Ohio Wesleyan Football Game of 1947

Wenxian Zhang Rollins College, [email protected]

Raja Rahim of Florida, [email protected]

Julian Chambliss Michigan State University, [email protected]

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Published In Zhang, Wenxian, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss, "Race and Sport in the Florida Sun: The Rollins/Ohio Wesleyan Football Game of 1947." Phylon (1960-) 56, no. 2 (2019): 59-81.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Rollins Scholarship Online. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Rollins Scholarship Online. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 59

Race and Sport in the Florida Sun: The Rollins/Ohio Wesleyan Football Game of 1947

Wenxian Zhang Rollins College

Raja Rahim University of Florida

Julian Chambliss Michigan State University

Abstract

As the most popular sport in the , football occupies a central place in popu- lar discourse. Since the early twentieth century, public engagement with football has been central to sport culture. Across the South, football provided a moment of common experi- ence, and this was especially true of Rollins College. Being the oldest liberal arts institution in Florida, life at Rollins was linked to football for decades. Yet, as this comment suggested, the nature of the relationship could not be unaffected by the changing racial dynamic in the United States. As a small liberal arts college, the faculty and students at Rollins has long supported “progressive” racial politics. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of that history in the 1947 Rollins/Ohio football game is how that racial progressivism vie with the reality of White Supremacy. Despite notable social progress since World War II, Florida in the late 1940s remained a frontier state in terms of racial relations, since the state law still prohibited the mixed participation in any educational programs. When Ohio Wesleyan led by Branch Rickey insisted on bringing its African American player to the game, President failed to take a stand against racial injustice, fearing violence, even though the cancellation was against his personal beliefs. Notwithstanding his own limit and surrender to political pressures in the segregated South of his time, Holt ultimately was able to stand on the right side of history and made his mark on the social integration in the United States. 60 Phylon 56

Introduction cerned the cancellation of a football game, the intersection of race and sports On Friday, November 28, 1947, Ham- in college athletics, and White southern ilton Holt, president of Rollins College culture. After much debate, Rollins Col- (1925-1949), gave lengthy remarks to the lege cancelled it against Ohio Wesleyan students and faculty in the Annie Rus- University (OWU) to ensure the racial sell Theatre: order of the South. The racial machi- We all are prone to take our stand on nations surrounding the Rollins-OWU controversial issues in accordance with game tells not only the history of college our general intellectual and ethical be- football and the execution of the Gentle- liefs, even before we have heard both men’s Agreement but also exposes how sides. I know that some of you have Whites interpreted the processes of so- thought that Rollins was wrong in can- cial change in the postwar South. celing the game, for I have heard already As the most popular sport in the a few such opinions expressed from United States, especially in the South, alumni, faculty, students and townsfolk. football has been a major part of Ameri- Others I know have approved. But it can life since its invention in the late is always better in cases of this kind to nineteenth century. Most people prob- hear the objections to what may be said ably do not know that Rollins College against your conclusions before your ut- once had a very active football program. ter them than after you utter them. In With mottos such as “Fit for Life,” “Fit other words, the spirit of tolerance and to Fight,” and “Study Hard and Play fair play requires educated men and Hard,” Rollins’ football program was women to make up their minds... Histo- launched in the early twentieth century, ry, I take it, is nothing but the coming into and its first victory was over the Univer- his own of the individual man, whatever sity of Florida (5-0) at home in 1906, af- his color, creed, race or religion may be. ter suffering two no-win seasons. Over But during the life-time of every one of its forty-five-year span (1904-1949), you in my hearing this morning, this is- Tars registered a record of 114 wins, 94 sue is likely to be with you, even though losses, and 13 ties, making Rollins one I hope and believe it will continually get of the best small-college programs in better as the years and decades roll on the country (Davis 1994). As a founding (Holt 1947a). member of the Florida Collegiate Ath- letic Association, Rollins regularly faced teams from much larger institutions and Speaking on the issue of race in the scored a few impressive wins, including United States, it may be assumed that beating the University of Havana (80- Holt’s speech spoke to the experiences 0) in 1923, and defeating Miami Hurri- of World War II soldiers, the tensions canes in 1932 (6-0), 1934 (14-0) and 1940 sparked by the onset of the Cold War, (7-0). Although the program was briefly or the forthcoming movement for Black cancelled (1942-45) due to the war effort civil rights. His remarks, however, con- and a lack of male enrollment as a result of the draft during World War II, under Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 61

the leadership of Coach Jack McDow- North and South (Demas 2010; Martin all (1929-1949) and with ardent support 1996). Written in ambiguous language, by President Hamilton Holt, for years the contracts masked the racist politics football occupied a central place in cam- of White college athletics. For instance, pus life at Rollins, and its annual ritual the Rollins/OWU contract read, “the is the homecoming celebration in each home management reserves the right to November (ibid; Rollins Alumni Record cancel said contest on account of inclem- 1948). ent weather or any other unforeseen or During the homecoming game on No- unavoidable cause, two hours before vember 22, 1946, Rollins beat Ohio Wes- the team leaves from its residence or leyan 21 to 13. The game took place in the place of the previous game” (Roll- the Orlando Municipal Stadium, at the ins/OWU Football Contract 1947). The current site of Citrus Bowl. On February language was typical of most gentle- 19, 1947, Jack McDowall, Rollins’ Athlet- men agreement contracts that left the ic Director, reached an agreement with meaning of “unforeseen or unavoidable G. E. Gauthier, his counterpart at OWU, cause” open to debate. By the late 1940s, on Rollins’ next homecoming game to however, many northern like be played on November 28, 1947, with OWU began to express their oppositions a signed Southern Inter-Collegiate Ath- to the Gentlemen’s Agreement. letic Association football contract speci- fying the time, place, and financial ob- A Controversy and A Compromise ligations for both parties (Rollins/OWU Football Contract 1947). Five weeks before the game was to During the era of segregation, White take place, Rollins learned that the 1947- southern colleges and 48 football team of Ohio Wesleyan in- played their roles in maintaining the ra- cluded an African American freshman cial status quo, including their athletic named Kenneth Woodward. The inclu- programs. Since the development of col- sion of Woodward breached the inexplic- lege athletics at the turn of the twentieth it rule that barred for century, Northern and Southern colleges intersectional football games, especially and universities operated based on the those held in the South. After knowing Gentlemen’s Agreement—a mutual un- the fact, Rollins officials began to act derstanding that excluded the Black ath- immediately. In his letter of October 21, lete from competition when the teams 1947 to Dean C. E. Ficken at OWU, Rol- met. Under such an agreement, White lins’ Dean of Men A. D. Enyart clearly southern colleges avoided integrated outlined the dilemma the school faced: competition by not scheduling games with integrated teams of the North or by The Administration of the insisting those teams leave their Black College, the Faculty, the Athletic players behind. Throughout the first Department, the student teams and half of the century, White college leaders the student body generally, have contractually agreed that the color line no objection to playing against a would maintain on football fields in the Negro, but there are other serious 62 Phylon 56

