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MUSIC AND ITS INTERPLAY WITH EMOTIONS, PERSONALITY, AND SOCIAL

IDENTITY.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT.

A doctoral project submitted to the faculty of the

California School of Professional Psychology

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Psychology

at Alliant International University, Los Angeles, California

By

Carlos Alberto Protzel

September 10, 2007

1 ALLIANT INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSTIY, Los Angeles

The doctoral project of Carlos Protzel, directed and approved by the candidate’s Committee, has been accepted by the Faculty of Alliant International University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGY

______Date

Doctoral Project Committee:

______

Walter B. Brown, Ph.D., Project Supervisor

______Nicholas Noviello, Ph.D., Academic Consultant

2 DEDICATION

I would like to thank my family for everything they have done for me. I dedicate this doctoral project to all of you, as none of this would be possible without all of things you have done for me.

Dad, I appreciate your smarts, commitment, and support. I know you have always cared and believed in me, and that has gone a long way. You always told me I could be whatever I wanted and I just needed to do what I was best at. You were right I am a “people person”, and I think I found a “people person” career that fits just right. I know you haven’t always been a close drive away, but you’ve always been with me in my thoughts.

Mom, I appreciate everything, I don’t know where to start. Through the good times and tough times you were there for me. You always made me feel loved, and that has helped me to love myself. I know I put you through some stressful times, so the least I can do is get my life together and make you proud. Thanks for stoking my interests in music and psychology

To my younger brother Alex, thanks for being you and supporting me. This project is definitely for you as well. In the early days when I was far from a role model, you were the big brother and you showed me how to be right. Your intelligence and academic abilities, inspired me to challenge myself and figure out what being a good student was all about. Your integrity and strength let me know that we can do this. This project is only one step towards showing you the way and being the big brother I have always wanted to be.

To grandpa Wally and grandma Junsie, thanks for everything. Grandpa thanks for showing me what “SISU” was all about. Your commitment, work ethic, selfless social working, and competence gave me something to aspire to. Grandma thanks for the love and the good talks, you helped me figure things out. I told you I wouldn’t end up a “shiftless skunk”.

To my family in Peru, you’re a world away, but you’ve always been in my heart. You all are missed. This project is for the many Protzel’s and Jamsen’s who’ve also battled their way through college.

To my Finnish family members spread across the Midwest, connecting with you in Copper Harbor makes it all worth it. Your own commitment to academics and career helps to motivate me to just go for it.

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgements ...... vii Vita ...... viii Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………...... ix

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1 History of Psychological Assessment...... 1 Psychological Assessment and Social Variables...... 2 Historical Overview of Music and the Healing Arts...... 3 Music and the Healing Arts...... 4 Recent Centuries...... 4 Twentieth Century to the Present...... 4 Music and Assessment...... 6 Historical Connections...... 6 Purpose of the Study...... 7 Emotions as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment...... 8 Personality as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment.....9 Social Identity as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment ...... 11 Assessment of Emotions, Personality, and Social Identity...... 11 Goals and Objectives...... 12

CHAPTER II METHODS ...... 14

CHAPTER III COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 17 Music and its Connection to Emotions...... 17 Assessment of Client Emotional States...... 19 Music and its Effect on Emotional Arousal...... 20 Music and its Biological Correlates to Emotional Arousal...... 21 Music and its Specific Effects on Physiology...... 22 Cognitive Mediation, Physiological Arousal, and the “Chills”...... 23 Music and Emotional Activation...... 25 Emotional Activation during Consonance and Dissonance...... 25 Music’s Emotional Activation and the Impact of Gender Roles...... 27 Preference for Musical Genres and Music Dynamics...... 27 Emotional Symbolism within Music...... 28 Music and its Role in “Mood Management”...... 29 Music and its Anxiolytic Effects...... 30 Music and the Work Setting...... 32 Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions...... 33

4 Meyer’s (1956) and Lehman’s (1997) Theories on Music and Emotions...... 34 Mandler’s (1984) Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions 35 Berlyne’s (1971) Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions. 36 Integration of Music within Clinical Practice...... 37 Musical Preferences: An analysis of Early Influences...... 38 The Early Mother-Child Relationship and Music...... 39 Evolutionary Theory, Music, and Emotion...... 41 Quotations to Help Understand Music and Emotions...... 43

Music and its Connection to Personality...... 45 Operationalizing the Concept of Personality...... 45 Psychology’s History Integrating Music and Personality...... 46 “Sensation Seeking” and its Connection to Music...... 47 “Novelty-Seeking” and “Harm Avoidance”, Connections to Music...... 48 Gender Roles, Musical Preferences, and Sensation Seeking...... 50 “Psychoticism” and its Connection to Music...... 51 “Extraversion” and “Introversion”, their Connection to Music...... 53 “Openness” and its Connection to Music...... 54 Social Psychology’s Contributions to Understanding Personality and Music...... 55

Music and its Connection to Social Identity...... 60 The Pervasive Influence of Music in Modern Society...... 60 An Overview of Social Identity Theory...... 61 Social Identity and Erikson’s (1993) Theoretical Contributions...... 63 Predictive Value of Social Identity Theory and Music...... 64 Adolescent Communication, the Role of Social Identity and Music.65 Identity Development and Musical Preferences...... 66 Positive Inter-Group Attitude Development, SIT, and Music...... 67 Closing Thoughts on Social Identity Theory and Music...... 68

The Clinical Utility of Music as an Assessment Variable...... 69 Musically Guided Psychological Assessment, a Chapter Primer...... 69 Musically Based Psychological Assessment, Verbal Inquiry Methods ...... 69 Musically Based Psychological Assessment, Questionnaire Guided Inquiry Methods...... 70 Essentials of Standardized Psychological Tests...... 74 Standardized Music Based Psychological Assessments...... 75 The Field of Music Therapy and their Music Based Approaches to Assessment. 84 Psychological Assessment, Music, and Self-Report Limitations...... 87 Archival Research and the Integration of Music in Assessment...... 88 Digital Audio Player History, and the Emergence of the iPod...... 90

5 Overview of Apple iPod Specifications...... 93 IPod and iTunes, Potential Integration in Music Based Psychological Assessment...... 94

CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION...... 96

Summary...... 96 Limitations...... 105 Future Directions for Research...... 108

CHAPTER V FIELD CONSULTANT PROJECT FEEDBACK...... 114

CHAPTER VI PERSONAL PROCESS...... 125

REFERENCES...... 139

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank Dr. Brown for helping guide this project from start to finish. The feedback on chapter content was quite helpful and the suggestions for revisions helped to push my writings forward. Also, allowing me to ramble on and discuss the multitude of ways in which music and psychology can be synthesized, helped me to expand my ideas and generate plans for the future

I want to thank Dr. Sagogian for her assistance in editing this project. Your extensive knowledge of APA style, technical writing, eye for detail, and enthusiasm, is appreciated. Your help leaves me with a much more refined and satisfying final product.

I want to thank all of the field consultants and my academic consultant, who took time out of their busy schedules to provide me with strong feedback and support. I am indebted to you for the time spent listening, the motivating comments, and the offering of new perspectives on a topic we were both excited about.

I want to thank all the musicians, DJ’s, bands, singers, club owners, concert promoters, conductors, who have been instrumental in shaping my musical preferences, influenced my use of music, and provided me with life changing musical experiences.

Last but certainly not least, I must thank and acknowledge my girlfriend Susie for her part in this project’s completion. I know my immersion in this project has been a test of patience and will for both of us. Thank you for listening to my ideas, helping me to reformulate plans, editing my drafts, for dealing with my long hours in the library or in front of the computer, helping me to pursue my dreams, and for just being there to support me through the ups and downs.

7 CURRICULUM VITAE

CARLOS A. PROTZEL

August 26, 1971 Born Lansing, Michigan

1995 B.A. Bachelor of Arts, Psychology California State University, Long Beach

1995-1997 Counselor, Teacher, Interventionist Charis Youth Center Hayward, California

1997-1998 Social Worker, Case Manager Keweenaw Youth Academy Mohawk, Michigan

1998-1999 Social Work Intern, Therapist Family Consultation and Treatment Center Clawson, Michigan

1999 M.S.W. Master of Social Work University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

2000-2005 Clinical Social Worker, Therapist State of Michigan, Maxey Training School Social work certified and licensed. 2003-present (LMSW) NASW national accreditation. 2003-present (ACSW) Whitmore Lake, Michigan

2006 Psych. Technician Passages Substance Abuse Treatment Facility Malibu, California

2006-2007 Practicum Intern, Therapist Kaiser Permanente Hospital, Department of Psychiatry Lomita, California

2007 M.A. Master of Arts, Psychology Alliant International University, California School of Professional Psychology

8 Los Angeles, California

ABSTRACT

MUSIC AND ITS INTERPLAY WITH EMOTIONS, PERSONALITY, AND SOCIAL

IDENTITY. IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSESSMENT.

By

Carlos A. Protzel, LMSW, MA

The California School of Professional Psychology PsyD program at Alliant International University, Los Angeles 2007

Project Supervisor: Walter B. Brown, Ph.D.

The purpose of the current project was to offer a comprehensive examination of music and its interplay with emotions, personality, and social identity. The relevance of these connections were examined as they relate to psychological assessment. A historical overview was presented (from the dawn of mankind to current times), detailing the influence of the many musically focused assessment and therapy processes which have been developed. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to obtain an in-depth analysis of the project topics. A total of 150 sources of information were utilized in the body of the literature review. The sources were primarily peer reviewed scientific journal articles. In addition a qualitative analysis was conducted. Subjective evaluations on the projects topics (from three licensed psychologists) were presented. This information was gathered to ascertain the clinical utility of this projects topics in the therapy and assessment settings. Participants’ responses were gathered through the completion of a questionnaire developed by the researcher to address project topics. The information gleaned by this project is presented specifically for licensed psychotherapists. This is in efforts to increase their ability to assess clients, through integration of research and theory regarding client musical preference, experience, and use. A full range of complementary musically oriented psychological assessment approaches have been examined, including verbal inquiry, questionnaires, standardized tests, and archival research through use of a client’s iPod. The results of the current study showed that there is a significant connection between music and emotions, personality, and social identity. There is empirical support that these connections are evident in the musical preferences, experiences, and use of an

9 individual. There are evolving theories, methods, and tools currently available to help assess an individual’s emotions, personality, and social identity based upon certain musical factors.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

History of Psychological Assessment

Of essential importance to any therapeutic relationship, is the initial foray into assessment. Across all therapeutic disciplines, a productive assessment of an individual seeking help is the essential first step in developing an understanding of the issues to be addressed. For psychotherapists in general, there is a great degree of variance in the way they initially evaluate their clients, but with rare exception, some form of assessment is always administered to assess the client and to begin developing a case/treatment plan formulation. In the earliest days of psychology, pioneers such as Freud, Adler, and Jung utilized unstructured interviewing techniques on new patients to gather information on personal history, symptomatology, and personality traits (Groth-Marnat, 2000) In the early 20th century, standardized psychological tests began to be developed and along with the clinical interview, more structured methods were devised to evaluate a patient seeking psychotherapeutic services. From the 1930’s into the 1950’s, psychological testing was almost exclusively a psychologist’s profession, and client assessment continued to be a mixture of standardized tests and clinical interview techniques (Anastasi & Urbina,

1997). During this period, a surge in the development and use of projective tests was seen in assessment. Projective tests began to see a decline in their use around the 1960’s, as research regarding their validity and reliability cast a shadow of doubt on their utility in

10 client assessment. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, behavioral therapy began to gain in popularity and more formalized and structured ways to evaluate clients were developed.

This movement helped develop behavioral checklists, behavioral analysis, physiologic testing machines, and self report tools which expanded the ways in which one could evaluate a client (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). Currently, the methods which a therapist may employ to assess a client may include one or a mixture of the many assessment tools which have been developed over the past century. What may look quite different from past decades of assessment though, is the integration of computers in the administration, scoring, and interpretation process. This is a trend that will continue, as many tests and assessment procedures are converting to computer based, and some new tests are only offered in a computerized format (Groth-Marnat, 2000). The particular assessment route a therapist may take will typically be affected by their theoretical orientation, training, educational degree (social worker, psychologist, etc.), client demographic (age, culture, etc.), presenting problem, and other variables which present as the therapist and client come together (Groth-Marnat, 2000). Obviously there are many variables at play when a therapist and client meet for the first time, so proper preparation and focus on the therapist’s part is essential to make the assessment procedure productive.

Psychological Assessment and Social Variables

In addition to determining the general methods for assessment, the assessing clinician needs to figure out which areas they are going to pursue for assessment.

Typically, an assessing clinician will opt for a symptom oriented assessment and/or insight oriented assessment (Othmer & Othmer, 1994). One route which seems to be

11 overlooked or little used, is to assess the client among relevant social variables. This is puzzling, as many of the day to day activities which a person involves themselves in can tell you much about the internal world of the person. It appears that a salient yet often overlooked area of assessment, is an examination of a client’s social activities. One particular social activity that is a common element of social interaction, is listening to music (through stereo in car, home stereo, playing instruments in a band, etc.). Across time and culture, people listening to music privately and getting together to listen to music has been quite common.

At the core of this social interaction lies a person’s musical preference. A client’s musical preferences are generated through a complex synthesis of culture, personality, social experience, age, and ego functioning (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). Since this is an activity which is personal and social at the same time, unraveling this activity gives the assessing clinician an opportunity to gather information which sheds light on personal and social variables of their client.

Historical Overview of Music and the Healing Arts

Going back to the beginning days of modern civilization, there remains some evidence that music was utilized (by individuals skilled in the healing arts of their time) in assessing and treating ill patients. In preliterate civilizations, music was utilized to remedy the effects of “spirits” invading the body (Gaston, 1968). Going as far back as

1500 B.C. there is some evidence that Egyptians utilized music to help heal common ailments amongst their people (Nelson & Weathers, 1998). During the Greek era (400

B.C.), Hippocrates would bring individuals with physical and mental illnesses to a

12 temple, to receive the healing effects of music performances. In fact, the Greeks emphasized music education and made it a core element of study in their schools (Paul &

Staudt, 1958). Aristotle found that some individuals could experience an emotional catharsis through playing or listening to the flute. The effect of singing and playing music was also examined by Pythagoras. He noted that changes in anger, worry, sorrow, and fear were possible through exposure to music (Nelson & Weathers, 1998).

Music and the Healing Arts

Recent Centuries

During the Renaissance period, there was some early examination into the effects of music on breathing, blood pressure, digestion, and muscular activity (Munroe &

Mount, 1978). In the 16th century, Burton’s seminal work “The Anatomy of Melancholy” described music’s psychological healing properties (Paul & Staudt, 1958). From the 17th century to the 19th century, there remains evidence of a few innovative medical healers incorporating music as a therapeutic tool. There is no evidence of in-depth scientific inquiry, rather there appears to be sporadic experimentation at best (Mackinnon, 2006).

From the 19th century to the early 20th century, music was utilized in “asylums” to help treat the mentally ill and during the many major wars to heal the mental and physical ailments of wounded soldiers (Paul & Staudt, 1958).

Twentieth Century to the Present

In the early 20th century, music began to be incorporated as a healing agent in more and more United States hospitals. These medical and psychiatric interventions were

13 guided by the American Medical Association (AMA). These interventions were deemed necessary to facilitate the treatment of wounded soldiers returning from World War 1

(MacKinnon, 2006). During this time the AMA determined that advanced training in the clinical use of music was indicated, degree programs were established at over seventy universities, and professional music associations began to organize. Music therapy soon became a viable health profession, and to this date, it is practiced by over 4300 internationally board certified clinicians (Thaut, 2002). In 1944, The Music Research

Foundation was founded in Washington D.C. and formal music training programs began to be developed throughout the United States.

From mid 20th century to the present, the field of music therapy has become well established, and music therapy has become its own distinct discipline. Music therapy is not simply psychology with music inserted; it has its own specific model viewpoint and scope of practice. Currently, Board certified Music Therapists must passed standardized examinations which validate competence in music theory, perception, skills in clinical practice, assessment/treatment planning, implementation of bio-psycho-social treatments, maintaining professional boundaries/ethics, providing on-going documentation, and ensuring treatment efficacy (Thaut, 2002). A specific example of Music Therapy’s unique and distinct focus is the evidenced based therapy practices of Neurologic Music

Based Therapy Techniques (NMBT) developed at Colorado State University’s center for biomedical research in music (Thaut, 2005). NMBT is a music therapy modality which integrates sensori-motor training, speech-language communication training, and cognitive training. There are international and U.S. based music therapy organizations currently in existence, but there is only one credential issued by the certification board for Music

14 Therapists (Thaut, 2005). Another governing body of music therapy, is the American

Music Therapy Association (AMTA), which accredits educational programs and professional organizations in the United States (Thaut, 2005).

This general overview of mankind’s historical use of music produces only a cursory examination of examples where music was used for assessment or treatment purposes. Obviously, the ability to accurately assess mankind’s historical use of music is limited by the chance that it was documented, whether it was documented accurately, and if the documentation was kept intact and usable throughout the ages. If anything, a brief review of music’s history as a therapeutic agent illuminates the fact there has always been some interest throughout history by creative and innovative minds, in utilizing music to heal the body, mind, and soul.

Music and Assessment

Historical Connections

Within the field of psychology’s history, there is little mention of the concept of music and its utility as a client assessment variable. More specifically there is little mention in the literature about client use of music and the utility of examining this variable through psychological assessment. There appears to be a much richer body of literature and interest in exploring music as a therapeutic tool for clients. There has been much work since the 1920’s regarding music and its use in helping heal psychological and physical problems (Paul & Staudt, 1958). The use of music in the field of psychology

(to assess a client), appears to have been curiously overlooked though. This is in contrast to the field of music therapy, which for many years has effectively utilized music to

15 assess psychological states. Unfortunately, there does not appear to have been much collaboration between the field of psychology and music therapy to integrate this innovative and effective process. Music’s near absence in the field of psychology is surprising, as music is a phenomenon that has been an essential part of human experience since civilizations earliest days. Music is a part of every culture on earth, and music continues to be an important part of human existence to this very day. Music’s influence and integration into the lives of humans would make it nearly impossible for one to exist without the influence of music. Assessing a person’s interest and involvement with music would appear to be a relevant part of any psychological assessment, as an assessment strives to understand the person as they are and in the environment they exist (Groth-

Marnat, 2000). An important consideration in this process is the option to refer to a board certified music therapist, and to gather their expertise and services to complement the assessment process.

Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this project is to develop an understanding of how music is related to a person’s emotions, personality, and social identity; and determine how this understanding can help inform proper psychological assessment. An overview of current practices and research in psychological assessment clearly shows that client emotional experience, personality, and social identity are key variables in order to develop an understanding of the client and how they function in the world. Next, an examination will follow of the research which supports these three variables as key to proper psychological assessment.

16 Emotions as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment

The assessment variable of “emotions,” is one which any comprehensive psychological assessment must include. However, the concept of emotions is one which is not without some controversy, as competing theoretical orientations each have their own interpretation and definition of what they feel truly constitutes “emotions.”

Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) offer the most comprehensive definition of emotions, which was based upon a review of 92 definitions found in textbooks, dictionaries, articles, and other sources. This operative definition is as follows:

Emotion is a complex set of interactions among subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can (a) give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure; (b) generate cognitive processes such as perceptually relevant effects, appraisals, labeling processes; (c) activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions; and (d) lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal-directed, and adaptive. (p.42)

This definition helps to best define the complex interaction that this project attempts to examine. The word “emotions” is also being used as a general and all encompassing term, which includes the specific effects denoted by the words “mood”,

“arousal”, “feeling”, and “affect”.

Emotions which have been found to be crucial indicators in determining an individual’s well-being; consist primarily of anxiety, depression, and anger (Butcher,

1995). The level of intensity of these emotions within the individual and their ability to regulate them, are critical to psychological assessment, diagnostic clarification, and treatment planning (Beck, 1976). Butcher (1995) further illustrated the importance of emotional assessment:

17 We will argue that emotions are the critical vital signs of psychological health and well-being, and that measuring the intensity, duration, and frequency of emotional reactions must be an essential, practical, consideration in the clinical assessment of personality. (p.42)

This quote lends support for the assessment of emotions and personality during psychological assessment, and illustrates the connection between the two. Butcher

(1995) further illustrated the importance of proper assessment of emotion, stating that:

As the mainsprings for motivating behavior, emotions have a significant impact on health and personal effectiveness. Therefore, in evaluating psychological well-being, it is essential to monitor emotional states, just as physicians routinely measure pulse rate, blood pressure, and temperature in medical examinations. (p. 52)

Overall, assessment of a person’s emotions and personality, really equate to evaluating the person’s “state” (emotions) or “trait” (personality) (Cohen & Swerdlik,

2002). There is a great deal of research on “state” and ‘trait” assessment, which further supports these two variables as key elements of psychological assessment (Butcher, 1995;

Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002; DeRubeis & Beck, 1988; Funder, 1991; Gaudry, Spielberrger,

& Vagg, 1975; Tellegen, 1991).

Personality as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment

In the past century personality has been a variable which has received significant psychological research, beginning with the personality theorizations of Sigmund Freud

(Butcher, 1995). Through the 1920’s and 1930’s pioneering personality theorist Gordon

Allport noted the beginnings of a movement he called “the psychology of personality”.

During that time his work began to synthesize and focus existing research on personality theory and assessment (Allport, 1937). Through the 20th century, the prevailing concept

18 of personality changed as the theoretical paradigms shifted through the decades. Marvin

Acklin (Butcher, 1995, p.19) summarizes the influence of personality testing in recent years, “the use of tests together, with the goal of a comprehensive personality assessment, could perhaps be called paradigmatic in clinical psychology for the past forty years”.

Surveys of psychological test usage also support personality testing as highly important in assessing an individual. The top ten tests psychologists have commonly used to assess an individual, have remained primarily the same in the past four decades (Kamphaus,

Petoskey, & Rowe, 2000). These top ten tests include the Minnesota Mulitphasic

Personality Inventory, Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test, Millon Clinical

Mulitaxial Inventories, and California Psychological Inventory. All of these tests contain a significant amount of content which focuses on assessing personality and personality traits of an individual (Groth-Marnat, 2000). Even though some debate regarding personality’s validity continues in the scientific community, the theoretical orientations that have provided definitions (Eysneck 3 factor model, Cattell 16 personality factors,

McCrae & Costa Big Five, etc.) continue to be useful theoretical frameworks to guide personality theory and assessment. Cohen and Swerdlik (2002), define personality assessment as crucial in “measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states, values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, personal identity, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and/or related individual characteristics” (p. 324).

Clearly, personality assessment is a key element of assessing an individual, and this is supported by a century of research, theory, and practice.

19 Social Identity as a Key Component of Psychological Assessment

The assessment variable of “Social Identity” is also one which is crucial to assess when conducting a comprehensive psychological assessment. Many social identity theories have been generated in the field of social psychology, but the one which will be used to operationalize the concept of social identity will be Tajfel and Turner’s (1978)

Social Identity Theory (SIT). The use of this particular social theory, is utilized due to the fact that the small existing research on music, assessment, and social identity appears to often cite and utilize SIT when examining concepts which include emotions, personality, and social variables (Crozier, 1998; Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves, 2001; Rentfrow &

Gosling, 2003; North & Hargreaves, 1999; North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1997).

Social identity is important as an assessment variable, because gathering accurate and reflective data on an individual’s social identity can provide information about their values, attitudes, and self views (Hargreaves & North, 1999). In addition, gathering data about an individual’s social identity provides information about their self esteem, social systems they interface with, and social ways in which they express their emotions and personality (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).

Assessment of Emotions, Personality, and Social Identity

Tying all of the research on these three assessment variables together, is a recent study which overviews all research regarding musical preference development. The study illustrates three key elements involved in this process. An overview of relevant cognitive psychology, biological psychology, clinical psychology, and neuroscience research gave

20 evidence that personality, physiological arousal (emotions), and social identity were the primary individual differences linking individuals to particular musical preferences

(Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). Clearly, in past decades and to the present, emotions, personality, and social identity are factors which are a crucial focus when psychologically assessing a client and are also highly correlated and relevant for individual musical experience, preference, and use.

Goals and Objectives

The first goal of this comprehensive literature review is to explore how clinicians can increase their ability to assess clients, through integration of research and theory regarding client musical preference, experience, and use. There is limited research on this specific area, so in addition to the existing psychological research, research from related disciplines such as music therapy, social psychology, and neuro-anatomy will be drawn upon. This will be in efforts to obtain a holistic understanding of the complex interaction which occurs during client musical preference development, musical experience, and music use.

The second goal, is to examine the full range of psychological assessment options available currently, which incorporate music as an assessment variable. The examination of music assessment procedures will cover: verbal questioning, questionnaires, standardized testing, and experiential music therapy procedures. Additionally, current trends toward computerized assessment will be examined, and the potential utility of the

Apple iPod within the assessment process will be explored.

21 The objective of this project is to increase awareness of existing research and theory regarding client utilization of music. The target populations that this project is hoping to reach, are the many licensed mental health professionals who are involved in formal and informal assessment of psychotherapy clients. This could include licensed social workers, licensed marriage and family therapists, licensed psychologists, and/or licensed psychiatrists. This information is being disseminated in efforts to increase these clinicians ability to assess their clients in new and novel ways, which will hopefully result in increased ability to identify therapy issues and treat them. Assessment of a client’s musical preferences and use, is by no means being presented as a substitution for established means of client evaluation or the assessment skills of a board certified music therapist, but rather it is being presented as a complementary adjunct to established modes of assessment. Established methods of assessment can only be accentuated by research and theory on the psychology of musical use. This approach provides a different lens to view client characteristics and environment, as well as a new and innovative way for client’s to communicate information about essential elements of themselves and their environment.

22 CHAPTER II

METHODS

The material for the literature review was comprised from various sources. In obtaining information, the reviewer used several search engines such as: EBSCOhost research databases, PsychInfo, Google Scholar, Health Source-Nursing/Academic

Edition, Health Source-Consumer Edition, PsycARTICLES, Sage Premier, Lexis-Nexis

Academic, PsychiatryOnline, ProQuest Digital Dissertations, psycEXTRA, Alt Health

Watch, UCLA library catalog, Alliant library catalog. These specific search engines were used because they were easily accessible to the student researcher, they are the industry standards for researching topics related to mental health, and they provided up-to-date information about music and psychology research. Online search engines used were scholar.google.com, google.com, yahoo.com, and ask.com. Key words used in obtaining information included, “Musical Preferences”, “Music Preference”, “Music”, “Musical”,

“Genres”, “Musical Genres & Psychology”, “Music & Psychology”, “Music &

Assessment”, “Music & psychotherapy”, “Music & therapy”, “Music & Testing”, “Music

& Evaluation”, “Music & Emotions”, Music & Affect”, “Music & Personality”, “Music

& Personality Traits”, “Music & Social Identity”, “Social Identity Theory”, “iPod”,

“Music & iPod”, “History & iPod”, “Psychology of Music”, “Musicians & Psychology”.

These words separately, and then variably joined together, were used to gather information from the various search engines.

A total of 150 sources of information were utilized in the body of the literature review. The sources came primarily from a variety of peer reviewed scientific journal

23 articles. In addition, musically focused psychology books, online articles from various medical websites, popular magazines in current culture, podcasts from talk radio, website’s focused on the field of music (popular and professional), taking part in online musical assessments (web questionnaires), university textbooks, encyclopedia’s, and other related items, were used to provide relevant supportive information. The data gathered was used collaboratively to develop understanding of project topics, and to create the literature review.

Due to the dearth in research regarding the topic of musical preferences and psychological correlates, the researcher also investigated data from current paper newspapers, online newspapers, Proquest online dissertation database, reviewed online descriptions of university music therapy programs, called/emailed local universities

(U.S.C., U.C.L.A, and C.S.U. Northridge) and asked questions about their music programs and how their music therapists operated, posted my project topic on professional “listserves” and gathered email feedback from mental health professionals about their thoughts on my topic and its applicability, collected and read flyers for local workshops on music-music therapy-music research, and went to local musical venues in the Los Angeles area and talked to local musicians and music enthusiasts about this projects topics.

Field consultants consulting on this doctoral project were instrumental in gathering research data. Initially some field consultants were interviewed via phone, email, and/or in-person. They provided direction on general topics and resources, which helped provide focus for specific concepts, where to find books, libraries, websites, authors, and journals. After a rough draft of this doctoral project had been completed it

24 was mailed and/or emailed to field consultants for their review. Field consultants mailed or emailed the rough draft back to the author with suggestions for revisions (expansion of certain topics, inclusion of complementary articles/authors/concepts, and editing suggestions). Final draft of this doctoral project was generated by the author, with the subtle guidance and suggestions provided by field consultants. Rough draft was emailed to some field consultants, academic consultant, and project supervisor. They returned the final rough draft to the author with minor editing, summations of their feedback, and suggestions for revisions. After this point, the final draft was generated through integration of minor editing suggestions, summations of feedback were integrated into the

“field consultant feedback” section, and soon the final draft was readied for submission.

The literature review hoped to offer a range of research findings which would be a comprehensive overview of research on the key topics. It is out of the scope of this project to obtain and integrate every existing research article on the key topics, however the goal was to integrate the research which was of the highest quality and to integrate research which helped to describe topics in the most informative way possible.

25 CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Music and its Connection to Emotions

The current comprehensive review of literature is an exploration of the psychological factors expounded on in Chapter I, and their unique relationship to a client’s musical experience and use. Since each person’s response and preference for music is so unique and individualized, the purpose of the current literature review is certainly not to explain universal human experiences with music. The intent is to gather the limited empirical data generated in modern times on this topic in an effort to better understand the correlations between these factors in specific populations. The goal of the current chapter is to be an overview of the multitude of key factors which come together when clients experience music, develop musical preferences, and utilize music. External factors such as culture, social economic status (SES), social group affiliation, religious affiliation, political affiliation, school participation, geographic location, time period that they exist in, exposure to music classes/general live music experiences, availability of musical instruments, musical content from the Internet, music videos on television, exposure to the music of different countries through traveling, are only a small selection of external factors which may have a significant effect on a person’s musical experience and development of musical preferences (MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2002; North

& Hargreaves, 2003; Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003; Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves, 2001).

Ultimately, all the potentially active external factors synthesize with the physiological/neurological processing of the human body and the many other internal

26 factors within an individual—all of which with be explored and expounded on within the context of the current chapter. These factors develop musical experience and preferences which do not stay static, but change dynamically from moment to moment. Attempting to truly understand the development of an individual’s musical preferences, use, and experience requires one to take a holistic assessment of all external and internal elements as these come together to develop a state within an individual that will ultimately change as the factors shift in their relevance and intensity.

Therefore, in order to help clinicians better understand the power of music and its role and affect on people, the current chapter is an examination of music’s connection to emotions. Such knowledge will give mental health professionals an effective tool to help them better understand the full range and differing levels of emotions in their clients as they relate to music. Specifically, the current chapter addresses research and theory which helps to deconstruct and make sense of the multi-layer connections between music and emotions. This examination of this multi-layer connection will include discussion of key elements such as: assessment of emotional states through interpretation of client musical preferences, music’s emotional arousal capabilities, biological and cognitive processes implicated in musical emotional arousal, leading theories and their explanation of music’s effect on emotions, emotional symbolism in music, gender role effects on musical use, a musician’s emotional response to music, use of music for mood management, music’s anxiolytic effects, music’s emotional effect in the work setting, early developmental experiences impact on musical preference development, evolutionary theory and their particular explanations of music’s role, and consonance versus dissonance. This collection of research represents a comprehensive review of existing literature examining

27 the connection between music and emotions. Some concepts have a closer relation than others to this connection, but all help to describe major and minor elements of this relationship.

Assessment of Client Emotional States

When psychologically assessing a client, an essential area of functioning to be examined is the client’s emotional experience. Juslin and Sloboda (2001) note that in the assessment of emotions, there are three specific ways to measure this in humans. The first, is through client self report (adjective checklists, rating scales, etc.). The second, is through measuring expressive behaviors (facial expression, vocalizations, etc.). The third, is through measuring physiological measures of emotion (EKG, EEG, blood pressure, etc.). Developing an understanding of emotional states as well as improving their ability to control them, is typically an issue which brings a client to therapy and/or becomes a goal of therapy (Beck, 1994). Assessing a client’s use of music and its relation to their emotional states appears to be particularly beneficial, as the majority of research on music’s effects appear to cluster in this area and shows a strong correlation between the two concepts.

If a client is particularly guarded about information regarding his emotional states, an assessment of his musical preferences may be the route to take, as the defense mechanisms developed around his emotions will probably not be activated by an apparently innocuous line of questioning regarding his musical preferences, experience, or use. The sophisticated client may be able to interpret the parallel process, but even then, a line of questioning regarding music may be the rapport builder that will allow

28 closer access to emotionally laden material. For the therapist, knowledge of the complicated process operating during musical emotional arousal helps them to validate and understand an important element of the clients unique intra-psychic world. Next, will follow an examination of the core elements inherent in this process.

Music and its Effect on Emotional Arousal

In Hirowaka’s (2004) research on music listening and its effect on emotional arousal, he theorized that self-regulating one’s arousal level was a key factor behind music listening. Each individual has their own baseline for physiological arousal, an internal “cadence” (Thaut, 2005). Through choosing particular types of music and listening to them, an individual is able to activate or deactivate emotions that they associate with that particular music. Hirowaka draws from Thaut’s (2002) research which breaks music’s stimulus properties into three categories. The first, are music’s psychophysical properties (intensity, tempo, etc.), the second is the musical piece’s structure (familiar, genre-specific, etc.), and the third, are the associations the music activates within the individual listening. Hirowaka states that these three core stimulus creating properties account for music’s ability to activate or deactivate emotions in individuals. Hirowaka’s research found that optimal level’s of arousal were able to be activated through use of select music listening. This optimal arousal level in turn (citing one example from Hirowaka’s research), positively affected performance on working memory tasks in young adults. Other researchers such as Heasly (1995) have conducted research which has shown that music has the potential to affect energy levels and tension within an individual through select music listening. Baker and Wigram’s (2005) work

29 showed that select music listening has the ability to reduce tension in the individual listening to the music.

Music and its Biological Correlates to Emotional Arousal

In studies which examined the biological effects of music listening, significant effects were found within individuals during musical listening experiences. In Blood and

Zatorre’s (2001) studies, the musical pieces they presented to participants were found to elicit strong emotional reactions, which in turn activated areas of the brain associated with reward/motivation, approach/withdrawal, and arousal. Brain areas associated with this response included the ventral striatum, midbrain, orbitofrontal cortex, the insula, and ventral medial prefrontal cortex. In a study which measured the effect of auditory and musical stimuli in the context of emotional experience (Baumgartner, Lutz, Schmidt, &

Jancke, 2005), it was found that global cortical brain activation increased, skin conductance responses increased, heart rate increased, and respiration increased. These physiologic effects can not be fully attributed to the overall effect, but they were found to significantly affect the emotional response of the auditory stimuli. They found that activation of the amygdala occurred with musical and visual stimuli, but did not occur with only visual stimuli. They confirmed previous research which showed that musical and sound stimuli (vocal and non-vocal) activate the orbitofrontal gyrus, the amygdala, the insula, the striatum, the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and para hippocampus. In addition they reconfirmed that the amygdala may be more responsible for the processing of externally cued perceptual emotional stimuli. They stated that musical stimuli does not appear to have a direct evolutionary function, therefore the musical stimuli probably

30 activates a “more internal mode of brain function”. Also, they found that “congruent emotional stimuli” affects the extrastriate visual processing areas by increasing activity in this region.

Lending some support to the notion that there are specialized processing centers within the brain for music, is the research of Peretz and Coltheart (2003). This study examined brain damaged patients who had music-specific deficits. These participants had normal hearing and cognitive functioning, but could not recognize melodies or understand music being presented. Brain structures typically affected by a stroke were implicated, but due to the diffuse nature of the brain injury it was difficult to pinpoint specific brain structures that may be responsible for processing music.

Music and its Specific Effects on Physiology

Music’s effect on physiological arousal has been an area which has received the most research in regards to music and emotion. Research has shown that all music tends to initially increase heart rate in the listener. With stimulating music there is typically a strong increase in heart rate, and with relaxing music there is eventually a decrease in heart rate for the listener (Peretz, 2001). In Ries (1969) study, there was a connection found between a person’s emotional response to music and their respiration rate. In

Harrer and Harrer’s (1977) work, it was found that listening to preferred music resulted in deeper breathing (resulting in improved oxygen saturation levels). In all studies it was difficult to interpret what emotions were being experienced through physiological arousal, as individuals may assign different emotions to different physiological arousal symptoms. This results in limited ability to objectively rate what particular emotion

31 music may be eliciting for the person, based solely on their physiological arousal data.

Recent developments in neurological assessment are helping to provide additional physiological arousal data in regards to music listening. Peretz (2001) has conducted this type of research, and found that in their participants, music that expressed joy and happiness activated greater left frontal lobe brain activity. Music that expressed fear and sadness, appeared to activate greater relative right frontal lobe brain activity.

Physiological arousal assessment tools are increasing in their ability to assess individuals, but the data they provide still does not provide enough information to definitively say what particular emotion a musical selection may be eliciting in an individual.

Cognitive Mediation, Physiological Arousal, and the “Chills”

A general overview of the existing research on physiological arousal and music experience (Rickard, 2004), shows that most studies have looked at similar variables.

These include activation of arousal hormones (typically cortisol and noradrenalin) and activation of the sympathetic nervous system (respiration, skin temperature, muscle tensions, heart rate, etc.). In addition, the cognitive process which mediates the arousal has been looked at as a factor which can greatly increase or decrease the arousal

(LeDoux, 1996). This speaks to the process where an individual may intensify or decrease their physiological arousal as they become aware of their arousal. The personal meaning an individual may have for the music and the meaning the individual may assign to the arousal the music has created, will mediate the increase or decrease in the arousal.

In addition, LeDoux found evidence that some auditory stimuli can have an automatic effect on emotions outside of conscious awareness and mediation. Physiologic pathways

32 implicated in this direct neural link, include the system connecting the auditory nuclei in the thalamus, to the “fear effector system” in the amygdala.

Out of the many physiological arousal factors which have been studied, two factors have been found to have particular importance in the musical arousal process.

These two factors, are the perception of “chills” and “skin conductance” while listening to music. Rickard (2004) found that in his study’s participants, skin conductance was significantly affected by exposure to emotionally charged musical pieces. This appeared to support previous research he had cited in this area and he stated that “skin conduction may be regarded as a more pure measure of emotion intensity than other physiological measures”. For the second factor, he found that “chills” were experienced in the listener by music they categorized as “emotionally powerful”. The experience of “chills’ was described as a cold pleasurable sensation which typically flowed through the upper back and neck. The experience of “chills” was highly correlated with music that activated significant emotions in the listener. The “chills” experience was picked up by various physiological measuring devices used in the study. What was clearly evident in the study, is that there is no simple cause and effect relationship between music and emotional arousal. A musical piece which was prior determined as relaxing by researchers did not always produce relaxing effects. Musical pieces which were prior determined by researchers as highly emotional, did not always generate high emotional arousal. The study’s author speculates that the physiological arousal generated by music listening arises through a complicated internal process, which operates through a variety of factors. Two factors which appear to have the strongest effect upon this process, are personality traits and cognitive mediation (Rickard, 2004). Individual variance in these

33 factors can produce a variety of emotional outcomes for the listener, during a music listening experience.

Music and Emotional Activation

Emotional Activation during Consonance and Dissonance

Along the lines of a biologically based explanation for emotions and music, is the theory of “consonance” and “dissonance”. This theory deconstructs the emotional activation process of music even further, and attempts to explain the dynamics which occur when music is perceived as pleasurable or non-pleasurable. This theory also helps explain a possible pathway an individual may follow in developing musical preferences.

The concept of consonance and dissonance is one that has been around for some time, and it appears that the earliest recorded examination of this concept began in ancient

Greek civilization. Pythagoras noted that consonance was experienced by an individual when they heard fundamental frequencies that are related by simple integer ratios

(Zentner & Kagan, 1998). What Pythagoras uncovered was the mathematical equation of musical pieces which would be experienced by someone as pleasurable or non- pleasurable. In essence, some combination of musical notes sound “good” together

(consonance) and some combinations of musical notes sounded “bad” together

(dissonance). The perception of a “good” or “bad” subjective experience, is one that has been researched in recent years, and it appears that this polarizing response is with humans from their earliest days.

Research by Zentner and Kagan (1998) supported this notion, as infants (at 4- months old) who were exposed to dissonant musical stimuli gave non-pleasurable

34 responses compared to the relatively pleasurable responses infants exhibited after exposure to consonant musical stimuli. For adults, a similar dynamic was replicated in

Dowling and Harwood’s (1986) research on consonance. Adults exposed to consonant musical stimuli experienced the music as pleasurable and adults exposed to dissonant musical stimuli experienced the music as non-pleasurable. This sampling of the research on consonance gives some evidence that these perceptual structures in humans exist from birth, and may be an element of the biological underpinnings of musical preferences and emotional activation. Culture, upbringing, personality traits, early exposure to types of music, etc., are many of the factors which may mediate this process, but it appears that there is some biological predisposition in humans towards particular sounds and there is particular set of emotions that are set off by these sounds. Musicians may be subtly aware of this process and may orchestrate their music in efforts to activate these primitive processes. Research examining the neuro-anatomical bases of consonance and dissonance offer intriguing results. In Blood, Zatorre, Burmudez, and Evans (1999) study, they found that a person experiencing musical stimuli as dissonant may be experiencing activation in paralimbic structures and auditory cortices. This activation in this paralimbic area may activate varying emotions. The auditory cortex appears to be involved in the perceptual analysis of the experience. In a related study (Peretz, Blood, Penhune, & Zatorre, 2001), they found that lesions within that same paralimbic region can result in a persons inability to perceive musical stimuli as dissonant or consonant. Research by Gosselin, Samson,

Adolphs, Noulhian, Roy, Hasobun, Baulac, and Peretz (2006) helped to further specify which brain regions were involved in emotional response to music. They found that in their participants with substantial removal of the left or right parahippocampal cortex,

35 participants had a seriously diminished sensitivity to unpleasant (dissonant) music.

Though participants did appear to retain their ability to accurately assess consonant music as consonant and pleasurable. This indicates that other brain structures may have a specific and separate function in regards to the experience of consonance.

Music’s Emotional Activation and the Impact of Gender Roles

In other studies examining music’s emotion activating properties, Kamentsky,

Hill, and Trehub (1997) looked at how gender plays into this activation process. Initially looking at the generalities of the process, they found that changes in dynamics (loudness and softness) of a musical piece significantly affected emotional expression in the person listening. Also, they found that changes in tempo did not significantly effect the emotional expression of the person listening. Next, in regard to gender differences in emotional activation, they found that women tend to find music more emotionally expressive and likeable than men did. They found that women and men differed in the interpretations assigned to musical performance differences. They were unable to say definitively whether there were biological differences in men and women in their abilities to decode expressive cues in music, but they did find evidence to support the notion that socialized gender roles may play a part in their processing of music. Likeability of a particular musical piece was highly correlated with the emotional activation and expressiveness the musical piece brought about in the listener. This speaks to the strong link between musical preferences and the emotions they may stir up in the listener.

36 Preference for musical genres and music dynamics

The emotion activating element of music is a powerful one, and it is one which appears to have a great amount of influence on whether the individual is going to develop a preference for the type of music they are listening to. In Woody and Burns (2001) research in this area, they were able to produce this dynamic with classical music. Young adults in their study who have had past emotional experiences with classical music were more apt to develop a liking and preference for classical music when presented with classical music selections. Young adults who did not have emotional experiences with past classical music listening, did not show an increase in liking and did not consider classical music as a musical preference. It is unclear whether this dynamic is the same for other genres of music, but it is quite possible that this dynamic occurs as a general music preference development process. Cultural and age related factors may play in, as an individual is going to prefer music selections which are congruent with identity factors.

The absence of lyrics in classical music may also be a factor in emotional activation.

Depending on the associations the individual has with the words and message of a musical piece, different emotional responses will occur. Classical music’s instrumental structure may have a particular emotional effect on an individual, as the pure melodic and dynamic elements may resonate with them and be more activating than music with lyrics

(Madsen, 1997). It appears that music’s emotional activation is an essential element of developing musical preferences, but it is unclear to what degree that it does so. It also appears that there are many other factors at play in this formulation of musical preferences.

37 Emotional Symbolism within Music

The emotional symbolism communicated by a musical piece has also been found to be universally understood by people within their particular culture. Terwogt and Van

Grinsven (1991) found that in their sample population of music listeners, all participants were able to agree upon the emotional symbolism of each piece of music they were presented. In other words, they were able to agree upon whether a musical piece was predominantly sad, angry, happy, calm, etc. Emotional symbolism of a musical piece has been linked to the “mode” that the music was played in. The primary modes that have been researched are the major and minor modes. The major modes have been associated with happiness and the minor modes have been associated with sadness or anger

(Crowder, 1985). Kratus (1993) has found that tempo and rhythm may wield a stronger influence in a person differentiating a musical piece as happy or sad. In addition, Wedin

(1972) found that staccato articulation can be perceived as lively or energetic, as opposed to legato articulation, which can be perceived as peaceful or gentle.

Music and its Role in “Mood Management”

The role of music listening and its regulation of emotions is examined in

Zillman’s (1988) research on “Mood Management”. In summary, what Zillman proposes is that individuals seek out sensory material in efforts to regulate their affective experiences and moods, in ways in which they feel are desirable. Individuals may seek out slow music to relax, fast and dynamic music to increase their energy, etc. But as discussed previously, internal factors play out during the music listening experience, and some music may in fact activate a paradoxical effect. In adolescents an often cited reason

38 for selecting a preferred musical piece is to relieve boredom (Schwartz & Fouts, 1999).

But complicating this matter, are adolescents limited abilities to examine and define emotional states, along with their tendency to state the concept of boredom to mask other more difficult to tolerate and revealing emotional states. Regardless, it appears that adolescents utilize music listening as an affect regulation and possibly magnification strategy. Though there is a theory by Sloboda (1992) which attempts to explain the mood management dynamic of music listening. Sloboda posits that listening to music does not actually activate emotions in the listener. What he theorizes, is that there are already particular emotions stirred up within a listener which are ready for expression. When a person listens to a musical piece, they are brought to a place where they can uncover and experience these emotions. These emotions are thought to exist in a pre-conscious and/or conscious state, and are not changed or created by the music. This is an interesting examination of the connection between emotions and music. As there is no particular theory that can speak to a straight cause and effect relationship, this theory helps to increase understanding and helps to define the range of possibilities within the relationship.

Music and its Anxiolytic Effects

Related to the topic of physiological arousal and musical mood management, is the anxiolytic and pain decreasing ability of music. It would not be unusual for an individual to utilize music listening as a strategy for reducing not only painful affect but also painful physical symptoms. In some situations this may be a strategy to address painful affect which may have also triggered related painful physical symptoms. Or in

39 some situations music may be used to address physical symptoms that may have been generated from a purely physical stimulus (i.e. getting a shot in the arm, getting injured in sports, returning from a surgical procedure, etc.). There is a surprising amount of research in this particular topic, and overall most of the research supports music listening as a positive pain reducing strategy. Most research in this area is related to the medical field and examines the use of music related to painful medical procedures. A meta-analysis by music therapist Jayne Standley (1996), found that music listening in clinical settings held a multitude of therapeutic uses. Main effects that could be produced were: anxiety reduction, fear reduction, and a reduction of depression that was related to the pain. In addition, mood alteration, facilitated breathing, and increased control were possible outcomes initiated by music listening. There are some studies (Spintage, 1985; Gardener

& Licklider, 1960) which have investigated the use of music during painful medical procedures (dental treatment and general surgery). They found that they did not have to use as much pain reducing medications, and actual pain reported by patients was lowered.

In Macdonald, Mitchell, Dillon, Serepell, Davies, and Ashleys research (2003), an investigation of the pain reducing effects through music listening generated mixed results. They found that in some conditions music had an anxiety and pain reducing effect on post-operative patients, but in other conditions there was no significant reduction in pain and anxiety. They speculated that the pain and anxiety reducing effects may be due to the patients emotional associations to the music and the particular genre of music that they chose to listen to during the painful medical procedure. These “individual interpretations” that patients made about particular musical selections, were speculated to be the activating cognitive origins of the anxiety and pain reducing effects.

40 Music and the Work Setting

Music and its effect on emotions has many implications, one specific area, is the use of music in working environments. Many environments where people work

(factories, offices, etc.) generate many emotions and can greatly affect physiological arousal. This can go in a positive direction, negative direction, or can be a combination of both. With limited exception, work environments can greatly affect an individuals emotional state. Oldham (1995) found that providing music to a working environment can improve work performance. In addition, the music presented had an effect on the employee’s mood state. It is possible that the improved mood in the participants, improved their concentration and motivation which allowed them to perform better on tasks. Schellenberg (2001) confirmed this notion, as he found that mild positive feelings were found to positively influence the way cognitive material is organized. Lesiuk (2000) found that music decreased levels of state anxiety in computer programmers while they were programming in a work environment. Important factors in the ability of music to effect mood, was whether the music being played was congruent with the listener’s music preferences. Also, it appears that it takes a little time for individuals to get used to listening to music and working. As practice increased, individuals were able to improve their work performance through music listening. In Lesiuk’s more recent research (2005), she found that removing music from a work environment (which utilizes music consistently) can lower state positive mood response, slightly lower quality of work, and increase excessive time on tasks. Clearly, music has a strong effect on emotions, evident in everyday situations such as a work environment. The limited amount of research in this area does not conclusively say whether music is a positive addition to a work

41 environment, but it does lend more support to theory and research indicating that music has a strong effect on emotions and behavior.

Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions

The actual process of emotional activation is a complex one and there are many researchers that have attempted to break down the activation process into its core components. In Kivy’s research (1980) he states that music does not directly express emotions, but rather music is “expressive of” emotions. By this he means that the contents of a musical piece do not hold any particular emotional content, instead, the person listening to the musical piece may assign emotional meaning to emotional ideas reflected in the musical piece. Kivy proposes that the individual “animates” the musical communication, and emotionally symbolic musical piece contents can be understood and expressed through the emotion the person feels is a good fit for musical content. In addition, the emotional response an individual may have to a musical piece, may be due to the dynamic and parallel process which occurs in the musical piece and in human experience. For example, melody in the musical piece could represent patterns of movement, fast tempo could be energy, etc. Musical expressiveness within a musical piece can also be analogous to human emotional experience. Specifically, tension and resolution within a musical piece can reflect emotional tension and resolution with a person, as well as tension and resolution that may occur during communication with another individual. This communication of tension and resolution through speaking with another individual can be similar to the tension and resolution a song can create while it is “communicating” with an individual.

42 Meyer’s (1956) and Lehman’s (1997) Theories on Music and Emotions

An analysis of music and its connection to emotions would not be complete without a look at Leonard Meyer’s seminal work examining the relationship between these two concepts. Meyer (1956) found that shifts in the rhythm or melodic tone of a song can generate expectations about where the musical piece is going to take a person while listening. Meyer posits that the expectation that a person then creates, sets the stage for the emotional reaction a person will express. This expectation is related to tension a person feels, as the musical piece builds up and as it releases the feeling of suspense. The musical manipulation of arousal through music, follows arousal dynamics with other stimuli. Within a musical piece, a more complex and elaborate build up of tension, equals a stronger arousal of emotions. When the musical piece musically reaches the resolution phase, this activates a feeling of relaxation and tension reduction in the person listening.

Meyer based some of his theories on “Gestalt laws” of perception, which are based on completion and relational aspects of concepts. Meyer found that the more musically sophisticated a music listener became (i.e. training on music theory, composition, etc.), the more the listener reacted cognitively to the music and less emotionally. This was explained through the musically sophisticated listener’s ability to deconstruct the music and understand its structure and dynamics. With a listener who was not musically trained, their response would be one that would be primarily emotional due to their lack of music theory to facilitate a cognitive appraisal.

Next will follow more recent research exploring the potential impact of musical training on music and emotional activation. There is some evidence that musician’s brain structures may change in accordance to the musical instrument that they play (Erber &

43 Erber, 2001). There is also evidence that individuals who are drawn to becoming musicians may have significant differences in individual characteristics (Wagner, 1988).

Sloboda’s research (1991) showed that musician’s actually have a more intense affective experience when listening to music than do non-musicians. Supporting this finding, is

Behne (1986), who found that musically trained individual’s self reported a stronger affective response to listening to select musical pieces. A theory which was employed to explain some of this variance between musicians and non-musicians, was the “training- mediation hypothesis”, that Lehmann (1997) proposed. This theory states that the significant emotional response that music elicits is primarily related to the personal values individuals assign to their own musical preferences. It appears that in the limited research available on musicians’ emotional response to music, that there is some uncertainty. With significant differences in samples, experimental methods, and musical stimuli, it is not possible to definitively state whether musicians (in general) respond to music more cognitively or affectively. However, the theory and research does provide interesting explanations of the probable systems and sequences involved.

Mandler’s (1984) Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions

Another music researcher who has pioneered theory in regards to emotion and music is George Mandler, who has generated theory supporting Meyer’s (1956) theories of musical tension. Mandler (1984) found that emotional response to musical selections is first activated by a cognitive appraisal of physiological cues. As a person develops expectations about where a musical piece is going, changes in that trajectory can cause a person to have a physiological response. Next the mind attempts to understand this

44 (cognitive appraisal), and then there is an emotional response depending on the appraisal.