obstacles in our way over which we progress in the United States, especial- have no control. Our College lawyer ly of that in the state of Florida. White informs me that there is a State law Floridians—like most White southern- forbidding mixed participation in ers—resisted the integration of baseball any educational function. Whether and exposed the myth of a level playing this law would stand up in our case field. When Jackie Robinson arrived in is a question which I doubt and it for his first spring train- need not here be considered, but a ing with the Montreal Royals in 1946, he more serious situation confronts us was forced to sit in the back of the bus in public sentiment. It is difficult for and humiliated, and the Sanford police those of you who have always been chief stopped a minor league game be- accustomed to living in the North cause of his presence (Ortiz 2012). With to understand fully the situation in football deeply embedded in southern the Deep South. In the first place the culture and community, perhaps more young man in question would have so than baseball, Rollins administrators to undergo the humiliation of riding feared the massive resistance would in a separate coach (unless you had come if an integrated game was held. a private one) after the team cross The first half of the twentieth century the Mason and Dixon Line. Again, was a turbulent time for race relations in he could not be housed and fed in the United States. Despite notable social the hotel with his teammates. It progress made since the Civil War, racial would be necessary to provide for discrimination and anti-Black violence him either in a private home or at was still rampant in the South. One of a hotel in the Negro quarter. This the least populated states of the time, would be humiliating to us as well Florida nonetheless shared in the racial as to him and the Ohio Wesleyan violence that defined the region, and in- team (Enyart 1947). cidents such as the 1920 Ocoee Massacre highlight this dark reality. On November 2, 1920, after two Black men attempted Enyart’s reasoning highlighted the to vote and encouraged other African cultural climate of the postwar South. Americans to vote, the entire Black pop- The dilemma that Rollins faced was not ulation of Ocoee was violently assault- uncommon as it was one of many south- ed. On the night of the attack, White ern colleges that sought to uphold White World War I veterans, many members southern culture and supremacy, even in of the local Ku Klux Klan, came from sports. across Orange County to participate. At When Branch Rickey signed Jackie least 24 Black homes were burned, and Robinson to the Brooklyn Dodgers’ mi- dozens lost their lives, the Ocoee Massa- nor league affiliate, the Montreal Roy- cre is still regarded as the “bloodiest day als in 1945, during World War II ending, in modern American political history” baseball’s great experiment began. Rob- (Ibid). inson’s entrance into America’s favorite In their deliberations, another im- pastime sport tested the water of racial portant factor that Rollins administra- Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 63

tors considered was that the Orlando be hurt, or perhaps even killed. We Municipal Stadium was not controlled all regret exceedingly this situation, by the College, but managed by the lo- but we can see no way of changing it cal chapter of the American Legion, a under the present condition. conservative veterans organization es- Given the unforeseen or unavoid- tablished after World War I. Although able circumstance, Enyart suggested: formally non-partisan, the American “In view of the fact that the contract was Legion during its early years was very made without either of the parties being active in issue-oriented U.S. politics, and aware of the present conditions, we feel worked to the spread of the ideology that a cancellation of the contract would of Americanism. One of its top leaders be embarrassing to both sides and would had even declared that “Fascisti are to result in a very definite financial loss to Italy what the American Legion is to the us, and worse than that, would create United States” (Campbell 2003). In addi- an almost inexplainable situation with tion, around the same time, the Florida our athletic obligations and our home- NAACP adopted multiple resolutions coming alumni” (Ibid). Therefore, on be- at its state conference in Lake Wales, half of Rollins, he proposed that OWU which plainly stated: “The existence of to play the game without the player in Ku Kluxism is a potential threat to the question: “We sincerely hope that the personal safety and the Constitutional young man would not be offended by rights of all minorities. We therefore ask being left at home on this trip and that our state, county, and city authorities to the established friendly rivalry between take vigorous action in cases of intimi- the two teams may continue for many dation or violence against citizens by the years to come” (Ibid). Clearly, Rollins ad- Ku Klux Klan and other Fascist groups” ministrators were more concerned about (Moore 1947). the southern way of life than the welfare and humanity of Woodward. Like most With this background in mind, Dean southern colleges fighting to preserve Enyart (1947) emphasized: the Gentlemen’s Agreement, despite po- There might be serious danger litical and social pressures toward racial arising out of the situation if some progress, in the late 1940s, Rollins ex- die-hard “cracker” from the outlying plicitly stated their desire to exclude a districts during the game should player based on race. shout, “Kill the nigger!” We could While acknowledging the awkward not guarantee what might happen. I situation, Allen C. Conger, OWU’s Reg- have seen race riots start here under istrar and Head of Athletic Committee, less provocation. I assure you that noted in his reply that Woodward “was we are partly civilized in this section salutatorian of his high school class of the world, but the College cannot (South High, Columbus, Ohio). That undertake to control the emotional high school has a student body com- impulses of the rabble. If a riot were posed of one-fourth negro and three- started somebody would be sure to fourths White students. In spite of his 64 Phylon 56

belonging to the racial minority, he was South. After some discussions, however, elected President of the Student Body Rollins administrators were able to con- and Chief Justice of the Student Court. vince the student body that the proposed He is the only student ever to hold both compromise was in the best interests of of these offices. He received the Shriner the College as well as the Central Florida Award as the outstanding student in community. citizenship of the city and the Agonis Similar persuasion also took place at Award as the outstanding student ath- Ohio Wesleyan. After receiving the let- lete of the city” (Conger 1947). In other ter from Dean Enyart and speaking with words, Woodward was no ordinary ne- President Hamilton Holt over telephone gro or Black athlete. Woodward’s aca- on November 2, John Adams, President demic and athletic records demonstrat- of Student Council at OWU explained ed a level of respectability that Conger the sensitive issue in details to his stu- believed White Americans, even those dent assembly in the college chapel. As in the South, could accept. Noting his a result of deliberations, two resolu- enrollment was to demonstrate “free- tions were passed: by a vote of 19 to 1, dom from prejudice,” Conger further the Student Council at OWU opposed acknowledged: breaking the contract with Rollins; and then through an unanimousvote, it was When we scheduled the game two recommended that “Ohio Wesleyan sign years ago we had no colored boys on no contracts in the future with any insti- our squad and we did not know there tution where circumstances will prevent would be any problem of this sort. I any member of the athletic teams from am sure that you are well qualified playing” (Ohio Wesleyan News 1947). to interpret the situation in Florida. Adams was praised by Ohio Wesleyan It seems clear to me that we have not Transcript (1947a) for doing “his job ef- only the general problem but we also ficiently while dealing with people rep- have the question of the young man resenting both sides of the issue whose and the treatment he would receive by good intentions and common sense segregation in travel and in housing. were carried away by emotion and in- You have also stated quite clearly the formation which was not totally cor- possibility that trouble could arise rect. A vote of confidence goes to John from a certain section of the “sporting Adams for his success in handling in an public” (Ibid). important major issue.” On November 8, 1947, John Adams When the situation was made pub- sent a brief thank-you letter to President lic, it created an uproar in Winter Park. Holt: “I wish to express my apprecia- Some members of the Rollins academic tion for the time you took last Sunday community, those with progressive afternoon to help the Student Council viewpoints in racial relations includ- of Ohio Wesleyan settle one of the most ing faculty, students and alumni, urged controversial issues with which it has the college leaders to take a brave stand ever been faced. I fully realized your po- against the discrimination in the Deep sition at the time, and I expressed that Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 65