The emotional response is positive if change in music is congruent with what the person expected. If the emotional response is negative, this shows that the change in music is not consistent with the musical schema that the person had regarding the music and its dynamics.

Berlyne’s (1971) Theoretical Explorations of Music and Emotions

Other early theoretical research which links emotion and musical experience is

Daniel Berlyne’s work. This work is similar to Meyer’s and Mandler’s research, as it focuses on music’s ability to activate arousal in the listener. Berlyne (1971) states that complexity, familiarity, and novelty are the primary factors in music which activate emotions in the listener. These three factors affect the level of arousal in the listener, and

Berlyne sees this process as the one which motivates the listener to seek out musical experiences. Berlyne feels that each individual has a unique level of arousal that they seek for each music listening experience. The more complex the song the listener experiences, the more potential it has for increasing arousal levels in the listener. Berlyne also found that individuals with a musical background or knowledge of music theory, responded more cognitively to music, and their threshold for musical arousal was higher then individuals without a music background.

Integration of Music within Clinical Practice

The use of music by therapists (excluding music therapy therapists) to gain access to emotions is an area which has received minimal empirical examination, but in light of

45 the research this project has examined thus far, this appears to be a logical and reasonable route for a therapist to take. With substantial research showing a strong link between music listening/playing and emotional activation, the use of music by the therapist or the use of the concept of music in therapist dialogue with clients, would appear to be an approach which would tap into an emotion rich area. Kerr, Walsh, and Marshall (2001) theorize that music may be a medium which allows a person to express feelings or experience which cannot be communicated through words. Music dynamics, songs, musical sounds, etc. may capture a feeling and/or thought that a client may be experiencing. Relaying this experience to the therapist may help the client foster an understanding of their world. In addition, listening to particular music or playing music on an instrument may allow expression of emotions which would not be possible through verbal discourse. This is a process that may occur in or out of therapy sessions. Nelson and Weathers (1998) lend support to this theory and speculate that musical expression can facilitate personal expression that words only can begin. Musical expression by an individual is seen as complementary to their verbal expression. One process increases the expressive potential of the other. There is also the probability of the addition of musical expression in therapy to improve the therapeutic alliance. Select musical pieces can be utilized to target specific emotions or issues. This is, of course, subject to the client’s amenability to the process. Familiarity with music, experience as a musician, and other related factors may increase the chance that this approach will improve the therapeutic alliance and facilitate self expression.

46 Musical Preferences: An Analysis of Early Influences

In examining the connection between emotions and music, it is important to turn back the clock and look at the earliest stages of this relationship. There is a modicum of child development research available, which has attempted to understand this interaction.

The research examination spans from the fetus’ early days in utero, up to the first few months as a newborn baby. There is much research established on an infants response to various perceptual stimuli, but there is also a developing sub-area of this research field which focuses specifically on infants response to music stimuli. Next, will follow an examination of the child development research which examines this potential musical interaction.

Kaminski and Hall (1994) found that soothing and sedative music had the ability to generate a lower arousal state in an infant. Coleman, Pratt, Stoddard, Gerstman, and

Abel (1997) were able to show that music can increase weight gain for premature infants, reduce excess arousal, and create a healthy environment for an infant. Research on music’s effect on brain activity in children, suggests that music listening and training can positively affect their processing efficiency (Flohr, Miller, & Persellin, 1999). There is some research in this area that has made its way into urban legend, as a concept known as the “Mozart effect” has made its way into discussions about child development. This stemmed from a study (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993) which examined infant’s response to Mozart musical piece exposure. This study showed a small increase in spatial reasoning for babies after listening to Mozart musical pieces. Urban legend has taken this study and interpreted that exposing babies to Mozart in utero and after birth, simply

47 makes them smarter. Obviously, the small specific effect shown in the research has been over-generalized and taken much farther than intended.

This study was replicated by another child development researcher (Thompson,

Schellenberg, & Hussain, 2001), who found that infants performed better on spatial- reasoning tasks after listening to Mozart. Though they concluded, that it wasn’t actually

Mozart’s music per se which created the effect, it was the ability of the musical stimuli to create positive affect and heightened arousal. This affective response allowed the infants to moderate improvements in task performance.

The Early Mother-Child Relationship and Music

Music and its connections to emotion are clearly visible in the earliest of interactions after birth…the lullabies between a doting parent and their newborn baby.

Across cultures and across time, many parents have sung lullabies to their babies to sooth the baby and connect with them. Regardless of the structure or type of lullaby, research has shown that they have been used for similar purposes across cultures (Trehub, Unyk,

& Trainor, 1993). Research shows that lullabies are typically simple, repetitive, slow, and may feature more descending intervals than other melodies (Unyk, Trehub, Trainor, &

Schellenburg, 1992). It also appears that lullabies are tailored to the infant’s preferences, through trying different musical pieces or different ways of singing them. These may be indicative of individual (within the baby) or situational variables which may affect musical preferences. During this process the baby learns about itself and its regulatory abilities, and the mother learns to see themselves as a parent. What is clear is that an infant can have its emotional state affected by a particular lullaby. There are many

48 variables at play when an infant is interacting with a parent, so it is really impossible to say that music is the primary causal factor in affect shift for the baby. The shift could be attributed to the smile of the parent, the physical closeness, etc. But it does appear that lullabies have some effect on the infant, evidenced by the noticeable shifts in their behavioral and affective responses to the lullaby. In addition, there is some evidence that musical stimuli can be learned by the baby while in utero. James, Spencer, and Stepsis,

(2002) gathered evidence that a baby in utero can learn musical patterns through music projected towards the mother’s midsection and in a manner that is audible to the mother.

Musical preference development may actually begin at these early days for a developing fetus, as there appears to be enough perceptual abilities to experience the musical stimuli and retain some of the content after birth. Musical preferences in later life may have some connection to in utero exposure to music and lullabies experienced as an infant. Lullabies with certain dynamics and structure may be given particular associations by the infant.

These associations may be retained by the infant and may have an unconscious effect on music listening and preferences as they enter later stages of development. The research presented here, shows a clear link between music and emotional activation, which may be present in utero and through the infants early years. This gives some evidence that emotional activation through music may not only have cultural, social, and interpersonal origins, but the process may also have biological origins which may be present from the very first time perceptual abilities develop. This speaks to the possibility that humans may have innate abilities and biological tools to process music. Whether they are specialized for the sounds that music creates, or whether they are simply a part of a human’s general auditory processing tools is unclear.

49 Evolutionary Theory, Music, and Emotion

In efforts to understand the origins of music and emotions (and further the discussion on possible innate properties of music production/processing) one approach would be to examine the relationship in its adaptive or evolutionary context. As I have noted previously, music and emotions appear to have many interrelated connections, and another layer that may help to understand the relationship, is music’s possible role in human evolution. Music is a widely experienced phenomena which appears to exist in all cultures across the earth. Since this has occurred throughout recorded history it would appear that music is a significant part of human’s development on earth.

Some argue that music does not reflect any evolution within our brain processes

(Pinker, 1997), and there are some that argue that music is an integral part of our evolutionary process (Miller, 2000). There is some research (Darwin, 1871; Hagen &

Bryant, 2003) that theorizes that music is an entity which supports courtship rituals, effects social cohesion, serves religious purposes, and may have an effect on war. It appears that this has been a constant throughout recorded time, as music appears to be integrated into the above activities in varying levels. This lends some support to the notion that music holds an adaptive value in key cultural and social human activities.

On the contrary, there is also research (Pinker, 1997) that theorizes that music is not an adaptation, but it is actually a side effect of properties of the auditory system that may have evolved for other human needs. From a cultural standpoint, some theorists note that music and musical preferences may simply be a result of the time period that the individual existed in. The mere fact that they were born into a culture that listened to a particular type of music, may have predisposed them to prefer that particular music

50 (Boulez, 1971). Though the variance within the genre of music or the variance between styles and dynamics of the music available, may allow a person to exhibit some form of personal expression and preference in these situations. This would be assuming that there was a range and variety of music to choose from, and that cultural norms would allow the person the personal freedom to choose music based on personal preferences. It appears that musical preferences develop in a complicated bio-psycho-social matrix, each individual’s development playing out in unique fashion.

Lending evidence to an evolutionary and biological link to music, is the evidence of a “bone flute” found by archaeologists. This “bone flute” was made approximately

50,000 years ago (Kunej & Turk, 2000) and was found in a Neanderthal campsite in

Slovenia. The flute was made out of a bear cub’s femur and has four visible holes. The hole placement is consistent with a design that will create whole and half tones of the diatonic scale. They reproduced an exact replica of the flute and they were able to produce notes consistent with a modern diatonic scale. There is some speculation that the holes in the bone were simply made by a Neanderthal to get to the bone marrow for food, but it appears quite likely that this was actually a musical instrument. The similarities to modern flute designs (to generate particular tones) may give evidence that music generates sounds uniquely specific for human consumption. Other musical instruments, such as the ancient Chinese flutes found in a Neolithic site in China (Zhang, Harbottle,

Wang, & Kong, 1999) give similar evidence, as musicians were able to generate musical notes on the flutes, including the diatonic scale notes. For music to have stood the test of time and find its place in all cultures, lends support to the notion that music has played some adaptive and functional roles in human evolution. If music provided no adaptive

51 value and did not provide some benefit to developing man, it would assuredly lost its place in developing cultures and been forgotten. Clearly the opposite has happened and it appears that music’s role in human existence has been solidly planted, and it has actually developed in sophistication and integration as the years have passed.

Quotations to Help Understand Music and Emotions

Research of emotions and music by Panksepp and Bernatzky (2002) helped to synthesize the large amount of research in this area. After conducting a literature review of existing research on emotions and music, they stated:

Hence, we would advance the idea that the emotional impact of music is largely dependent on both direct and indirect (i.e. cognitively mediated) effects on subcortical emotional circuits of the human brain that seem to be essential for generating affective processes. (p.153)

In regards to the biological and evolutionary bases of music and its connection to emotions, McDermott and Hauser (2005) help to synthesize current research and bring clarity. They state:

It seems that humans have an innate drive to make and enjoy music and that they are predisposed to make music with certain features (the octave, simple ratios, and unequal intervals). These features seem to be related to perceptual sensitivities to musical structure found in human infants and perhaps also nonhuman animals in the absence of extensive experience. (p.54)

Lastly, Panksepp and Bentazky (2002) take on all of the aforementioned concepts and crystallize the current state of research with this quote:

In sum, there is much to commend the idea that the most important evolutionary influences that still govern our affective responses to music are the natural neurodynamics of our brain socio-emotional systems that appear to be exquisitely responsive to the dynamics of emotional sounds. (p.140)

52 These quotes help to summarize current direction and focus regarding music and its effect upon emotional states. Clearly, the body of research cannot definitively state a cause and effect relationship between the two variables. At best, it has helped to deconstruct the process and categorize the multitude of variables which are at play.

Relationships have been postulated and the theories help to provide understanding and guide direction for further research.

53 MUSIC AND ITS CONNECTION TO PERSONALITY

Operationalizing the Concept of Personality

Before examining the relationship between music and an individual’s personality, a concise and relevant definition is necessary for the concepts of personality that will be reviewed. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic Statistical Manual Fourth

Edition Text Revision (DSM4-TR, 2000), provides a relevant, general, and industry standard definition of personality (though it is important to note that there are many definitions of personality in the literature and there is some disagreement across disciplines on the actual validity of personality as a construct). Regardless of the dispute over what personality is, where it exists, or how to define it, the DSM4-TR helps provide an adequate framework for understanding mainstream ideas about personality and helps to begin the examination of its relationship to music. The DSM4-TR definition for personality is as follows, “Enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself” (DSM4-TR, 2000, p.686). Of importance as well, is the

DSM4-TR clarification of “personality traits”. The definition is as follows, “Personality traits are prominent aspects of personality that are exhibited in a wide range of important social and personal contexts” (DSM4-TR, 2000, p.686). These two definitions are the general concepts which will be examined in this chapter of the literature review.

An examination of personality’s connection to music is warranted, as previous literature reviewed in this project has drawn clear musical connections to key elements of personality: emotions and physiological arousal. Examining more enduring and pervasive elements of an individual’s self, is a logical next step in assessing music’s total effect on

54 an individual. This chapter will focus on examining the existing body of research which looks at the relationship between the aforementioned concepts of personality/personality traits and music.

Psychology’s History Integrating Music and Personality

An examination of the limited body of literature regarding personality and music, illuminates somewhat of a starting point for modern scientific inquiry into this topic. In the early 1950’s, famous research psychologist Raymond Cattell, began seminal research into personality and music. There are a handful of published research studies on music and psychology before Cattel’s work, but they are obviously from a very early period of psychology’s development, and their results are limited by the science available during that time period. Cattell’s later work (1960) overviewed this early body of psychological research which spanned from 1926 to 1955. Cattell found that factors such as age, sex, mood, “intellectual introversion”, and music recognition have been examined by researchers in relation to music. The results from these early works did not provide especially compelling results, but he states that they did show that there may be merit in examining people’s musical preferences to obtain clinically relevant information about the aforementioned factors.

A quote by Cattell and Anderson (1953) helps to set off the examination of personality and music:

The powerful and immediate connection of musical stimulation with emotional experience, and the many indications that unconscious needs gain satisfaction through this medium, have long pointed to measures of musical preference as effective avenues to deeper aspects of personality. (p.446)

55 This quote helps to encapsulate the excitement and insight which characterizes Cattell's early research on music and personality.

“Sensation Seeking” and its Connection to Music

One personality trait which has received relatively significant overview in the music and personality body of research, is “sensation seeking”. Zuckerman (1990), helps operationalize this concept through the following definition, a “trait characterized by the need for varied, novel, and complex, sensations, and experience; and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience”. A review of the literature shows that though many studies are looking at similar variables which sensation seeking is composed of, they use differing constructs to define what they are measuring based upon the differing assessment tool that they utilize. For example, some studies use the

Neo Personality Inventory, MMPI 2, Sensation Seeking Scale, Zuckerman Music

Preference Questionnaire, and other measures of personality trait evaluation. Thus some studies are not using the specific words “sensation seeking” but are measuring traits which are significantly correlated with Zuckerman’s aforementioned definition of sensation seeking.

Sensation seeking has been correlated with an individual’s preference for a particular musical genre. Arnett’s research on reckless and dangerous behaviors (1991) showed that individuals who exhibited these traits preferred heavy metal music. In Little and Zuckerman’s (1986) research on personality and musical preferences, they found that sensation seeking personality traits are highly correlated with punk, heavy metal, and rock music. In addition, they found that sensation seeking was correlated negatively with

56 religious and sound track music preference. In Arnett’s later research (1996), they found that the individual’s who were high “sensation seekers” had a preference for the genres of heavy metal and rock and roll. Though this particular study focused on adolescents, and this dynamic may only be reflective of that particular population. Adolescent males in the study who were high on sensation seeking, were found to exhibit reckless behaviors such as substance abuse, dangerous driving, risky sexual practices, and other conduct disorder problems. The few girls in the study who were found to be high on sensation seeking scores, did not exhibit conduct disorder behaviors in the range of the males, but they did exhibit problematic behaviors such as promiscuity, shoplifting, mild vandalism, and some drug use. The study saw these problematic behaviors as manifestations of individuals’ sensation seeking traits which ultimately resulted in attempts to maintain a personally desired level of optimal arousal. The musical preferences these adolescents reported were highly reflective of these dynamics.

“Novelty-Seeking” and “Harm Avoidance”, Connections to Music

Related sensation seeking personality traits of “novelty-seeking” and “harm avoidance” were examined in Gerra, Zaimovic, Franchini, Palladino, Giucastro, Reali,

Maestri, Caccavari, Delsignore, and Brambillas (1998) research on personality and techno/electronica music. Their study examined these personality traits as measured by the three-dimension personality questionnaire (TPQ) (Cloninger, 1987) along with clinical impressions from a psychiatrist. Their study showed that techno/electronica music had significant effect on physiological arousal systems in individuals with high sensation seeking personality traits. Individuals with high need for “novelty seeking”

57 were found to have less stressful experiences with techno/electronica music. In addition higher impulsivity and higher risk taking were associated with preference for this genre.

Preference for techno/electronica music correlated negatively with “harm avoidance”.

Individuals who prefer techno/electronica and who are involved with the subculture that produces and listens to this music, are highly correlated with use of hard drugs

(amphetamines, Ecstasy, etc.), intense involvement with dancing, and hedonistic all-night partying (McCann & Ricaurte, 1993).

Zuckerman (1971) attempted to explain this sensation seeking dynamic in his earlier work. He theorized that those who are high on sensation seeking, typically experience stimulus deprivation, while those who are low in sensation seeking typically experience over stimulation. Goldman, Kohn, and Hunt (1983) deconstruct this dynamic even further. They state that high sensation and low sensation seekers tend to develop automatic and conscious strategies to mediate this arousal experience. High sensation seekers tend to seek out highly stimulating situations but they “reduce” the effect the experience has on their physiological arousal. Low sensation seekers tend to “augment” highly stimulating situations and increase the effect the highly stimulating situation has upon them. Thus, high and low sensation seekers have differing preferred levels of arousal and different abilities and strategies to achieve optimal level of arousal. A personality disorder which has some relation to sensation seeking is anti-social personality disorder, as there are some studies which show a connection between convicted male criminals and sensation seeking traits (Raine, Venables, & Williams,

1990). This does not speak to a sensation seeking cause and effect relationship with this personality disorder, but does help to understand elements which may contribute to its

58 development. For adolescents, conduct disordered males exhibiting anti-social behaviors were shown to be high on sensation seeking (Raine and Venables, 1984). In the development of anti-social personality disorder this is significant, as a prerequisite for an anti-social personality disorder diagnosis, is a history of significant acting out within the teenage years (DSM4-TR, 2000). In his earlier work, Zuckerman (1971) notes the interplay between sensation seeking, personality trait development, physiological arousal, and preferences for particular activities. Zuckerman’s assertions support the aforementioned studies that state that musical preferences appeared to be highly correlated with these factors.