point of view to the student body” (Ad- ing to a Black player was an even more ams 1947). In his reply, President Holt disturbing thought. A loss would have noted: exposed the weaknesses of White Su- I hope no one at Ohio Wesleyan premacy and the vulnerability of White thinks for a moment that Rollins manhood in the South. College or our football team would Then Holt reflected from his - per hesitate at any time or place to sonal experience, which clearly reveals play an opponent with the team his thinking on this controversy issue: selected by them even if it included “Before I came to Rollins College I was a Negro. But we live in a part of the for twenty-five years an editor of one country in which there is a small of the three most important papers in but vociferous element which resents the United States which championed such intermingling of the races the Negro’s cause and it is personally and it would have put us in a very humiliating to me that we even had to embarrassing position if we had to suggest the course we did in the present police the game so as to assure that case. It goes against my grain, but some- no untoward incident might have time prudence is the better part of valor” results that would be anything but (Ibid). satisfactory either to Rollins or Ohio In addition to the votes by the Stu- Wesleyan. The fact is whatever way dent Council, the football team, the Ath- the issue is decided, Rollins is put in letic Committee, and coaches at OWU an awkward position and I am glad also voted unanimously to play Rollins that the students of Ohio Wesleyan, without the player in question. A crisis though not approving of our decision, seemed avoided, OWU would leave are able to see our side of it (Holt Woodward behind, and Rollins began 1947b). preparation work for the homecoming celebration and game, which would in- Holt and his administration argued clude football rally and coronation of the that the Rollins team did not fear play- Student Homecoming Queen at halftime ing against a Black student but dread- (Ohio Wesleyan News 1947; Sandspur ed the outrage from the surrounding 1947a). White community. The notion of play- ing against an integrated team was an idea that White southerners, who came Branch Rickey and Hamilton Holt: of age in a segregated world, could not Two Progressive Americans with handle easily. Political demagogues and Different Ideas for Social Change public expectations in the community demanded that Rollins maintain athletic When OWU trustee Branch Rickey be- segregation. Because of the potential of came aware of the compromise reached segregationist resistance, college offi- between the two schools, he immediate- cials concluded the best way to help race ly interrupted and turned the situation relations was to maintain status quo. upside down. Rickey (1881-1965) was a Moreover, for some the idea of play- successful professional sport executive 66 Phylon 56

and the Baseball Hall of Fame induct- reached oral agreement between Dean ee, who was best known for breaking Ficken and Dean Enyart, the Committee color barrier in Major League Baseball asserted that OWU would stand by its in 1947. Growing up in Southern Ohio, contract with Rollins, while the univer- Rickey attended Ohio Wesleyan and sity’s Athletic Board also issued a state- was a catcher on the baseball team. He ment that “any fulltime student of Ohio also participated in professional football Wesleyan University regardless of race and played with an African-American color or creed is eligible for all intercolle- teammate named Charles W. Follis, and giate competition provided he meets the that personal experience of an interra- regular eligibility requirements” (Ohio cial friendship had a lasting impact on Wesleyan Transcript 1947b ). On Mon- his life (Nash 2009). After graduation, day, November 17, upon learning this Rickey maintained close contacts with latest development through telegraph, his alma mater. By the time the contro- Enyart made a long-distance phone call versy with Rollins emerged, he already to Ficken, his counterpart at OWU, who had a successful business career as the also served as acting president at the president and general manager of the time. Himself a proud Ohio Wesleyan Brooklyn Dodgers for several years graduate, Enyart tried very hard to sal- while serving on the Executive Com- vage the game scheduled to be played mittee of OWU’s Board of Trustees. By in ten days, even offered to fly to Dela- signing Jackie Robinson, the first Afri- ware, meet with OWU administrators can American to play in Major League and trustees, and solve the matter face- Baseball since the nineteenth century, to-face: “If that man is played, it is just and one year before President Truman too much of a hazard to risk for his sake, integrated the military in 1948, Rickey and Rollins and Ohio Wesleyan’s sake. If helped change baseball forever. In June the trustees know that sufficiently well, 1947, Ohio Wesleyan awarded Rickey an I am quite sure that they would listen to honorary Doctor of Laws for his “high reason” (Telephone Transcript 1947). principles of integrity, intelligence and In his response, Ficken stated: “It is tolerance” (Ohio Wesleyan Magazine understood perfectly that risks are in- 1947, 124). Owing to his brave and vi- volved. However, your Alma Mater can- sionary act, Rickey has since been recog- not face the world in the next twenty- nized as a civil rights leader, who “cata- five years if we participate in an act of lyzed the transformation of all sports discrimination at this time. I would not in this country and set the stage for the solve it this way and I did not have this Civil Rights Movement” (Kurtz 2006). solution for it, but influences much more During the Executive Committee potent than my own made the decision meeting of the OWU Board of Trustees for me to communicate on behalf of the on Saturday, November 15, 1947, Rickey Executive Committee. As you know, the insisted that OWU would only play the Board of Trustees is the only ultimate football game scheduled on November authority in dealing with colleges like 28 with Kenneth Woodward as a part yours and mine” (Ibid). He further in- of the team. Overriding the recently dicated that OWU Board was willing to Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 67

charter a plane to fly the player in ques- the Spanish Mediterranean architectural tion and make arrangement for his hotel style of the campus and fostered a great stay in Orlando. Ficken went on: “But legacy of expansion and growth for the Ohio Wesleyan just simply cannot take College. It was during the Holt era that the first action which is that of discrimi- Rollins achieved national prominence as nating against one of its players. He may one of the outstanding experimental col- not be eligible when he gets down there. leges in the country. To many people in That is still possible… We are going to Winter Park and Central Florida, Rollins have to solve it on the basis of the Con- was Holt, and Holt was Rollins (Kuehl stitution of the United States whatever 1960, 219). As a popular president, he else happens” (Ibid ). was highly visible on campus, attending From the phone conversation, it was all sorts of fraternity and sorority pro- very clear that OWU’s Executive Com- grams, as well as football, baseball and mittee would not reverse its decision un- softball games, and was affectionately der the leadership of Branch Rickey. The called “Prexy” by Rollins students, who ball was back in the court of Rollins, and would gather in the Winter Park train the final decision rested on Hamilton station each fall to welcome his return Holt. Evidently, OWU’s decision not to from summer break in Woodstock, Con- leave Woodward behind represented the necticut (Lane 1980, 53). inevitable end of the Gentlemen’s Agree- The publication Holt noted in his ment between colleges in the North and reply to Adams earlier was The Inde- South, while Holt’s personal conflict ex- pendent, which was founded in 1848 by posed the complexity and limitations of several Congregational Church laymen, White sympathizers and some progres- including Holt’s grandfather Henry sives to the cause of Black civil rights in C. Bowen (Chambliss 2009). Original- the postwar South. ly published as a religious weekly for In 1925, Hamilton Holt (1872-1951) promoting antebellum abolitionism, became the eighth president of Rollins the magazine remained a progressive College. An accomplished journalist and voice after the Civil War and expanded internationalist, Holt had no pedagogi- its focus to address political, social, and cal training in higher education. Howev- economic issues. In 1897, after graduat- er, based on his own experience at Yale ing from Yale and pursuing postgradu- and Columbia, he boldly abandoned ate study at Columbia, Holt became the the traditional and recitation managing editor of The Independent, and method, and launched the Conference eagerly advocated for diversity and ac- Plan of teaching that centered the cur- ceptance at the turn of the twentieth riculum on individual learning at Roll- century. Using the weekly to champion ins. Holt founded the Animated Maga- the cause of African Americans, Holt zine, an annual public speaking event strongly condemned the racial discrimi- that brought many great personalities nation and violence against Blacks in the to Rollins, including President Franklin South, noting that not even Germans D. Roosevelt, and the American philoso- ferocity in Belgium, English cruelty in pher John Dewey. He also established Ireland, and Japanese brutality in Korea 68 Phylon 56

could “equal in depravity and barbarity Vanderbilt, and Tulane, to voice their America’s record for lynching” (Kuehl objections to the recommendation of 1960, 48). Believing education was key President’s Commission on Higher Edu- to solve the racial issue in America, he cation that the dual system of schools in attended several conferences at Tuske- America, then still effective in seventeen gee organized by Booker T. Washington, states, be eliminated: “It would be un- and actively promoted Wilberforce Uni- wise and impractical to end the segre- versity, the first college owned and oper- gation of White and negro children that ated by African Americans. With Mary exists in the schools and colleges of the W. Ovington, Oswald G. Villard, and South, by any kind of government edict. John Spargo, he also formed the Cosmo- This problem should be solved by the politan Club, a social group aimed for Southern people themselves and cannot improving interracial relations in New be done overnight” (Fine 1947, 17). York. More significantly, in 1909, along A very important factor in Holt’s de- with other notable progressives such as liberation is his sturdy opposition to vio- W.E.B. Dubois, Ida B. Wells-Barnett, Jane lence in both international and domestic Addams, Florence Kelley, John Dewey, affairs. Throughout his life, Holt was an Charles Darrow, and Oswald Villard, international peace activist and a strong Holt became a founding member of the supporter of the League of Nations and National Association for the Advance- the United Nations. To solve any inter- ment of Colored People (NAACP) (Ibid). national conflict, Holt advocated active Judging from his associations and ac- engagement and dialogues instead di- tions, Holt was aligned with progressive rect confrontation, war, and violence. race ideology that advocated for equity. In dealing with domestic challenges However, Holt’s take on race reflect such as interracial relations in the Deep the complexity of the time. He once pub- South, he adopted the same approach lished in The Independent, along with a and genuinely believed “that a race riot measured response by W.E.B. Dubois, a which threatened to break out in Orlan- passionate letter by Corra Harris, who do where the contest was to be played tried to justify lynching and segrega- would actually harm race relations rath- tion in the American South (Lane 2015). er than promote them” (Kuehl 1960, 49). From that encounter Holt developed a Holt also served as the chairman of long-term friendship with Harris, even the board in the late 1940s, besides his inviting her to teach at Rollins in the position as Rollins president, a factor late twenties. Although he strongly sup- that further complicated his decision- ported the cause of African Americans, making process. Although personally Holt’s moderate position in race rela- he had a progressive stance on race rela- tions reflected his perception of the limi- tions in America, Holt had to deal with tations linked to community. In 1947, a conservative board, which largely con- he joined eight other presidents in the sisted of successful businessmen in the South, including the University of Vir- South. According to his own reflection ginia, University of Mississippi, Uni- (Holt 1947a): versity of Arkansas, University of Texas, Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 69

I was in great distress as to what was The statement read: the right thing to do, but I finally Officials of Rollins College, represent- decided it this way. I said to myself, ing many different sections of the United “What did I come here for; to solve States, have given careful consideration the race problem or to help build up to the advisability of playing the game Rollins College?” the answer then scheduled with Ohio Wesleyan Univer- was inevitable… It was a violation sity on Friday, November 28, in consid- of my whole general attitude on the eration of the fact that one member of race question. If I had come down the Ohio Wesleyan team is a Negro. Rol- here, on the contrary, to make my lins College has no objection whatsoever chief concern in life the solution of to playing in a game in which a Negro the Negro Problem (and a White man participates. However, a football game is could not consecrate his life to a more a community affair, and, after consulta- worthy cause) then I would have put tion with leading members of our com- the race issue above the welfare of munity, both White and colored, officials Rollins and would have felt justified of Rollins College have decided that in in doing so. the best interests of racial relations, they are unwilling to take action which might Holt’s assessment of the danger interfere with the good progress now posed by the game was also very telling: being made in Florida, and especially in the local community. Rollins, therefore, If rumors can be believed, we has decided to cancel the game (Rollins understood that some groups had Board of Trustees 1947). threatened that he [Woodward] On the same day, immediately after never would be allowed to enter the the board meeting, Coach McDowall stadium… Members of the American wired a rush telegram to Gauthier of Legion and Trustees of the Orlando OWU stating that in accordance with stadium for instance frowned upon Clause Seven of the Rollins-OWU Con- a game of mixed races. This hostile tract, which stated that “home manage- feeling might even spread so as to ment reserved the right to cancel” the break up the cordial relations that game due to any “unforeseen or un- now obtain between town and gown avoidable cause,” Rollins was terminat- and might even set the welfare of the ing the game between Ohio back in the community for University and Rollins on November 28, perhaps a generation (Ibid). adding, “needless to say, we do this with utmost reluctance” (McDowall 1947). On Saturday, November 22, 1947, at a Undoubtedly, the cancellation was a meeting of the Executive Committee of major disappointment to students at the Rollins Board of Trustees, which was Rollins. However, as the time was run- attended by the chief administrative of- ning out and without any other practical ficers of the College and other trustees in options, the Student Council followed the area, a resolution was unanimously suit and voted to cancel the game in- adopted. stead of risking further dispute. In a 70 Phylon 56