Gender Roles, Musical Preferences, and Sensation Seeking

Further explaining individual development of sensation seeking traits, are the differences that are exhibited along gender lines. McNamara (1999) examined the relationship between gender, sensation seeking personality traits, and musical preferences. She found that women may respond differently than men to musical stimuli.

She found that men preferred more sensation stimulating music than women did. She noted that her results supported the varying data existing about resting rate arousal for men and women. It appears that on some measures men have lower resting rate physiological arousal than women. Women appeared to be more reactive to musical stimuli. Resting rate physiological arousal may play into men and women’s differing preferences and use of music to regulate physiologic and affective states. McNamara speculates in this quote (1999), “Thus moderately stimulating music may meet the arousal needs of women, whereas men with low resting arousal may require more

59 stimulating music to attain a similar effect” (p.239). Differences in gender in response to music stimuli may also be affected by the way it is presented. She found that when music was either “masculine relevant” or “feminine relevant”, individuals tended to respond in a way which was congruent with their gender. Cultural variables regarding gender roles are definitely at play in this complex interaction. Additionally, in her sample

“Experience Seeking” and “Disinhibition”, were highly correlated with musical preference for both men and women (positively and negatively).

“Psychoticism” and its Connection to Music

Another personality trait which has received a small amount of examination in regard to musical preferences, is psychoticism. Psychoticism is a personality trait operationalized by Hans Eysenck in his foundational research on personality. It is a core element of his “three dimensions of personality” (Eysenck, 1967). This model also includes “Neuroticism” and “Introversion-Extraversion”. The concept of Psychoticism generally consists of three other related personality constructs: “Agreeableness”,

“Conscientiousness”, and “Openness to Experience”. These three related elements are more narrower and more specific personality traits expanded upon in the “Big 5” model of personality (Digman, 1990). Psychoticism is also a measure of susceptibility to psychosis. High scores on Psychoticism, can mean that an individual may prefer more bizarre or irregular experiences, they may be especially impulsive, and they may be at increased risk for substance abuse. Though on a more positive note, some individuals with high scores on Psychoticism have been associated with high creativity. In McCown,

Keiser, Mulhearn, and Williamson (1997) they found that individuals in their sample

60 those who scored high on Psychoticism (as measured by the Eysenck Personality

Questionnaire) preferred music that has a strong bass response, and they tend to like to listen to it by enhancing the bass response of the music. Males appeared to prefer this experience more than females. However, this effect by gender may have been due to the fact that males generally score higher than females on measures of Psychoticism

(Eysenck, 1967). This significantly higher need for music with a stronger bass dynamic and listening to it with enhanced bass, played out in cars, homes, and other listening environments where they could manipulate the dynamics of the music. Music which was commonly utilized for this experience, consisted of music within the heavy metal and rap genres. McCown et al. (1997) speculate that individuals with higher scores on

Psychoticism may seek out a musical experience with exaggerated bass. This may be due to their high Psychoticism needs for bizarre/irregular experiences, and possibly to facilitate cortical disinhibition. The study’s authors comments anecdotally on how they have observed this effect play out in clinical populations, (McCown et al., 1997, p. 546),

“the present authors also suggest that adults with antisocial and borderline personalities are more likely to enjoy enhanced bass in popular musical selections and to prefer popular music with exaggerated bass inherent in its style (e.g. ‘heavy metal music’).

However, these observations need to be tested more rigorously”. In adolescent populations, earlier research by McCown and Johnson (1993) noted that residential treatment therapists typically observe a preference for bass enhanced music in adolescents being treated for personality and behavioral issues. Rawlings, Hodge, Sherr, and Dempsey (1995), found that individuals with high scores of Psychoticism preferred more complex and complicated musical selections.

61 “Extraversion” and “Introversion”, their Connection to Music

Another personality trait which has received a similarly limited amount of empirical examination in relation to music, is the concept of “Extraversion”. Some research in this area, examines this relationship through use of Eysenck’s definition of

“Extraversion” from his “three dimensions of personality” model (Eysneck, 1967). Other research in this area utilizes Cattell and Saunders (1954) definition of “Extraversion” developed through their research which used the “Music Preference Test of Personality” and the “16 Personality Factor Questionnaire Test”. Both definitions have many convergent components and are both defining the same general concept. Extraversion refers to the enduring outgoing and social qualities of an individual. Extroverts are lively, positive in thinking, and are especially excitable. Introverts tend to be reserved, quiet, deliberate, solitary, and minimally engaged when in social situations.

The following will be an overview of the most relevant extraversion research this limited body of literature has to offer. Earliest examination of this topic begins in the early 1950’s with Cattell’s personality and music research. Cattel and Saunders (1954), found that individuals high on extraversion preferred specific music dynamics. These individuals preferred music that had a fast tempo, had intense rhythms, and promoted positive mood states. Payne (1980) studied musicians and individuals with musical experience and gathered information about their personality traits. Payne found that individuals who met criteria for introversion preferred music with a formal structure, and individuals who met criteria for extraversion preferred music that activated strong emotional states. Daoussis and McKelvie (1986) studied introverts and extroverts, and

62 found that extroverts had considerably more preference for hard rock music compared to introverts. The particular musical genres that extroverts prefer has received some examination. In Rawlings, Hodge, Sherr, and Dempsey (1995) the participants who met many of the criteria for extraversion appeared to prefer electronic, religious, and soundtrack music. In Dollinger’s (1993) research on musical preferences and personality traits, he found that participants that met many of the criteria for extraversion appeared to prefer hard rock and jazz, and did not like gospel music. These two studies are intriguing, but results are merely correlational. The multitude of extraneous factors (culture, age, etc.) which may be involved with musical preference development, make it quite difficult to speculate on the specific effect that extraversion may have upon musical preference development. Without a doubt it is factor, but it is quite difficult to ascertain to what degree it is having an effect. Aforementioned research on sensation seeking helps to understand the research on extraversion, as there are many similarities and overlap within the two concepts and how they manifest in and individual.

“Openness” and its Connection to Music

A personality trait which shows only a bare minimum of examination within the music and personality research literature, is the concept of “openness”. This construct has also been developed from the on-going work regarding the “Big 5” personality framework (Digman, 1990). This well established framework defines openness as follows. Openness is a dimension of personality which is characterized by intellectual curiosity, sensitivity, awareness of feelings, creativity, imagination, and unconventional thinking (Digman, 1990). In Rawlings and Ciancarelli (1997) they found that openness

63 was an important personality factor in an individual’s development of particular musical preferences. They noted that their results support early research by Dollinger (1993), that also conclude that openness is particularly important in musical preference development.

Rawlings and Ciancarelli (1997) theorize that openness is particularly important due to an open individual’s tendency to be willing to expose themselves to (and appreciate) a wide range of rich and novel musical experiences. Their data shows that open individuals show a preference for diverse musical styles. Though it appears that being open to new experience does not mean that they will like all new experiences. Open individuals in their study appeared to have a strong preference for rock music, and they also appeared to not like popular forms of contemporary music. A quote by Rawlings and Ciancarelli

(1997) helps to understand a key element of openness and its effect on musical preference development, “openness is strongly related to breadth of musical preference, but this relationship is mediated largely by the aesthetics and idea facets” (p.130). The “aesthetics facet” that they measured with the Revised NEO Personality Inventory Manual (Costa &

McCrae, 1992), measures the importance of music, art, and poetry to the individual. The same inventory measures the “idea facet” as the curiosity and breadth and depth of intellectual interest.

Social Psychology’s Contributions to Understanding Personality and Music

Current innovators and leaders in the research regarding personality and music are social psychologists Peter Rentfrow and Samuel Gosling. In their earlier work (Rentfrow

& Gosling, 2003), they conducted research which examined lay beliefs about music, the structure of underlying musical preferences, and the links between music preferences and

64 personality. This comprehensive study included data from over 3500 individuals, including data from individuals nationwide which was available from music downloading websites.

The initial phase of their study, found that individuals report that music is rated at least as high as other common leisure activities. Individuals self-report indicated that they believed that their musical preferences were reflective of their personalities, self-views, and the personalities of other people. Individuals reported listening to music with great frequency and in a multitude of situations. Without question, their results clearly showed that music was universally important to people, and people spend a significant amount of time listening to music.

The middle phase of their study identified basic dimensions of music preferences.

Using an exploratory factor analysis, they were able to generate four dimensions of musical preference out of a total of 80 music genres and subgenres that reflect contemporary American music. Each factor was named to encapsulate the dimensions dynamics. Factor one, was “Reflective and Complex”. This was composed of classical, jazz, blues, and folk music. Factor two, was “Intense and Rebellious”. This was composed of alternative, rock, and heavy metal music. Factor three, was “Upbeat and

Conventional”. This was composed of country, pop, religious, and sound track music.

Factor four, was “Energetic and Rhythmic”. This was composed of rap/hip-hop, soul/funk, and electronica/dance. Due to music’s tendency to evolve, morph, and blend elements from other genres, it was difficult to categorize music that did not fit standard qualities of a particular genre. Some factors correlated better than others with particular genres and songs.

65 In the last phase of the study, the researchers examined correlations between the four musical factors and personality. For factor one “Reflective and Complex”, individuals preferring music in this category were highly correlated with “Openness to

New Experiences”, self-perceived intelligence, verbal (but not analytic) ability, and political liberalism. This factor was negatively correlated with social dominance and athleticism. For factor two, “Intense and Rebelliousness”, individuals preferring music in this category were highly correlated with “Openness to New Experiences”, athleticism, self perceived intelligence, and verbal ability. Contrary to previous research on this dimension, they found that this factor did not correlate highly with neuroticism or disagreeableness, even though this dimension’s music can contain negative emotional content. For factor three, “Upbeat and Conventional”, individuals preferring music in this category were highly correlated with Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, conservatism, self perceived physical attractiveness, and athleticism. This factor was negatively correlated with Openness to New Experiences, social dominance orientation, liberalism, conventionality, and verbal ability. The fourth factor, “Energetic and

Rhythmic”, was highly correlated to Extraversion, Agreeableness, blirtatiousness (ability to express self to others), liberalism, self-perceived attractiveness, and athleticism. This factor is negatively correlated with social dominance orientation and conservatism. This study provides compelling results and helps to further understanding of music dynamics and the personality variables which effect an individual’s musical preference development. This study does not attempt to quantify the effect personality has upon musical preference development, as they note that self views, cognitive abilities, social environment, cultural variables, geographic location, and social identity all appear to play

66 a part in an individual’s formation of musical preferences. Quantifying the amount of effect each variable may have upon the process would be quite difficult (if not possible), as the process will be unique to each individual.

In more recent research by aforementioned researchers Rentfrow and Gosling

(2006), the link between an individuals musical preferences and their personality was examined further. In this investigation they examined interpersonal perception between individuals and attempted to uncover the effect sharing musical preferences had upon this process. This study supported their prior research which showed that individuals consider their musical preferences more personally revealing than books, clothing, food, movies, and television shows that they prefer and utilize (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). This study’s participants were able to develop accurate assessments of a target person’s general personality traits, through an evaluation of their music preferences. Musical preferences also appeared to reveal different information than is typically at play during

“Zero-acquaintance” contexts (contexts where you meet someone you know nothing about). Rentfrow and Gosling note (2006), “These findings suggest that music preferences carry unique information about personality that is not readily available from more observable cues” (p.241). Additionally they support this by noting, “For example, targets with a preference for music with vocals were correctly perceived as extraverted, targets with country songs in their top-10 lists were accurately perceived as emotionally stable, and targets with jazz in their lists were correctly perceived as intellectual” (p.

242). They found that particular musical cues offer specific information. Musical genre

(i.e. classical, jazz, etc.) and music dynamics ( i.e. fast, slow, minor/major key, etc.) were the two primary musical cues which were found to relay specific information about the

67 person and their musical preferences. For example, the classical music genre may say something specific about an individual, and the variation in musical piece dynamics

(fast/intense or slow/melodic) within the classical music genre will reveal more in-depth information beyond the associations to genre. This study highlights the intuitive understanding people have regarding personality and musical preferences. This link is correlational and not a particularly strong one, but helps to begin quantifying the understanding untrained and non-therapist populations have regarding this concept. The study notes that many variables are at play during interpersonal perception and it would be difficult to quantify the specific power musical preferences have upon this perception process. This study notes the effect other relevant variables such as observer social status, country of residence, culture, and cohort may have upon the observer and their impression formation process. Clearly, the connection between personality and music is so strong that even in untrained and non-therapist populations, a minimal amount of information about an individual’s musical preferences and little else, can provide significant information about their personality and personality traits.

68 MUSIC AND ITS CONNECTION TO SOCIAL IDENTITY

The Pervasive Influence of Music in Modern Society

In previous sections focused on intra-psychic factors (emotions and personality) and their connections to music, a firm link was established between music and a persons inner world. The next logical step, would be to examine the way in which these factors play out in the social environment in which they exist. Individuals do not exist in a vacuum and the internal factors which an individual has developed, are better understood in the way in which they work with the social systems that they are involved with. Ickes,

Snyder, and Garcia (1997) offer a quote to help support this notion:

Once individuals are in their chosen situation, their words and actions are genuine reflections of their personalities, and the fact that they display these behaviors in settings they have specifically chosen ensures a substantial degree of consistency in their behavior. (p.166)

For many individuals the words and actions that they display throughout daily activities are musically related, and are quite probably genuine reflections of themselves.

In fact these musically related display’s (listening to music, playing instruments, selecting music, talking about music, going to see live music/DJ’s, exposure to music through businesses with outdoor speakers, seeking out and purchasing music, etc.) occur quite often and are a significant element of a person’s day to day existence. This is supported by the following studies focused on this social phenomenon. Mehl and

Pennebaker (2003) studied the social worlds of college students, and through electronic audio device sampling of their daily activities they found that music listening was a significant part of their daily activities. Fitzgerald, Joseph, Hayes, and Oregan, (1995)

69 found that adolescents spend a significant amount of daily time devoted to many activities surrounding music. Early research by Lyle and Hoffman (1972) found that around half of their participants who were adolescent males, listened to music for three hours a day, and the adolescent female participants listened to music for four hours a day.

Additional early research by Fischer and Heikes (1985) found that between 7th and 12th grades, adolescents spend approximately 10,500 hours listening to rock music, only 500 hours less than the total amount spent in class over the 12 school years. An examination of adult and adolescent music listening by North and Hargreaves (1999) showed that in their sample, music was a part of their participant’s daily experience, during 38.6% of the times they were observed for social experience. Music appears to be a significant element of people’s day to day social experience, and developing an understanding in the way in which an individual utilizes music to develop their social identity, appears to be quite relevant. The two seem to be inextricably linked and strongly correlated with one another. Before an examination of Social Identity and its connection to music begins, a clear definition of “social identity” is necessary to shed light on the concept being explored.

An Overview of Social Identity Theory

In the 1970’s, Henri Tajfel and John Turner developed the social psychology concept “Social Identity Theory” (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This theory revolves around three main concepts: Categorization, Identification, and Comparison.

Categorization is the internal process where a person uses social constructs (such as teacher, pastor, social worker, etc.) to put themselves into a specific category. This is a

70 way for the person to understand the way they fit into their social environment. People categorize things in order to understand them better. A person can understand their actual and desired place within society by the particular categories they and others put them in.

Identification, is the internal process where a person identifies with characteristics of a particular person and/or group. They feel that there is significant overlap in their own personal characteristics and the group they are identifying with. At times a person identifies as an individual, other times they identify as part of the group they identify with, and sometimes they may identify as both. A person’s social identity and personal identity are inextricably linked together. For the purposes of SIT, group membership through identification is not something that is just given to the person. Group memberships and group identity occur due to the fact that the person truly has overlap in significant characteristics to the identified group. It’s not just a desire to be part of another group.

Comparison, is the internal process, where an individual evaluates themselves through comparing themselves to similar others. A positive self concept (or self-esteem) is generated through this comparison. This self promoting process is enhanced, when an individual then compares the group that they identify with another group that they evaluate as “less than” their own group. Individuals tend to selectively choose who they compare themselves to, to insure that they will be seen or see themselves in a positive light. Tajfel and Turner (1979) found that this social comparison process was utilized by individuals to obtain specific results. These are: positive self identity, self esteem

(through in-group belonging), positive distinction (from being in the opposite group), positive feelings through opposite group degrading, and the benefits (perks) from the in-

71 group favoritism. This three part social identity process occurs not once, but it occurs regularly as the person interfaces with different people and situations. In SIT, there is not one “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to widening circles of group membership.

Social Identity and Erikson’s (1993) Theoretical Contributions

The concept of social identity is one which is relevant for people across their life span, but it is of particular relevance to individual’s navigating through their adolescent years. The period of adolescence is one in which issues of identity and social group interaction, are of extremely high priority. Developmental theorists such as Erik Erikson help explain normative experience through these years (Erikson, 1993). In Erikson’s eight stage developmental model, Erikson illustrates how the period between age 12 and age 18 (approximately) is a period where adolescents struggle with the developmental task he calls “identity development versus role confusion”. Essentially, successful identity development equates to an individual knowing who they are and how they fit into society. It requires that they take all they've learned about life and themselves and mold it into a unified self-image, one that their community finds meaningful. Role confusion, is the maladaptive outcome for an adolescent working through this stage. This may manifest in the adolescent not having a clear sense of who they are, which groups they belong to, and they may have a collection of fragmented and poorly developed identities which are not integrated or adaptive in their environment. Even though social identity appears to most relevant to those in their adolescent years, social identity is not a singular destination, it is a fluid and ever-changing process, and thus it is relevant to individuals

72 throughout the life span. Understanding a person’s social identity through their use of music appears to be useful regardless of age, but of significantly larger importance throughout the years of adolescence.