memo to President Holt, Student Coun- ideals were not to precipitate a crisis cil Secretary Mary Jane Whitley (1947) that might and probably would stated: “This is to inform you that we, promote bad race relations, but to the Student Council, at our last meeting work quietly for better race relations, of November 24th, voted unanimously hoping and believing that time would in favor of the decision made to cancel be on our side (Holt 1947a) the Ohio Wesleyan game of November 28th.” No records of correspondence be- Holt’s speech on the cancellation of tween Holt and Rickey can be found in the Ohio Wesleyan football game de- the Rollins College Archives to confirm serves extensive quotation because it whether Holt knew Rickey in person. clearly reveals his rationale on this con- However, in 1947, those two progressive troversial issue and how some white individuals with different approaches progressives offered inaction as a step for social change and racial justice in toward racial progress: America appeared to be on the direct After debating the long run versus course of Collison. Rickey was not only the short run, it was perfectly obvious a successful businessperson, but also a to us all as we discussed this point, devoted Christian whose early friend- that Rollins, living in the Deep ship with African Americans greatly South as we do, was forced to risk shaped his ideals of equal rights for all. misunderstanding and criticism in When witnessing the racial discrimina- the North in order to take what we tion suffered by his Black teammate, believed would be the better course he once proclaimed: “I may not be able to better relations between the to do something about racism in ev- Whites and Blacks in the South. I ery field, but I can sure do something may tell you that I have never heard about it in baseball” (Prince 2016). Out a more high-minded, dispassionate of personal convictions and astute busi- or statesmanlike discussion since I ness sense, Rickey’s vision and action to have been at Rollins College than break the color barrier had profoundly the two hour debate our trustees and transformed the American sports after administrative officers had in coming World War II and set the stage for the to their unanimous conclusion. Civil Rights Movement decades later. May I say this to you students; you However, unlike Rickey, Holt preferred a will probably have critical decisions more gradual and incremental approach like this to make as you go through in racial politics. Although he strongly life—decisions that whatever you supported the cause of African Ameri- do, you will be misinterpreted, cans, his unwavering opposition to any misunderstood, and reviled. I have violence in conflict resolutions put him found in my own case it helps to find at odds with Rickey’s much more ag- out which of your loyalties involved gressive stand against racial discrimina- is the greater. It seemed to all of us tions in America. that our loyalties to Rollins and its Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 71

A Football Game is a Community Affair radical stand and forcefully denunciated the compromising position took by Rol- Despite Holt’s passionate argument lins administrators: and the unanimous votes by the Execu- tive Committee of the Board of Trustees True, much has been accomplished and the Student Council, Rollins student by the quiet workers of the world newspaper Sandspur still issued an edi- — but more striking advances have torial strongly condemning the decision been made by those who dared. made by college officials: Without Joan of Arc and Abraham Lincoln, our civilization could not This is no time to bury our heads, have come as far as it has. Both pleasant as such self-deception these leaders realized the necessity may be. It is rather a time for for compromise, and gave in time facing squarely some disturbing and time again on small issues. But moral questions. One of the main when it came time for a final test of arguments on which the trustees their principles, they would accept based their decision is that “a no compromise, and bloodshed and football game is a community affair.” violence was a small price to pay And so it is, to the extent that any for the good they accomplished. We such game is largely supported by must not be blinded by the possibility members of the community. But it of violence to the larger possibilities seems ridiculous that basic college for good in a given situation. We policies, even about football, should must not sink into existences of quiet be dictated by the community. After desperation, and forget when to stop all, a college should be a center not compromising. It is a dangerous only of learning but of leadership. thing to forget… If, as has been Its members should be defenders remarked, this issue actually boils of liberal action rather than mere down to a fundamental conflict followers of community reactionaries. between idealism and realism, it is To allow important policies to be all too easy to see where the college determined by our environment is stands. Our liberal principles, our to sink into ineffectual romanticism high ideals ... it becomes apparent and to avoid our intellectual that such visionary concepts must, responsibilities. And we must face at the first conflict, be sacrificed to those responsibilities, or face the fact expediency. Have we forgotten that that we can no longer call ourselves a ideals, to be worth anything, must liberal college (Sandspur 1947b, 2). be lived by and fought for; that they When it came to the struggle for Black are worse than useless if the first rights, the willingness of so-called White clash shows them subservient to progressives to remain silent was a pragmatic realism? This is a center of strike against racial and social progress. higher education; for such a mistaken Having this understanding, Sandspur’s attitude we have not even the excuse editorial team led by Pat Meyer took a of ignorance (Ibid). 72 Phylon 56

liberal arts college in dealing with race Some faculty members also voiced relations in the Deep South (Minutes of their objections on moral ground, while Faculty Meeting 1947). While his motion others were upset that football had oc- was defeated, the controversy persisted. cupied excessively a centralized place in Although most of students accepted the college life at Rollins, and would like to explanations provided by the president, see its abolishment. In a letter to Sand- a number of them were not satisfied with spur, English Professor Nathan Starr Holt’s remarks, among those was John (1947, 2) pointed out: Van Metre, an undergraduate student at Rollins, who felt Holt only gave “lip- TIt is ironic to consider that during service” to the racial issue in America, the same football season which saw and action must speak louder than “fine Rollins cancelling its game with words” (John Van Metre 1947, 2). In his Ohio Wesleyan, others in the South open letter to Holt, he praised that: have taken the lead in scheduling inter-racial games. In Durham, Men who have ‘stuck their necks out’ NC, a team of Negroes played a for what they believed in are among team of Whites without incident; the greatest figures in history— in Charlottesville, Va., Harvard’s Socrates, Jesus, Luther Darwin, and Negro tackle was applauded as he left Lincoln, to name a few. And forgive the field; in Dallas, Texas, Southern me if I mention Branch Rickey… Methodist University apparently But the Robinson experiment had no qualms about inviting Penn was an unqualified success, and a State to play in a post-season Bowl major battle was won toward the game, even though the northern team elimination of race prejudice and a included two Negroes. In heeding the solution of the race problem. This voice of anti-liberal opinion in the battle was won mainly through community under the fear of violence the courage and ability of a Negro (which in my opinion would not athlete, Robinson, and through have materialized), Rollins has placed the courageous right action of a itself in a very compromising and businessman, Branch Rickey. Despite constricting position. It is a heavy your slightly cavalier attitude toward price to pay. Mr. Rickey, he could teach you a thing or two about democratic action Besides Starr, several faculty mem- (Ibid). bers also wrote separate letters of pro- tests. Even more telling, at a faculty Shocked by the cancellation out of ra- meeting held on December 11, 1947, cial considerations, Martin Dibner, a vet- Royal W. France, Professor of Econom- eran who returned for graduate art study ics, proposed that the president appoint at Rollins after serving in the Navy dur- a committee to express faculty collective ing World War II, issued a separate open sentiment to the Board of Trustees and letter to President Holt with a series of draft a general statement on the princi- questions: Is Rollins advancing culture ples and procedures to be followed by a by acquiescing to racial prejudice? Does Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 73 an act of intolerance qualify Rollins to tion was more sensational: “Rickey los- teach others how to make mature judg- es, Jim Crow wins.” However, at least ments? What can Rollins students be one newspaper in the South had a dif- expected to learn from this? That dis- ferent perspective. After citing Rollins’ crimination because of race, color, creed, reason for cancellation and mentioning or religion is the American heritage? He the Major League and Jackie Robinson, then passionately argued: Orlando Morning Sentinel (1947) noted that the personal intervention of Branch (It was a game of football. Sport, Rickey on the negotiations between Rol- we call it. We Americans pride lins and OWU “may muddle the situa- ourselves in sportsmanship. We tion plenty”; and since the Major League talk modestly of fair play and the had been conducting spring training in spirit of the thing. The same spirit the sunshine state for years, the con- that carried White man and Black servative paper in Central Florida fur- alike to war, where shrapnel never ther questioned if Rickey “was trying heard of race prejudice. Believe me, I to ‘guinea pig’ Rollins in this instance have the utmost respect for you as a for the possible benefit of his baseball man of unassailable integrity, as an club’s training future.” Nevertheless, educator who has put into practice the responses from local communities the most advanced and progressive were different, apparently not every- ideas in this country. That is why I one agreed with the Sentinel. One up- refuse to believe that you will let this set reader commented on the perceived matter end here, with the reputation racial tension and potential violence in of this college in the most serious Central Florida as the reason for game danger it has seen. In times like these, cancellation: when hate rides high and intolerance plagues the world, no institution of Clearly, it was made out of deference learning should compromise with any to what it believed was the will act contrary to the American Way of the community. I hope that the (Dibner 1947). college has rated us wrongly… I am sending this protest with the same reluctance which must have marked Beyond Winter Park, Florida and Dela- the decision of Rollins College. The ware, Ohio, the cancellation of football war, in which the question of race game between Rollins and OWU also played perhaps the crucial part, has generated attentions in the national news placed this issue in the forefront of media. Under the heading “Rickey’s ap- the world’s thought and we must peal for Negro is lost,” New York Times all stand up and be counted. This (1947, 41) reported that “Rollins cancels decision, made in all courtesy, has game when Ohio Wesleyan refuses to forced our community to be counted play without Woodward.” While Herald on the side where Greenville and Tribune (1947) carried a simple headline Talmadege and Rankin and Hitler of “Rollins cancels game, denies racial stand. To the growing majority of our bias,” New York Post’s (1947) descrip- 74 Phylon 56