Predictive Value of Social Identity Theory and Music

In Tarrant, North, and Hargreaves (2001) study on social categorization, self- esteem, and musical preferences, evidence was gathered supporting their theory that SIT concepts, and musical preferences, are highly correlated with particular behavioral, cognitive, and affective states within adolescents. Their study focused on six particular hypotheses looking at theoretically predictable SIT outcomes. In their sample (97 male and female adolescents) they found that in male adolescents, musical preferences were significantly correlated with SIT predicted outcomes. The authors note (2001), “social identity theory may predict the behavior of adolescent groups when they make group comparisons along valued dimensions such as music” (p.576). Social Identity Theory was effective in predicting that this study’s adolescents, associated the in-group with music that was valued positively by the in-group (popular music, dance, etc.) This was found to happen to a greater extent than they associated the out-group with that same music.

Adolescents also associated music that they valued negatively with the out-group

(classical, jazz, country, etc.) to a greater extent than they associated the in-group with that music. With adolescents that had low self esteem levels, they had a tendency to distance the in-group more from the out-group in terms of its stated degree of liking for negatively valued music. In other words, they claimed that the in-group liked it less and the out-group liked it more.

73 Adolescent Communication, the Role of Social Identity and Music

Subsequent examinations by this research team (Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves,

2002) built upon this developing understanding of SIT and musical preferences. They found that adolescent’s statements about their musical preferences, also relayed non- musical information to individuals. They operationalized this dynamic, as a transfer of

“meta-information”. This non-musical information, consists of the interwoven qualities associated with the particular musical genre, song, band that an adolescent is stating that they have a personal preference for (i.e. aggressive nature/antisocial attitudes with punk rock, intellectual nature/high SES with classical music, etc.). In line with SIT theory, this exaggeration of group affiliation (in-group) during interpersonal interaction, can be understood as an individual’s attempt to increase self esteem (Comparison) and as an attempt to develop their own personal social identity (Categorization). Interpersonal interactions where musical preference statements are being made, are also based upon the

“impression management” plans of the individual (Hargreaves & North, 1999). Through stating particular musical preferences (real, fabricated, or a combination of both) an individual is able to present to others, particular qualities, alliances, views, etc. that they feel the others will believe about them, simply through their self-categorization. Relaying information about musical preferences as an impression management tool is one that is quite powerful, and it is one which can quickly relay multi-layer messages regarding an individual’s social identity. Depending on the motivations and level of honesty from the one presenting the musical preferences, a highly complex an accurate illustration can be given of the individual. If the presenter decides to be dishonest and deceptive

74 (consciously or unconsciously), a highly complex and inaccurate illustration can be concocted, depending on the believability of the fabrication. Tarrant, North, and

Hargreaves (2000) support these notions, as they found that people utilize music as a

“badge of identity” for others to see. This “badge” development process is thought to operate on two different levels, one reinforcing how the individual sees themselves and the other sending impression forming messages to others. The impression management process can take many forms, as musical preferences can be telegraphed through varying qualities and actions of the presenter. Musical preference can be relayed by: simple statements about favorite bands, songs, genre’s, comments about what a person doesn’t like, clothing/stylistic cues, geographic location (urban, rural, etc.), music selected/played around others, music played loudly in car so others can hear it, choice of leisure activities, places they go for recreation (bars, parties, etc.), gender, culture, their music collection, instrument selected and played, discussing their iPod playlist…the list goes on.

Identity Development and Musical Preferences

The powerful effect of music in developing social identity is pursued further in

MacDonald, Hargreaves, and Miell’s work (2002) attempting to categorize the effects.

They attempt to explain the development of individual behaviors and traits through examining the socio-cultural environment the individual exists in. They present two constructs to help define and categorize two major avenues for identity formation. The first, is “Identities In Music” (IIM). This is where an individual sees themselves primarily as a “musician”, “punk rocker”, “hippie”. Their musical preferences are their core

75 defining traits. The second, is “Music In Identities” (MII). This defines the process where an individual develops aspects of their personality through use of music. Musical preferences, use, and experience can drive and develop varying aspects of the individual.

This could manifest as a person develops a national identity, gender identity, etc. These two forms of identity development are not the only avenues posited for identity development. They are avenues some individuals may take who have strong connections and involvement with musical activities.

Positive Inter-group Attitude Development, SIT, and Music

Thus far, SIT has been shown to be highly effective in predicting musical preference development and musical use. However, research has been predominantly on adolescents and generalizations need to be made cautiously across the age range. The primary effect SIT and musical preference’s has been shown to provide so far, is inter- group differentiation. Next, research will be presented which will clarify the possible polar opposite effect of musical preferences and SIT, positive inter-group attitude development. In Bakadgiannis and Tarrant’s recent work (2006) they examined and produced this dynamic in a sample of adolescents attending high school in the United

Kingdom. They found that encouraging adolescent’s to focus on shared musical preferences helped them to re-categorize their thoughts about who was in their in-group and who was in the out-group. Emphasizing similarities amongst groups can help them to cognitively reorganize and to develop increased or decreased self esteem based upon the direction of the reorganization. The belief that musical preferences were shared amongst two groups, led to the perception that the out-group was going to perceive them more

76 positively. Shared musical preferences between two groups led to individuals believing that similarity on this one important variable meant that both groups were similar on a wide range of related and unrelated characteristics. The central question to this work, was

“Can music bring people together” (Bakadgiannis & Tarrant, 2006, p.134). Their conclusion was that this was quite evident amongst their sample, and they were the first to demonstrate this empirically. Their results showed that positive inter-group relations were facilitated by adolescent’s perceptions that their in-group musical preferences were similar to the contrasted out-group. A moving example of this process in action, was given (Bakadgiannis & Tarrant, 2006) related to the current Jewish-Arab conflict in the middle east. They highlight the positive inter-group attitudes of the Jewish-Arab Musical

Youth Orchestra, which developed out of common inter-group musical preferences. The orchestra was comprised of Jewish and Arab youth who chose to work together as orchestra musicians, and did so successfully. These shared musical preferences and musical experiences have triumphed over extreme geo-political forces driving a wedge between these two different cultural groups.

Closing Thoughts on Social Identity Theory and Music

The findings in this chapter give evidence to the powerful effect music has upon individuals (particularly adolescents) in their development of self concept, views on others, views about how they fit into the world, and the significant effect these can have on the adolescents self esteem and behaviors. Information about music appears to be a significant data point for adolescents, which they appear to utilize in cognitive strategies to understand and interface with the social world.

77 THE CLINICAL UTILITY OF MUSIC AS AN ASSESSMENT VARIABLE

Musically Guided Psychological Assessment, a Chapter Primer

In light of the research presented in previous chapter’s establishing strong links between music, emotions, personality, social identity, and their utility as assessment variables; an examination of ways to properly assess these variables is clearly warranted.

Assessment of music preferences, musical experience, and the way in which in which a client uses music, can be done in a multitude of ways. In fact, the range of possibilities is only limited by the creativity and resources available to the assessing clinician. Research by Unkefer and Thaut (2002), indicated that in musically guided psychological assessments, clinicians typically utilize one or a combination of the following assessment modalities. These include: interviewing (verbal or questionnaire), testing, observing, and reviewing existing data (archival research). This chapter will focus on these four musically guided assessment modalities.

Music Based Psychological Assessment, Verbal Inquiry Methods

In regard to the first and most obvious route, an assessor may simply ask the client about these variables and the way in which they may exist in the client’s life. The line of questioning may include inquiries such as: “What type of music do you like?”,

“What does this music say about you?”, “How have your musical interests changed over the years?”, “What do you think about or feel when you listen your favorite music?”,

“Where do you feel or sense the music in your body?”, “What type of music do you listen to when you are around other people?”. This is just a very limited sample of possible

78 music inquiry questions. This is a method that will provide information to a greater or lesser degree, depending on a variety of factors. First, is the client’s level of openness and honesty (Kazdin, 2003). A client may simply not be ready to discuss this topic or may not be truthful with the examiner. Also, due to the effect of “social desirability”, a client may censor, fabricate, or exaggerate their personal information based upon a desired appearance they may want to create for the examiner (Kazdin, 2003). A second factor which needs to be taken into consideration, is the long and short term memory capacity of the client and their ability to access this information (Kazdin, 2003). Musical preferences can include many different singers, genres, bands, composers, etc. and to accurately recall all of this information and present it coherently to an examiner would be quite difficult. Even for the individuals who are the most open, honest, musically inclined, and with the strongest recall abilities, being able to recall the full range of musical preferences they have, the varied effects they have, and the ways in which they use music, would be a feat that would be near impossible through simple verbal recall tasks.

Music Based Psychological Assessment, Questionnaire Guided Inquiry Methods

Another route to access a client’s musically related information would be to utilize a structured questionnaire. This method of inquiry could be conducted verbally, by the assessor asking questions from the questionnaire. Or it could be conducted by administering the questionnaire to the client as a paper and pencil test, to be completed without the involvement of the assessor. The questionnaire could be a collection of specific questions (open or closed ended) developed to gather musically related client information. Ideally, the questions would be based upon the theories and research which

79 help to identify factors that are most relevant for musical preferences, use, and experience. This approach would be subject to aforementioned difficulties associated with simple verbal question and answer. However, pre-constructed items could gather information in a more focused/specific manner and may help to make the assessment process more productive (Kazdin, 2003). A carefully constructed questionnaire could contain items that would allow the examiner to present tasks or questions which would allow the examinee to truly express their musical preferences if they chose to do so. A structured questionnaire would also increase inter-rater reliability during administration to multiple participants, and decrease the probability of intrasubject variability through variations in the examiners questions, methods, etc. (Kazdin, 2003). Next, will follow an overview of select empirical studies regarding psychology and music, which give evidence of the development and use of musically focused questionnaires. It appears that these musically focused questionnaires were developed to aide in musical assessment of clients that were involved in their experimental research. In other words, these are not standardized and normed tests. For the most part, they appear to be research tools designed specifically for the needs of the research study they are involved in. Examples of these questionnaires are as follows.

In Arnett’s study on musical preferences and reckless behavior (1992), he developed a paper and pencil “musical preferences questionnaire” specifically for his particular study. The musical preference questionnaire consisted of questions and rating tasks related to musical preferences. The questionnaire gave a wide range of genre examples, examples of performers within the genre’s, and opportunities to rank preferences and describe which ones they liked or disliked. Examples of genres

80 categorized in the questionnaire include: acoustic pop, jazz, classical, mainstream rock, hard rock, and heavy metal, and “other.”

In Zuckerman and Little’s research on sensation seeking and music preferences

(1985), they developed a paper and pencil “musical preference scale” (MPS) specifically for their particular study. The MPS consisted of 75 questions, including ratings of preferences for established music, musical activity, and demographic data. Sixty of the items were specifically related to musical preferences, and these were pooled from 150 items identified in a factor analysis. The genres of rock, classical, electronic, jazz, soul/rhythm/blues, popular, country/western, folk/ethnic, religious, Broadway, TV, and soundtrack were the key factors which were identified. These genres were found to be reflective of their time periods (1985) commercial recording industry divisions. Each question about liking for a particular genre included an example of a performer of the genre. The examinee had opportunity to rate which genres were like, disliked, and to what degree.

In North, Hargreaves, and O’Neil’s study on the importance of music to adolescents (2000), they developed a paper and pencil test specifically for their particular study. They developed an eight-page questionnaire consisting of 28 items. Each item required an examinee to respond using a 10-point rating scale in which 0 represented the low portion of the scale and 10 represented the high portion. The questionnaire asked examinee’s about the degree of involvement they have with musical activities, to rate the importance of music in relation to other leisure activities, and to rate the importance of varying factors which might determine why they and other people of their age and sex might listen to/perform pop and classical music.

81 In Schwartz and Fouts study on musical preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents (2003), they designed a paper and pencil questionnaire that was built upon previous musical preference research . This questionnaire was a minimally modified version of Finnas’ questionnaire designed from his earlier research on adolescent musical preferences (1987). This questionnaire assessed music preferences based on qualities of music that listeners prefer, rather than particular styles-genre’s and/or representative performers. Thirteen qualities of music were presented to be rated by each examinee. These included: “romantic and dreamy”, “mild and quiet”, “sad and gloomy”, peaceful and relaxing”, soft and tender”, “serious and thoughtful”, “good-natured and kind”, “upsetting and protesting”, “tough and hard”,

“loud, played at a great volume”, “wild and violent”, “played with many guitars”, and

“played at a fast tempo”. Examinee’s were asked to rate how much they like the music

(described by each quality), on a 5-point Likert scale. Music involvement was assessed by asking examinee’s to determine how much time they spent listening to music during each day of the week.

These four examples are representative of the types of questionnaires utilized by researchers examining musical preferences, use, experience, and associated individual characteristics. They all appear to be designed specifically to measure the musical factors which their research study is attempting to examine. Though some researchers attempt to build their questionnaires on relevant theory, research and practice, they are still research tools that fall far short from the requirements that most standardized psychological tests require. These questionnaires appear to have great face validity, but beyond that, it is

82 unclear how valid and reliable these questionnaires are as measures of music related qualities in an individual.

Essentials of Standardized Psychological Tests

In general, for a measure to be considered a standardized psychological test it must meet rigorous demands in many key areas. Groth-Marnat (2000) identifies five main areas where a psychological test must meet strict requirements, to be considered as a valid standardized psychological test. First, is the theoretical orientation of the test. The theoretical construct that the test is supposed to measure should have strong support in the scientific literature. Also, the test should assess the construct based upon supporting theories. Second, are the practical considerations regarding the test. These pertain to the administration specifics, length of test, cultural appropriateness, ways to gather data, etc., that affect the tests ability to measure what it is designed to measure. Third, is the standardization of the test. This refers to the development and adequacy of norms for the test. The meaning of test scores directly relate to the similarity between the individual being tested and the sample the test utilized. Fourth, is the reliability of the test. This refers to the degree of stability, consistency, predictability, and accuracy of the test. Key elements of reliability are test-retest reliability, alternate forms, split-half reliability, and inter-scorer reliability. The fifth and most crucial area, is the validity of the test. This refers to the degree to which a test is able to measure what it is intended to measure, as well as produce information that is useful to clinicians. Key elements of validity are: content validity, criterion validity, face validity, construct validity, conceptual validity, discriminant validity, and convergent validity. Validity is not seen as an absolute, but

83 rather it refers to the range of validity the test may have for a specific group of people or particular context.

So far, a bottom up examination of musical assessment procedures, illuminates verbal questioning and then structured questionnaires as the first two methods typically utilized in musical assessment. Examination of protocol for standardized test development helps to put their utility as proper psychological assessment into perspective. The potential weaknesses of these two approaches were clearly noted, as simple questioning and questionnaires do not meet the criteria for standardized psychological testing. Looking at the next logical step in the evolution of musical assessment procedures, are examples of standardized psychological tests which have been designed to assess intrapsychic characteristics as they relate to musical variables.

Standardized Music Based Psychological Assessments

Examination of early standardized music based psychological tests, begins with the work of famous social psychologist Raymond Cattell. Cattel and Anderson (1953) developed the “Institute for Personality and Ability Testing (I.P.A.T.) Musical Preference

Test”, as their personality research supported “measures of musical preference as effective avenues to deeper aspects of personality’ (Cattell & Anderson, 1953, p. 446).

The I.P.A.T. Musical Preference Test, consisted of a 12-inch long-playing record, reproducing 100 half-minute music excerpts (50 on one side, Form A, and an equivalent

50 on the other, Form B). Except for the first and last three factors in the test, there are ten items provided to measure each factor. This test measured 11 factors, which equate to

11 differing types of music dynamics (“fast”, “slow and simple”, “sad”, etc.). A factor

84 analysis of 120 diverse music excerpts resulted in the 11 factors being chosen. The testing procedures consisted of the record being played to the participants, and having the participant rate the musical piece as either liked, intermediate (between like and dislike), or disliked. This test was standardized on a normal population of 380 student and non- student adults ranging from 18 to 68 years of age. Further research of the utility of this musical test, showed it as an effective test to assess personality traits in individuals hospitalized for psychotic disorders (Cattel & Anderson, 1953). In this particular study, the I.P.A.T Musical Preference Test results were contrasted with the results from another standardized psychological test of that time period, the 16 Personality Factor

Questionnaire (16 P.F.) and a great deal of convergent validity between the two tests was uncovered. Cattel and Anderson (1953) state, “Application of the Music Preference Test to 98 patients in mental hospitals revealed several factor measure differences, significant at the 1% level, between psychotics and normals between various psychotic syndrome groups. If confirmed on further samples these pattern differences are so marked as to make the test a valuable adjunct to psychiatric diagnosis” (p. 454). Though this research is quite old it provides compelling evidence that a properly designed standardized musical preference psychological test, holds the promise of significant assessment information. Subsequent research by Healy (1973), showed that the IPAT music

Preference Test of Personality, was a reliable psychological test in assessing hospitalized psychiatric patients. However, he also found that there were problems in some areas with validity. The test appeared to have difficulty assessing the onset of psychiatric illness based upon musical preferences.

85 In the early 1960’s, research and wide spread use of the Thematic Apperception

Test (TAT), stimulated interest in projective tests. This included research by Bean and

Moore (1964), when they began exploring novel methods of assessment with schizophrenic patients. Their research attempted to develop a projective psychological test which would operate in similar ways to the TAT. However, instead of visual stimuli being presented, they experimented with the effects of auditory stimuli on the patient.

They ultimately developed the Sound Apperception Test (SAT). The purpose of the SAT, was to use the auditory stimuli to facilitate fantasy production and increase verbalizations in the schizophrenic client. This route was seen as particularly useful, as schizophrenics tend to be more receptive to sound than language, picture, or objects. The SAT auditory stimuli, consisted of 16 semi-structured sound patterns. These were essentially altered everyday environmental sounds. The test was normed, through administering the SAT to

500 “normal” participants. After norms were established, 24 Schizophrenic patients were presented with 16 pictures from the TAT and 16 sound patterns from the SAT.

Participants were evaluated on their total word count along with the amount of fantasy production under each test condition and classified as either visually dominant (high score of TAT) or auditory predominant (high score or SAT). Limited use of SAT by Bean and Moore (1964) showed that the SAT held promise as a screening tool to see whether an individual would benefit from auditory based assessment/intervention, and whether they would be good candidates for music therapy.

Research by Van den Daele (1967) examined the use of musical stimuli in generating fantasy within schizophrenic patients. This musically based psychological test, was administered by playing a standardized selection of one minute musical excerpts.

86 Scoring was based upon the verbal reactions the patient had to the musical excerpts. The test was based upon four theories and findings that the researcher uncovered to support this approach. The first, was that he found that music is an excellent stimulus for fantasy production. The second, was that the task of verbalizing after a sound stimulus has ended, often results in mere identification of sound without fantasy production. The third, is that redundancy in music ensures a continuity of the stimulus so the participant is not overwhelmed by excessive change. The fourth, is that information concerning the participant’s response to ongoing variation is potentially important diagnostic information. This could be related to the adaptive abilities of the patient to the world at large. Norms for this test were developed off of relatively small samples. Twenty state hospital patients (schizophrenics) and twenty college students were administered this test and results were compared. The schizophrenic patients had longer reaction time before verbalization to music, spoke less while the music played but more between excerpts of music, and made more references to animal content than human content during the test.

The college student sample, generated stories that were more in alignment with the music stimulus (i.e. depressing story from a slow musical piece). The author concluded that this test was a reliable and valid test, though there is no evidence of replication studies which support this notion.

In Pavlicevic and Tevarthen’s (1989) development of a standardized music based test, they compared the results from their Music Improvisation Rating (MIR) test between a psychiatric group (depressed and schizophrenic) and a non-psychiatric group (No evidence of depression or schizophrenia). The researchers examined three key domains within their participants: musical background, musical perception, and ratings of musical

87 improvisation. They found that both groups did not differ significantly in regard to their musical background as measured by the “Index of Musical Experience”. In the “Musical

Perception Test” portion of the examination, groups differed significantly on measures of pitch and rhythm discrimination. To determine the overall “Musical Improvisation

Rating”, improvised subject performance on the bongos and marimbas was evaluated.

Examination of the scores (using a standardized six level analysis), showed that participants with schizophrenia were significantly less involved with and unable to be as musically responsive to the therapist. Schizophrenic patients showed significant impairment (compared to the non-psychiatric group) in their abilities for two-way communication and disorganization in musical improvisation. The author concluded that this tool demonstrated sensitivity and reliability as a psychiatric diagnostic tool.

Subsequent research by Pavlicevic (1994), expanded the measurement levels of the MIR, and showed some additional evidence of the MIR’s utility in psychiatric diagnosis. This revised version was purported to have the increased sensitivity to distinguish between differing psychiatric diagnoses (depression, psychosis, schizophrenia, etc.) and sensitivity to measure changes in functioning within chronic schizophrenics.

Research by Migliore (1991) examined the relationship between a test of rhythmic competency and the psychomotor subtest of the Hamilton Rating Scale for

Depression. Significant negative correlations were uncovered between particular subtests on the rhythm test and the Hamilton’s psychomotor subtest. Test administration occurred with 26 endogenously depressed inpatient adult patients. Replication of this study

(Cohen, 1985) with manic and non manic psychotic inpatient hospital patients showed some ability in this approach to discriminate with differential diagnosis. Manic inmates

88 scored significantly higher on measures of rhythmicity and tempo performance on a drum.

Established standardized psychological tests have also been utilized to examine the psychological effects of music on patients. In Greenberg and Fischer’s early work

(1971), they administered the TAT, the Draw-A-Person test, the Bass Famous Saying test, and the Buss-Durke Hostility Scale, to subjects in two different musical conditions.

Forty female participants were differentially administered these tests during exposure to

“calming” background music and “exciting” background music. Results from the projective tests picked up differences in “hostility” scores based upon music condition.

Exciting music produced more female power themes and high hostility themes on the

TAT, along with taller figures on the Draw-A-Person test. In a related study (McFarland,

1984), college participants were exposed to three different conditions (no music being played, “calming” music, or “tension-producing” music) and were give an ambiguous picture from the TAT to respond to. Significant differences were found in the sixty stories collected, dependent on the experimental condition they were exposed to.

Braswell, Brooks, Decuir, Humphrey, Jacobs, and Sutton (1983; 1986) developed the Music/Activity Therapy Intake Assessment for Psychiatric Patients to assess psychosocial functioning, self-concept, interpersonal relationships, and altruism/optimism. This test gathers information from self-report, through patient completion of a questionnaire. This test established its norms through administration to

214 university students and 93 institutionalized psychiatric patients. They found that the attitude scales displayed internal consistency for both the patient and student samples, meaning the scales measured independent attitudinal domains. Two of the three scales

89 were found to discriminate significantly (p<.05) among the groups of university students.

Among the institutionalized psychiatric patients, all three measures discriminated significantly (p<.01). “Self concept” scores were found to have the strongest ability to discriminate between psychiatric and non-psychiatric populations.

In Egler’s research (1986) on evaluating and modifying the social behaviors of the mentally ill, she furthered research linking the Day Treatment Client Assessment

(DTCA) and data collected through music therapy sessions. She determined the concurrent validity and reliability of the Social Skills Subscale through comparison of music therapy session data. Items were assessed in a standardized fashion from the music therapy session. These musically related variables included: eye contact, appropriate conversation, nonverbal communication, group participation/socialization, assertion, and risk taking. The author concluded that the sessions may be a valid setting for assessing the social behavior of the mentally ill, as music therapy sessions can be structured to elicit many social skills and deficiencies within them.

Cassity and Cassity (1996) developed a test to help with diagnostic procedures in psychiatric settings. The test is called the Psychiatric Music Therapy Questionnaire

(PMTQ). The test consists of a 90 item inventory assessing music preference, non-music behavior, and post-interview observations. This test is based upon a multi-modal therapy model (behavioral, cognitive, affective, etc.). In related unpublished research (Anderson

& Krebaum, 1998) examining correlational findings between the PMTQ and other more established standardized psychological tests, the PMTQ showed ability to assist in the psychiatric diagnostic process within psychiatric inpatient settings.

90 A popular method of assessment within the world of music therapy (Bonny,

1980), is the “Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music” (GIM). This approach generally involves a verbal interview and then if necessary, some relevant form of standardized psychological test. The interview typically covers issues related to sleep/dream patterns, music background/preferences, ways the client uses music in their life, and experiences with relaxation techniques. Non-verbal communication is also assessed during the interview. Key areas that are assessed include: structure of thought process, focusing abilities, concentration, range of affect, ego strengths, and defense mechanisms. If necessary, projective tests such as the TAT, standardized depression/anxiety inventories, and personality scales are administered to ascertain convergent and divergent validity. In later sessions, the client may be exposed to musical conditions and their unique response is assessed and interpreted. Of great importance, is the mental imagery that is generated by the music. Assessment methods of the imagery follow standardized scaling procedures. These procedures scale the content, vividness, classification, and client integration in the imagery.

Fast forward to current times, cutting edge social psychologists Rentfrow and

Gosling (2006) provide their example of a standardized musical preference test, the Short

Test of Musical Preferences (STOMP). The STOMP was developed out of research that found that when people discuss their musical preferences, they tend to do so first at the level of genres and then to a lesser degree at the subgenre level (Jellison & Flower,

1991). A factor analysis of 80 music genres representing all of the most influential genres in current western culture, illuminated 14 main music genre’s that are most popular and representative currently. These genres are: alternative, blues, classical, country,

91 electronica/dance, folk, heavy metal, rap/hip hop, jazz, pop, religious, rock, soul/funk, and sound tracks. Next, an exploratory factor analysis of these 14 genres showed that these genres were correlated (to varying degrees) with four separate musical dimensions.

First, they found that blues, jazz, classical, and folk music, were strongly loaded on

“Reflective and Complex” dynamics. Second, they found that rock, alternative, and heavy metal, were loaded strongly with “Intense and Rebellious” dynamics. Third, they found that country, sound track, religious, and pop music, were strongly loaded on

“Upbeat and Conventional” dynamics. Fourth, they found that rap/hip hop, soul/funk, and electronica/dance music, were strongly loaded on “Energetic and Rhythmic” dynamics.

This test was standardized (through three separate studies) on a sample of 3,500 adults of varying ethnicities, geographic locations, age, and gender. Finally, Rentfrow and Gosling

(2003) computed correlations between the scores on the STOMP and scores on well established standardized tests, which measure personality, self-views, and cognitive ability (i.e. Beck Depression Inventory, Big Five Inventory, Wonderlic I.Q. test, etc.).

Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) note, “The correlations presented in Table 3 reveal a fascinating pattern of links between music preferences and personality, self-views, and cognitive ability” (p.1248). The STOMP is available online at http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/Gosling/scale.

These examples of music based psychological tests, shed light on the significant assessing power music holds as an assessment variable. With increasing incorporation of proper research methods, assessing musical preference, use, and experience increases in validity. This is not to discount more basic assessment procedures (verbal questioning & questionnaires), as standardized musical preference tests are still in the beginnings stages

92 of their development and use. Dependent on the specific information a clinician may need regarding musical preferences, simple questioning, questionnaires from past research, or a custom-constructed questionnaire may provide necessary information regarding the variable being assessed. More standardized tests are in need of development to provide a variety of measurement tools to assess not only musical preferences, but also to measure musical experience, and how a person uses music.

The Field of Music Therapy and their Music Based Approaches to Assessment

In the related discipline of music therapy, there exists much evidence of the use of music assessments aimed at gathering information about the intra-psychic world of the therapy client. The following will be a sampling of highly respected and representative research, theory, and practice illustrating the role of assessment in music therapy.

Unkefer and Thaut (2002) note that music therapists are well trained in observational methods, and typically assess clients through observational assessment of their musical behaviors in natural, unstructured, or contrived structure settings. Research by Bruscia

(1988), illustrates the importance of proper assessment before implementing a music based intervention. Bruscia identified five general goals for a proper music therapy assessment. The first goal, is diagnosis. This is accomplished by using the music experience to assist in detecting, defining, and classifying the problem. Music therapy research literature is referenced, and the clients response to music stimuli is used to indicate a level of pathology. The second goal, is description. This is done through understanding more about the client within the context of the client’s own world. The third goal, is interpretation. This is done by providing a theoretical basis for the client’s

93 problems through analysis of the musical responses of the client. The fourth goal, is prescription. This is done by using the music experience to determine whether music therapy services are needed. If services are determined to be necessary, a specific therapeutic approach is tailored to fit the needs of the client. The fifth goal, is evaluation.

This is the process similar to the assessment, but it is one which establishes a basis for determining progress.

Reasoning for a music therapy based assessment, was specified by Unkefer and

Thaut (2002) in their research on assessment of adult psychiatric clients. This particular population was identified as one which would benefit greatly from the complementary services of a music therapy based assessment. Number one, each patient interacts with music in a unique way, and this provides unique opportunity to understand the characteristics of the patient and their interactional style. Number two, this type of assessment does not need to be limited by traditional visual, verbal, and kinesthetic modes of testing. A music therapy assessment offers the opportunity to observe the client’s response to auditory, yet nonverbal, stimuli. Particular skills are ideally suited for assessment within a musical context. Auditory perception and memory may be tested through singing a song. Verbal and non-verbal responses to a musical piece may reveal either healthy or incongruent social and emotional patterns of behavior. Number three, a music therapist can integrate the data from their assessment along with the data from other disciplines assessment (psychiatry, social work, psychology, etc.). This provides opportunity to develop a program plan that includes goals that focus on the client’s needs while defining the steps necessary for achieving the goals. Number four, music therapists have developed many complementary assessment techniques which comply with

94 managed care, accreditation, hospital expectations, and guidelines put out by regulatory agencies.

A recent examination (Gregory, 2000) of the assessment tools utilized by music therapists in music therapy research, showed that music therapists utilize a significant amount of non-musical psychological tests in their assessment of clients. The study examined all research studies published in the Journal of Music Therapy from 1984 to

1997. This examination showed that in 183 qualifying research studies, around 50% used some type of non-music based test. Examples of the non-music based tests utilized in these particular research studies include: the Spielberger State/Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Beck Depression Inventory II, the Schedule for Affective Disorders of Schizophrenia, and the Global Assessment of Functioning

Scale. A total of 115 tests were found to be utilized within this sample, and of this 115, only 25 were music based tests. Of these 25 tests, the majority were not standardized.

They were mostly designed by the researchers for the specific needs of their research study.

In Lowey’s study on music therapy assessment (2000), a picture evolved of current and past practices specific to Music Therapy assessment. The most common practice that was identified, was an assessment where music therapists utilize standard forms instructing specific musically related behavioral tasks. This was found to be a less effective manner of musical assessment. Loewy proposed an approach with thirteen

“areas of inquiry” for the therapist, to develop a holistic view of the client. These areas include: awareness of self, others, and the moment, thematic expression, listening, performing, collaboration/relationship concentration; range of affect

95 investment/motivation, use of structure, integration; self esteem, risk taking; and independence. Lowey described experiential in-session music creating activities which can generate information regarding these areas of inquiry. Examples of these include: evaluation of a client’s ability to share and work with therapist while playing musical instruments, communication of musical needs/wants from client, type of song or musical dynamic that the client is drawn towards or repelled by, emotional reactivity to certain songs or instruments, issues client begins to think about during music experience, ability to concentrate and focus while learning songs on an instrument, the clients response to structure or lack of structure in a song, and client reasoning regarding instrument choice.

These are just a few of the creative and relevant music therapy assessment techniques identified by Lowey (2000). These methods are based upon existing theory and research within the field of music therapy, but their efficacy has not been empirically validated.

Psychological Assessment, Music, and Self-report Limitations

In examining the ways in which musical preferences can be assessed, in-session methods (including verbal questioning, paper and pencil questionnaires, standardized psychological assessments, and experiential music therapy assessments) have been examined as potential avenues for assessment. These methods show strong potential for assessment, but are limited by their strengths or weaknesses related to scientific method.

In addition, these assessment methods (besides observation of experiential exercises) are primarily self-report in design, and are limited by the constraints related to client self- report. These constraints center around two primary issues (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).

The first, is that recall of an event is at the mercy of the subjective interpretation of the

96 client. When a client attempts to access information about an event, many layers of filtering and unique associations by the client, may produce an explanation of events which could be quite different than which actually occurred. The second, is that individuals can only recall that which they are aware of. At any given moment an individual is being exposed to an unimaginable amount of potential information. Only a small amount of this information actually enters into a person’s awareness. Ultimately, for the brain to not become overloaded or overworked unnecessarily, sensory filters only allow a small amount of situationally relevant information to be attended to. These two factors illustrate the main problems associated with self report, and are limitations to be considered when considering using musical based assessment procedures utilizing self- report.

Archival Research and the Integration of Music in Assessment

An assessment approach that does not present with the limitations of self report is assessment of an individual through “archival research” (Kazdin, 2003) or the

“experience sampling method” (Czikszentmihalyi & Lefevre, 1989). Archival research, is a research method which eliminates reactivity effects in participants. It enables one to gather data about an individual without fear that the experimenter’s hypothesis or actions will influence the data themselves (Kazdin, 2003). The “experience sampling method”, is a naturalistic research method, where participants are randomly evaluated throughout their regular undisturbed days to examine what they are doing (Czikszentmihalyi &

Lefevre, 1989). Gathering data about musical preferences, use, and experience from an individual’s undisturbed day to day life would be an ideal way of gathering data which

97 could be truly reflective of their actual musical experience. Prior studies which relied heavily on experimental methods to research the psychology of music, have the advantage of experimental control, but they lack the “ecological or real life validity” that naturalistic research has to offer (Kazdin, 2003). Highly controlled experimental studies on musical preference, experience, and use, provide valuable data on the micro level, but they lack the contextual and social factors that are typically intertwined with music.

These experimental studies have the potential to be highly artificial and may only produce results reflective of their controlled conditions. One advantage of archival research methods (unobtrusive), is that they can supplement more commonly used techniques thereby adding strength to the external validity of experimental findings

(Kazdan, 2003). Hargreaves, Marshall, and North (2003) reflect on their own naturalistic social psychology research regarding musical preferences, experience, and use:

These studies combine the advantages of using real-life music listening situations and retaining a good deal of experimental control. Another approach is to collect information about the music listening experiences of people in everyday, real-life contexts in ways that are as naturalistic as possible. (p.151)

An examination of current musical listening experiences of people in everyday, real-life contexts illuminates the existence of a device which would appear to provide a wealth of information about a person’s musical preferences, experience, and use… the digital audio player. Next will follow an examination of the digital audio player. It is the logical choice for assisting a music based psychological assessment, in light of aforementioned research which clearly shows that there are clear connections between music and a person’s intra- psychic world, there is a growing trend toward computerized and digital assessment, and

98 assessment of a person’s real life musical experience provides richer and more ecologically valid data.

Digital Audio Player History and the Emergence of the iPod

The digital audio player (DAP) is a handheld device that stores, organizes, and plays digital music files. It is currently the most advanced and versatile handheld device available to use, manipulate, and experience music. The term "Digital Audio Player" and the acronym "DAP" were first popularized in 2003 (Levy, 2006), as the name and focus of the website DAPreview.net. News editors at Engadget.com, adopted the term and the acronynm for a computer related blog that was quite popular at the time (Levy, 2006).