fellow countrymen we must seem to versity of Nevada was forced to cancel be living in an enclave shut off not its Southeast Conference football game only from all international assemblies because Mississippi State refused to play but also from the respect of the world with its two African American students of sport, whose fundamental tenant is (Murray 2015). Just several weeks before fair play (Vernon 1947, 6). Rollins-OWU game, the University of Virginia also faced the same dilemma. In addition to the letters to newspa- Upon learning Harvard had an African pers, dozens of concerned citizens and American tackle (Chester Pierce) in its alumni from all over the country also squad, school officials appealed several wrote directly to Rollins, with the clear times with Harvard without success, majority strongly condemned the deci- and only after the Virginia team voted sion made by President Holt (Ohio Wes- unanimously to play with Harvard, the leyan University Football Game 1947). game took place on October 11, 1947. Conclusion: The Aftermath and the When the bus with Harvard players ap- Enduring Legacy proached the stadium in Charlottesville, it was circled by people on horseback yelling racial slurs and waving Confed- The cancellation of the OWU-Rollins erate flags. In the end, Harvard lost the football game had a profound impact on match 47 to 0, it was nonetheless a land- Hamilton Holt and his remaining years mark game as the first interracial colle- at Rollins. The decision to act against the giate football competition in the Ameri- progressive principles that held south- can South (Sullivan 1997). ern segregation was morally wrong and As predicted by Dibner in his letter to ill-suited to changing expectation of the President Holt, the matter did not end times. While he strongly supported mi- there. Shortly afterwards, Holt began to norities rights and advocated for qual- second-guess whether he had made the ity, his peace ideology did not support right decision to cancel the game. In a a more active political philosophy. After private response to John Van Metre, he living in Florida for more than two de- acknowledged: “It was a sickening deci- cades, Holt felt he had developed a bet- sion for me to make and it is quite pos- ter understanding of the ethnic culture sible that if we had gone ahead nothing in the Deep South and believed the best would have happened” (Holt 1947c). In approach to solve the racial problem another letter he noted “we may have was for Southerners to take incremental made a mistake, but it is one of those and concrete steps. Any drastic actions cases where you are damned if you do would only lead to disastrous results and damned if you don’t” (Holt 1948a). and setbacks. Despite the progress in With a strong belief that education race relations in America since the end would be the key to advance the cause of World War II, the reality was that of African Americans, he began to act there was still a deep racial divide in the to correct the situation and to clear his South, and Holt by no means was alone conscious. At a board meeting in early in this line of reasoning. In 1946, the Uni- 1948, Holt proposed to award an honor- Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 75

ary degree to Mary McLeod Bethune, a recognize her devoted work of twenty- renowned African American educator, four years in women’s Clo- civil rights leader, and founder of the verleaf Cottage, during the commence- Bethune-Cookman College in Daytona ment ceremony on June 2, 1948, Holt Beach, Florida. Holt had known Bet- presented the first Decoration of Honor hune from his early involvement with ever awarded to an African American in the founding of the NAACP and had the history of the College: invited her to give a speech in the Col- lege Chapel in 1931, being “possibly Wesley, for your many years of the first negro to speak from the Rollins faithful service to Rollins, during platform” (Sandspur 1931, 1). However, which you and I have both worked since no institutions of higher learning for the College that we love; for your in the South had ever awarded honorary help to many hundreds of Rollins degree to African Americans, the conser- freshman girls; for your influence vative Board of Trustees unsurprisingly in Winter Park through church and rejected Holt’s proposal. Unweaving by club; for your generous service far the refusal, he informed Bethune that beyond the call of duty; for your his invitation stood: “I’m going to give life as a Christian woman and a you the degree anyway” (Seymour 2011, loving follower of our Lord Jesus 33), even threatening to resign from his Christ, Rollins College is honored in presidency. Unwilling to put Holt on conferring on you the Decoration of the direct collision course with the Rol- Honor and admits you to all its rights lins Board of Trustees, Bethune declined and privileges (Holt 1948b). the offer: “Your college and the state of Florida need men like you. And while I appreciate the honor that you pay me, I believe far more good will be accom- After working as the college presi- plished by your remaining president of dent for twenty-five years, approaching the college than by anything I could pos- eighty years old and with failing health, sibly say in 15 or 20 minutes of speech- Hamilton Holt finally decided to step making. With you at the college helm, down. At his last graduation ceremo- there will come a day when attitudes ny in 1949, Holt delivered a poignant will be different” (Bethune 2008). speech filled with wisdom from life Determined to take a moral stand this while deeply reflecting his long tenure time, Holt decided to take a different ap- at Rollins: sion made by President Holt proach. Although he could not award ( Football honorary degree without the approval Game 1947). by the Board, it was within his power as the college president to award the Rol- … the memories of the good fight we lins Decoration of Honor, and he choose have fought and the faith we have Susan Wesley for such an accolade, a kept in our common adventure. beloved African American housemaid Our adventure, thank God, has at Rollins since 1924 (Seymour 2009). To been fundamentally an adventure 76 Phylon 56

of service, and service always begets he failed to accomplish a year earlier. love. This is my commencement as During the Founder’s Day celebration well as that of the seniors. The seniors on February 21, 1949, where thousands go out into the morning sunshine. I gathered in the Sandspur field for Rol- go out into the evening shade. So be lins’ annual Animated Magazine pro- it. I cannot speak for the seniors, but gram, Holt personally presented an I may speak for myself… But I do honorary Doctor of Humanities to the blame myself and people of my age for African American educator and civil losing their idealism. You have helped rights leader: me keep my faith in idealism” (Holt 1949a, 1). Mary McLeod Bethune, I deem it one In his profoundly insightful “My of the highest privileges that has come Commencement” address, Holt spoke to me as President of Rollins College directly to students, faculty and staff in to do honor to you this morning. I the audience, giving out personal rec- am proud that Rollin is, I am told, ognitions and practical advices. Then the first White college in the South to he had his last words with the Board of bestow an honorary degree upon one Trustees. “If I had to live my life over of your race. You have in your own again there are not a few things that I person again demonstrated that from would do differently, I have spent most the humblest beginnings and through of my life on the ‘firing line,’ trying to the most adverse circumstances it is turn minorities into majorities. That still possible for one who has the will, usually makes trouble. I must have tried the intelligence, the courage and the your patience many a time, but if so you never-failing faith in God and in your never complained” (Ibid). He continued fellowman to rise from the humblest with his final recommendation: “Fill cabin in the land to a place of honor vacancies on the board with young, vi- and influence among the world’s tal and liberal men and women of both eminent. In paying honor to you we achievement and promise. Otherwise show again our own faith in the land your board will grow conservative with which made your career a reality” the passing years and finally reaction- (Holt 1949b). ary. Business men are essential to any Accepting the honor from Rollins, well-balanced board of trustees, but Bethune paid tribute to Mahatma Gan- keep them in the minority. Rollins is an dhi, leader of the Indian independence educational institution, not a bank or a movement, praising his nonviolent civil department store. Imagine a successful disobedience as an effective method to business concern filling its board with push for social change. Along with Bet- educators” (Ibid). hune on the platform, other recipients It turned out Holt did not have to of honorary degrees in 1949 included wait for too long. One of his last actions Edward R. Murrow, noted CBS news an- as the college president was to publicly chor, and Karl T. Compton, President of recognize Mary McLeod Bethune, which Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 77

Massachusetts Institute of Technology although Holt had his own limit and (Rollins Animated Magazine 1949). succumbed to political and racial pres- Holt’s retirement marked an end of sures in the Deep South of his time, he an era in the history of the College. Rol- ultimately was able to stand on the right lins played one more time with Ohio side of history and made his mark on the Wesleyan after the 1947 incident, and social integration in the United States. Tars were defeated by Bishops 7 to 14 in Hamilton Holt passed away in 1951. Delaware, Ohio on Saturday, November Nowadays Rollins not only has its eve- 6, 1948 (Ohio Wesleyan Transcript 1948). ning study school and a dormitory After the 1949 season, Rollins’ football named after him, Winter Park also re- program was finally eliminated due named the street across campus in his to financial reasons, a very unpopu- honor. In 1954, after serving in the Black lar move that contributed to the quick Cabinet and as a national advisor to sev- downfall of President Paul Wagner, eral presidents, Mary McLeod Bethune Holt’s successor (Davis 1994). Although fondly reminisced her honorary degree the memories of the 1947 Rollins-OWU from Rollins. In 1967, two years after his football game have largely been faded, death, Branch Rickey was elected the the episode remains a defining moment Baseball Hall of Fame. A year later, when in Holt’s life as well as the history of the Rollins dedicated its Alumni Stadium, it institution. It is often said that sport and was named after the long-term serving politics do not mix, nevertheless the his- and beloved Dean of Men Arthur Enyart. tory of modern sports has been littered Martin Dibner, the Rollins student who with high-profile incidents in which issued his open letter to President Holt, politics have played a major part. When became a successful novelist and was Branch Rickey recruited Jackie Robinson known for The Deep Six that was based to break the color barrier in the Major on his war experience. As to Kenneth W. League Baseball, sport has been used to Woodward, after graduation from Ohio challenge the political environment and Wesleyan, he attended medical school, eventually lead to social changes and led a distinguished career in medicine, the Civil Rights Movement years later. and later served on the OWU Board of However, the inspirational story about Trustees until his death in 1996. Brette race and sports through the Jackie Rob- Gillman, whose child was in Rollins inson experiment did not translate to class of 2015, fondly remembered Wood- the Rollins-OWU football conflict. The ward as family physician “Uncle Ken,” decision to cancel the game exposed the did not realize his historical connection myth of sports being on the vanguard of with Rollins until the story was reported political and social change. At least ini- again years later (Gillman 2012). tially, Rollins administrators and athletic officials failed to step across the color line and used a college football to rein- ______force the racial norms and to preserve White Supremacy. Nonetheless, through the Rollins-OWU controversy of 1947, References 78 Phylon 56

Enyart, A.D. October 21, 1947. Enyart Adams John P. November 8, 1947. Adams to C. E. Ficken. Rollins College to Hamilton Holt. Rollins College Archives, Winter Park, Florida. Archives, Winter Park, Florida. Fine, Benjamin. December 23, 1947. Bethune, Mary McLeod. 2008. “My “Southerners Hit Education Rendezvous with Democracy.” Report: College Leaders on Truman in Mary McLeod Bethune: Words Commission Form Minority on of Wisdom. Ed. by Chiazam Ending Segregation.” New York Ugo Okoye. Bloomington: IN, Times. AuthorHouse, 138-140. Gillman, Brette. Spring 2012. “Letters to Campbell, Alec. 2003. “Where Do All the Editor: Resurrecting the Deadly the Soldiers Go? Veterans and Departed.” Rollins Magazine. the Politics of Demobilization.” https://scholarship.rollins.edu/ in Irregular Armed Forces and Their cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=101 Role in Politics and State Formation, 9&context=magazine. Accessed Diane E. Davis and Anthony W. November 6, 2019 Pereira, eds. New York: Cambridge Herald Tribune. November 26, 1947. University Press, 110–11. “Rollins Cancels Game, Denies Chambliss, Julian. 2009. “Hamilton Racial Bias.” Holt (1872-1951): Eighth President Holt, Hamilton. November 28, 1947a. of Rollins College.” Golden Remarks by Hamilton Holt at the Personalities http://lib.rollins. . Rollins edu/olin/oldsite/archives/ College Archives, Winter Park, golden/Holt.htm. . Accessed Florida. August 14, 2019 Holt, Hamilton. November 11, 1947b. Conger, Allen C. October 27, 1947. Hamilton Holt to John Adams. Conger to A. D. Enyart. Rollins Rollins College Archives, Winter College Archives, Winter Park, Park, Florida. Florida. _____. December 12, 1947c. Hamilton Davis, Bobby. Fall 1994. “Glory Days: Holt to John Van Metre, Rollins The Football Era at Rollins.” Rollins College Archives, Winter Park, Alumni Record 13:1, 22-29. Florida. Demas, Lane. 2010. Integrating the _____. January 16, 1948a. Hamilton Gridiron: Black Civil Rights and Holt to Marlen Neumann. Rollins American College Football. New College Archives, Winter Park, Brunswick: Rutgers University Florida. Press. _____. June 2, 1948b. “Susan Wesley Dibner, Martin. December 4, 1947. Decoration of Honor Citation.” “An Open Letter to Dr. Hamilton Rollins College Archives, Winter Holt.” Sandspur 52:9, 2. http:// Park, Florida. digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ _____. June 2, 1949a. “My ref/collection/CFM/id/72522. Commencement.” Rollins College, Accessed November 6, 2019 Winter Park, Florida. http:// Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 79

archives.rollins.edu/cdm/ref/ kept-nevada-from-playing-sec- collection/holt/id/317. Accessed team-in-1946/. Accessed August August 14, 2019. 14, 2019. _____. February 21, 1949b. “Mary Nash, Kimberly. August 1, 2009. McLeod Bethune Honorary “Breaking Pro Football’s Color Degree Citation.” Rollins College Line: The Story of Charles Archives, Winter Park, Florida. W. Follis.” Bleacher Report Kuehl, Warren F. 1960. Hamilton Holt: http://bleacherreport.com/ Journalist, Internationalist, Educator. articles/228584-breaking-pro- Gainesville, FL: University of footballs-color-line-the-story-of- Florida Press. charles-w-follis. . Accessed August Kurtz, Ericka. 2006. “Scales of Justice.” 14, 2019. Ohio Wesleyan Magazine 84:1, 12-14. New York Times. November 25, 1947, Lane, Jack. 1980. Rollins College: A “Rickey’s Appeal for Negro Is Lost: Pictorial History. Winter Park, Rollins Cancels Game When Ohio Florida: Rollins College, 1980. Wesleyan Refuses to Play without _____. April 23, 2015. “The Complicity Woodward.” of Silence: Race and the Hamilton New York Post. November 25, 1947. Holt - Corra Harris Friendship, “Rickey Loses, Jim Crow Wins.” 1899-1935.” The Independent 2:2, 18- Ohio Wesleyan Magazine. June 1947. 24. “Honorary Degrees.” McDowall, Jack. November 22, 1947. Ohio Wesleyan News Clipping. 1947. Telegram to George Gauthier. “Play Rollins Game but Guard Rollins College Archives, Winter against Situation in Future, Park, Florida. Students Vote.” u.p., u.d. Rollins Martin, Charles H. 1996. “Racial Change College Archives, Winter Park, and ‘Big-Time’ College Football in Florida. Georgia: The Age of Segregation, Ohio Wesleyan Transcript 81:5. November 1892-1957.” The Georgia Historical 5, 1947a. “A Problem Solved.” Quarterly 80:3, 532-562. http://cdm15963.contentdm. Minutes of Faculty Meeting. December oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/ 11, 1947. Rollins College Archives, p15963coll9/id/106712. Accessed Winter Park, Florida. August 14, 2019. Moore, Harry T. November 1947. Ohio Wesleyan Transcript 80:7. December “Resolutions Adopted by the 20, 1947b. “Trustees Discuss Florida State Conference, NAACP, Rollins Contract.” http:// Lake Wales.” Rollins College cdm15963.contentdm.oclc.org/ Archives, Winter Park, Florida. cdm/ref/collection/p15963coll9/ Murray, Chris. September 18, 2015. id/106729. Accessed August 14, “Racism Kept Nevada from Playing 2019. SEC Team in 1946.” Washington Post. Ohio Wesleyan Transcript 81:7. November http://www.washingtontimes. 10, 1948. “OWU Defeats Rollins com/news/2015/sep/18/racism- in Homecoming Tilt.” http:// 80 Phylon 56

cdm15963.contentdm.oclc.org/ February 19, 1947. Rollins College cdm/ref/collection/p15963coll9/ Archives, Winter Park, Florida. id/106914. Accessed November 6, Sandspur 33:19. March 11, 1931. “Negro 2019. Woman Holds Chapel Spellbound: Ohio Wesleyan University Football Mrs. Bethune Has Sympathy of Game 1947. 110 Sports at Rollins Audience.” http://digital.library. 5:4, Rollins College Archives, ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ Winter Park, Florida. CFM/id/25944. Accessed August Orlando Morning Sentinel. November 15, 2019. 25, 1947. “Tars Cite Cancellation Sandspur 52:8. November 20, 1947a. Reason.” “Homecoming Queen to Be Ortiz, Paul. May 14, 2012. “Ocoee, Crowned at Half of Football Florida: Remembering the Single Game.” http://digital.library.ucf. Bloodiest Day in Modern U.S. edu/cdm/ref/collection/CFM/ Political History.” Facing South: A id/72386. Accessed November 6, Voice for a Changing South. https:// 2019. www.facingsouth.org/2010/05/ Sandspur 52:9. December 4, 1947b. ocoee-florida-remembering-the- “Editorial.” http://digital.library. single-bloodiest-day-in-modern- ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ us-political-history.html. Accessed CFM/id/72522. Accessed August August 14, 2019. 14, 2019. Prince, David E. 2016. In the Arena: Seymour, Mary. 2011. “The Ghosts of The Promise of Sports for Christian Rollins (and Other Skeletons in the Discipleship. Nashville: B&H Closet).” Rollins Magazine. http:// Publishing, 138. www.rollins.edu/magazine/fall- Rollins Alumni Record 26:1. December 2011/ghosts-of-rollins-3.html. 1948. https://scholarship.rollins. Accessed August 15, 2019. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?arti Seymour, Thaddeus. January 30, 2009. cle=1251&context=magazine. Interview by Wenxian Zhang, Accessed November 6, 2019. Denise Cummings and Julian Rollins Animated Magazine 22:1. Chambliss. Rollins College February 20, 1949. http://archives. Archives, Winter Park, Florida. rollins.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ Starr, Nathan C. December 4, 1947. archives/id/493. Accessed “To the Sandspur.” Sandspur August 15, 2019. 52:9, 2. http://digital.library.ucf. Rollins Board of Trustees. November 24, edu/cdm/ref/collection/CFM/ 1947. “Statement of the Board of id/72522. Accessed August 14, Trustees, Rollins College.” Rollins 2019 College Archives, Winter Park, Sullivan, George. October 5, 1997. Florida. “Backtalk: Another Barrier That Rollins/Ohio Wesleyan Football Fell 50 Years Ago Is Recalled,” New Contract of the Southern Inter- York Times. http://www.nytimes. Collegiate Athletic Association, com/1997/10/05/sports/ Wenxian Zhang, Raja Rahim and Julian Chambliss 81

backtalk-another-barrier-that- fell-50-years-ago-is-recalled.html. Accessed August 14, 2019. Telephone transcript of A. D. Enyart and C. E. Ficken, November 17, 1947. Rollins College Archives, Winter Park, Florida. Van Metre, John. December 4, 1947. “An Open Letter to Dr. Holt, November 28, 1947.” Sandspur 52:9, 2. http:// digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ ref/collection/CFM/id/72522. Accessed August 14, 2019. Vernon, Ambrose W. December 17, 1947. “Cancellation of Rollins Football Game Deplored.” Orlando Morning Sentinel. Whitley, Mary Jane. November 25, 1947. Memo to Dr. Hamilton Holt, President. Rollins College Archives, Winter Park, Florida.