Since then, these terms have become a common way of referencing these devices among the tech-savvy. There are also a multitude of alternate names for this particular device which include: MP3 player, digital audio recorder, portable media assistant, external data storage devices, portable media players, digital music players, digital music jukebox, electronic music player, etc. Depending on the configuration of the device, the options it has, and the company which is manufacturing it; the name and categorization differ slightly unit to unit. Here is a brief history of the DAP, from recent beginnings to the current state of affairs. The precursors to DAPs were the MiniDisc players and portable

CD players popular in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s (neither being generally considered a "digital audio player"). The first DAP commercially available in the world was created by South Korean SaeHan Information Systems in 1997, which was acquired by iRiver in 2004 (Levy, 2006). In fall of 1998, the second DAP (also considered the first mass market player) appeared on the commercial market as the Rio PMP 300 from

99 Diamond Multimedia (Levy, 2006). The Rio was a big success during the Christmas

1998 season as sales significantly exceeded expectations, spurring interest and investment in digital music (Levy, 2006). The arrival of Apple Computer's iPod in 2001

(combined with the opening of the iTunes Store in 2003 that created the legal music download business) greatly expanded the market (Levy, 2006). Since then, a large number of new DAP’s have been released, each promising to be an "iPod Killer".

Currently, an overview of the most widely utilized DAP’s show 13 major and 11 minor

DAP devices available in the world market. The 13 major DAP’s include: Apple Ipod,

Archos, Cowon, Creative (Nomad, Zen, & MuVo), Iriver, LG, Microsoft Zune, Phillips

Go Gear, RCA Lyra, Samsung Yepp, Sandisk Sansa, Sony Walkman, Playstation

Portable, and Toshiba Gigabeat (Levy, 2006). The 11 minor DAP devices include: Aigo,

Apacer, Meizu (M6 Mini Player), MobiBlU, MPIO, Packard Bell (Audiodream), Q-Be,

Transcend T. Sonic, Sweex, X-Micro, and Zvue (Levy, 2006). These are the many companies that are developing and marketing DAP’s, but none compare to the product quality, unit sales, and product marketing of the Apple iPod. Since October 2004, the iPod has dominated DAP sales in the United States, with over 90% of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70% of the market for all types of digital media players

(Sharpe & Arewa, 2007). From January 2004 to January 2005, the high rate of Ipod sales caused its U.S. market share to increase from 31% to 65%, and in July 2005 this market share was measured at 74% (Sharpe & Arewa, 2007). Current estimates of Apple’s dominance in the DAP market show that the iPod holds a 72% share of the multi-billion dollar market (Sharpe & Arewa, 2007). Microsoft’s supposed answer to the iPod and main competition (named the “Zune”), holds merely a 2.8% share of the DAP market

100 (Sharpe & Arewa, 2007). Due to the dominance and prominence of the iPod in the DAP market, this project is going to look specifically at the Apple iPod as it potentially relates to client music and assessment. Latest sales figures (04/09/07) for the Apple iPod show that Apple has sold over 100,000,000 total units since the iPod was first publicly offered in October of 2001, and is the fastest selling music player in history (Sharpe & Arewa,

2007). Most of these iPod sales have occurred in the United States. During the 2006

Christmas season alone, Apple sold a staggering 21 million iPod's, accounting for $3.5 billion in sales and grew the company’s revenue by 50 % (Levy, 2006). IPod sales for the fiscal year of 2006, averaged out to 106,891 iPod units being sold each day (Sharpe &

Arewa, 2007). Sale estimates for the iPod continue to be shattered by better than expected results (Sharpe & Arewa, 2007). Clearly, there exists a significant number of individuals who own iPod's, and the number of individuals who will be seeking out ownership of an iPod is growing exponentially. Due to the large number of iPod’s within the general population, it is highly probable that a client entering psychotherapy would own and utilize one.

Next, will be an exploration of how the Apple iPod and the supporting website

Apple iTunes, may potentially be used during a music focused assessment of a therapy client. Kazdin (2003), hints at the growing relationship between computers and psychological assessment, “With various palm-held computer devices, wireless phones, and Internet technological advances, the potential of computerized assessment has yet to be exploited” (p.384). But before that discussion begins, an overview of the iPod and

101 iTunes is necessary to identify the key elements and functions that make these two items useful within an assessment procedure.

Overview of Apple iPod Specifications

The Apple iPod, is a DAP that was originally designed to store, manipulate, and play digital musical files. The iPod is a small handheld device ranging in weight from

0.55 ounces up to 5.5 ounces. Dimensions range from 1.62 x 1.07 x 0.41 inches up to 4.1 x 2.4 x 0.55 inches (Kelby, 2006). There are five generations of iPod’s, with the first generation coming on to the market in 2001 (Levy, 2006). Currently, the fifth generation iPod is on the market, and has evolved into a much more versatile device. In fact, the most advanced versions of the iPod currently on the market, could be better described as digital media players (DMP’s), because they not only play songs, they play video, play podcasts, play games, and display pictures. All iPod’s can play MP3, AAC/M4A, protected AAC, AIFF, WAV, Audible audiobook, Apple Lossless, and audio file formats

(Kelby, 2006). These are the different formats of digitally recorded music that the iPod can play. The current (fifth generation) iPod DMP’s introduced the ability to display

JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG image file formats as well (Kelby, 2006). These are the different formats of digitally recorded pictures that the Ipod can display. Fifth generation iPods can additionally play MPEG-4, (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) and QuickTime video formats, with restrictions on video dimensions, encoding techniques and data-rates

(Kelby, 2006). These are the different formats of digitally recorded video that the iPod can play. The iPod is currently offered in six different models, each offering different features and a memory system ranging from 1 gigabyte (1GB) all the way up to 80

102 gigabytes (80GB’s). The 1GB iPod holds only digital audio files and has the capacity to hold 240 songs. The 80 GB iPod has the capacity to hold up to 20, 000 songs, or 25, 000 photos, or 100 hours of video with associated audio (Kelby, 2006). Clearly the iPod is a highly versatile and technologically advanced device which is state of the art in regards to musical storage, manipulation, and use.

IPod and iTunes, Potential Integration in Music Based Psychological Assessment

The use of the iPod goes hand in hand with the computer based program that supports the iPod, named “iTunes” (Kelby, 2006). Itunes is a computer based digital media player application, introduced by Apple during the winter of 2001 at the Macworld

Expo (Levy, 2006). It is designed for playing and organizing digital music and video files. Itunes feeds the iPod its contents. Itunes is also an interfacing program used to manage the contents of the iPod. Also, iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store (via internet connection) in order to download digital music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, various podcasts, and feature length films (Levy, 2006). ITunes is extremely user friendly and provides a multitude of ways to search, analyze, and manipulate data regarding an individual’s musical preferences, musical use, and musical experience. The most significant feature of iTunes, is that it provides a highly detailed list of an individual’s music collection. The software on iTunes allows one to sort the music collection by song name, time length of song, artist, album, and genre (Kelby, 2006).

Additionally, the software allows one to sort the music collection through custom settings

(beats per minute, composer, category, year, etc.), play count (number of times song has been played), and last played (time stamp when song was last played). The software also

103 allows for the music collection use, to be categorized and archived as “playlists” (Kelby,

2006). The playlists feature, archives the individuals “top rated” songs, “recently added” songs, “recently played” songs, “top 25 most played” songs, collections of “party shuffles” (which are randomly generated song playlists), and collections of playlists (list of songs selected to be played in a particular order) that the individual has personally created (Kelby, 2006). These are just the main features available on iTunes to manipulate an individual’s music collection. There are many other features which allow very specific searching and analysis. Without a doubt, the iTunes is a powerhouse in its utility as an assessment tool of an individual’s musical preferences, experience, and use. Though it was not primarily designed as a tool to assist in psychological assessment, its user friendly interface (i.e. no formal training need/self explanatory format), integrated tutorials/web based technical support, zero cost for use and acquisition, sophisticated data analysis capabilities, and ease of access (just have a computer and an internet connection), make it a highly compelling choice when considering an instrument to assist in a musically focused psychological assessment. Access to a client’s iPod and iTunes, clearly gives the assessor access to a vast amount of information about musical preferences, musical use patterns, musical experience, music purchasing behaviors, time frame’s for musical use, and many other musically related bits of information, in an unobtrusive manner which eliminates many of the reactivity effects of commonly utilized assessment techniques. In the upcoming “Discussion” chapter an analysis of the preceding chapters will explore the synthesis of music, intra-psychic factor’s, psychological assessment, and the iPod.

104 CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

Summary

This doctoral project was a comprehensive literature review which examined music and its interplay with emotions, personality, and social identity. The relevance of these connections were examined as they relate to psychological assessment. A review of current psychological assessment research showed emotions, personality, and social identity to be key elements of a comprehensive psychological assessment. These findings lent support for the examination of music as a novel assessment tool.

A historical overview of the field of psychology showed psychological assessment as a key component of the field’s therapeutic approach. An examination of the field of psychology’s use of music as an assessment variable, illuminated a mere handful of empirical investigations into music’s utility in clinical practice. A historical overview of music and the healing arts, gave evidence that music has been used consistently throughout modern civilizations to treat a full range of physical and psychological ailments. In the past century, the utilization of music to assess and treat physical and psychological ailments has developed into a field unto itself (Music

Therapy). Music Therapists have developed their own scientific and research based methods, which have generated evidenced based music treatments for psychological disorders.

The first goal of this doctoral project was to explore how licensed psychotherapists can increase their ability to assess clients, through integration of

105 research and theory regarding client musical preference, experience, and use. The second goal, was to examine the full range of psychological assessment options available currently, which incorporate music as an assessment variable.

The first section of the literature review examined the connection between music and emotions. Research showed that self-regulating emotional states was a key factor behind music listening. Musical genre, musical structure, and music dynamics were found to be key elements which affected an individual’s emotional state during music listening experiences. Music appears to have a significant effect upon an individual’s brain activity and the physiological systems involved in emotional response. Areas of the brain which appeared to show significant activation during emotional response to music include: the amygdala, ventral striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, striatum, hippocampus, and cerebellum. Physiologic systems which appear to show significant activation during emotional response to music include: heart, lungs, skin, muscle, hormones, and nervous system. Emotional response to music appeared to be linked to the subjective experience of musical consonance and/or dissonance. Gender appears to play a role in music’s emotional activation effects. There is some evidence that men and women interpret music differently and may do so according to socialized gender roles. The perceived emotionality of a musical piece and the decision regarding likeability, may differ depending on gender. Development of musical preferences appear to be affected significantly by the music’s ability to activate emotions within the listener. This process appears to be highly individualized, as the optimal level and type of emotion being activated varies from individual to individual. There is some evidence that music contains emotional symbolism, and across cultures, some can identify similar emotions in

106 particular musical sounds, songs, instruments, etc. Music listening appears to provide some anxiolytic effects for listeners experiencing physical pain. The utilization of music within the working environment showed some promise in generating positive emotional states and increasing productivity. Leading musical theorists have made attempts at explaining music’s emotion activating effects, and this project has examined such leading theories developed by Kivy, Meyer, Lehman, Mandler, and Berlyne. Kivy posited that music does not directly express emotions, but rather is “expressive of” emotions. Meyer posited that the expectation that a person creates for music, sets the stage for the emotional reaction a person will express. Mandler posited that emotional response to musical stimuli is activated by a cognitive appraisal of physiological cues based on pre- set expectations about music. Berlyne posited that complexity, familiarity, and novelty are the primary factors in music which activate emotions in the listener. The use of the topic of music or the actual use of music in the therapy setting, hold great potential value.

There is some evidence that its utilization may improve the therapeutic alliance, may help access emotion rich memories, allow a unique method for clients to express emotions/issues, and provide a unique opportunity for the therapist to learn about the client’s inner world. Music was found to have the potential to mediate arousal levels, sooth, and affect processing abilities in infants. Music was found to play a significant role in attachment, bonding, and affect regulation in babies through the mothers use of lullabies. These early interactions with musical stimuli (including music presented to the baby in utero) may play a part in later musical preference development. There is some evidence that emotional activation through music may not only have cultural, social, and interpersonal origins, but the process may also have biological origins which may be

107 present from the first time perceptual abilities develop. This speaks to the possibility that humans may have innate abilities and biological tools to process music. There is some evidence that music may be at play in the evolutionary process, as music has been found to have adaptive value in key cultural and social human activities.

The second section of the literature review examined the connection between music and personality. Music’s connection to the personality traits of sensation seeking, novelty seeking, harm avoidance, psychoticism, extraversion/introversion, and openness, were examined. Significant correlations were found between particular personality traits and preference for specific genres. Different needs for mood management and optimal physiological arousal levels inherent to each personality trait, appeared to factor into why the particular music genre was selected. In addition, the way in which the music was played (loud, exaggerated bass, quiet, etc.) appeared to be highly correlated with the mood management needs and optimal physiological arousal inherent to particular personality traits. Recent social psychology research gave some evidence that music is rated at least as high as other common leisure activities, individuals believe that their musical preferences are reflective of their personalities, and music is universally important to a wide variety of individuals who span across many differing cultures, socio- economic classes, and age groups. Examining musical preferences appeared to offer unique information about personality that was not readily available from observable cues.

Assessment of an individuals self selected and preferred musical dynamics, structure, and genres appeared to hold great promise in assessing personality traits.

The third section of the literature review was an examination of the connection between music and social identity. Music listening and music playing was found to be a

108 significant part of adolescent and early adults daily activities. Tajfel and Turner’s “Social

Identity Theory” (SIT) and Erik Erikson’s developmental theories were the concepts that were used to conceptualize and examine the formation of social identity through the use of music. Social identity formation through the use of music appears to be a strategy utilized by many adolescents throughout their teenage years. This occurred through adolescents developing preferences for a particular musical genre and integrating the attitude and outward appearance typical of that genre, associating with individuals who share these preferences and appearances, degrading others who did not belong to their subgroup, and sharing music or information about the music within their subgroup to benefit one another. Potential benefits for individuals engaging in this musically oriented social identity formation could include: positive self identity, increased self esteem, positive distinction, in-group favoritism support, and positive feelings through out-group degrading. Adolescents were found to use music in social relations as a “badge of identity” and in efforts for “impression management”. Use of music in adolescent social identity formation appeared to be quite effective in inter-group differentiation or for positive inter-group attitude development. The directionality of this process was dependent on the music that was utilized and how it interfaced with the adolescent’s social identity. Music was found to be a powerful tool in developing (particularly for adolescents) self-concept, views of others, and views about how they fit into the world.

The fourth section of the literature review examined the clinical utility of music as an assessment variable. Assessment of music preferences, musical experience and the way in which a client uses music appeared to be novel and effective way of accessing information related to client emotions, personality, and social identity. Assessment

109 appeared to occur in one of four primary ways. These included: interviewing, use of a musically focused test, observation and interpretation of client musical performance, and review of existing musically related data (archival research). Number one, the interview method was one which could be done through verbal inquiry or through the use of a musically focused questionnaire. Both methods appeared to be the easiest and most used methods in musically focused psychological assessment. However, both are subject to the limitations of social desirability during the examinee’s response to inquiry. A sample of existing musically focused questionnaires were examined and their utility in the psychological assessment process was overviewed. Number two, use of standardized psychological tests which incorporate music as an assessment variable were examined.

These tests included: the Cattel’s IPAT music preference test of personality, the Sound

Apperception test (SAT), Van den Daele’s musical stimuli test for schizophrenic patients, the Music Improvisation Rating test (MIR), the Migliore test of rhythmic competency, the use of commonly used psychological tests under differing musical conditions, the

Music/Activity Therapy Intake Assessment for Psychiatric patients, the Day Treatment

Client Assessment contrasted to music therapy ratings (DTCA), the Psychiatric Music

Therapy Questionnaire (PMTQ), the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music

(GIM), and the Short Test of Musical Preferences (STOMP). Research supporting their use was examined and limitations noted. Number three, the field of Music Therapy’s research developed approaches to music based assessment were examined. A five stage model was examined which gave example of a music based approach to assessment and therapy. This model focused on diagnosis, description, interpretation, prescription, and evaluation of a client. This was done through observation of their musical experience

110 (cognitive, behavioral, and affective), a review of their history, through relevant testing, and interpretation of the relationship between music therapist and client. This model relies primarily on the experiential musical activities tailored to the assessment and therapy. Number four, the archival research method of assessment was examined as it relates to psychological assessment. The strong potential of this approach (to gather data which could be truly reflective of an individual’s musical experience) was overviewed.

The use of the popular digital audio player, the “iPod” , and the music management program, “iTunes”, was examined as it relates to archival research and psychological assessment. The “iPod” and “iTunes” appear to have many qualities which show strong potential as tools to assist in a musically focused psychological assessment. The use of these tools holds promise in gathering significant data on client musical preferences, musical use patterns, musical experience, music purchasing behaviors, and time frames for musical use. All are potential entry points in developing an understanding of psychological factors related to these activities.

In summary, a quote is offered to crystallize the core message of this project…“You embrace that which defines you”. A review of the literature, illustrated the unique and personal process with which an individual “embraces” the music that is not only a definition of what they are, but also the definition which they wish to present to the world. For a therapist considering options for assessing, deconstructing this process and understanding the multi-layer interaction within this process, is presented as a novel and effective way of supplementing psychological assessment. Initially, this project was designed to develop a “nomothetic” method of understanding an individual’s relationship to music. As the body of research was overviewed, it became apparent that an

111 “idiographic” method was not only the one that emerged as possible, but also the one that appears as more appropriate. For clarity’s sake, a definition of these two methods will be provided. The term’s “nomothetic” and “idiographic” refer to the terms the personality researcher Gordon Allport borrowed from the German philosopher Wilhelm Windelband

(Allport, 1937). The nomothetic method is a categorical approach where concentration is put towards studying groups of people to make generalizations about similar individuals.

The idiographic method, is one where concentration is put towards understanding an individual case and the unique functioning and traits of the individual. The nomothetic approach to understanding an individual’s relationship to music is not appropriate in this regard for a variety of reasons. Number one, the limited amount of research available examining music and psychological factors, does not allow for generalizations to the public at large. Number two, the research that has been conducted thus far, simply allows the researchers to make limited statements about the small samples that they have studied. A nomothetic approach where general categories of musical characteristics allow for specific descriptions about groups of people, is simply not possible at this point in time. An example of this, would be making descriptive statements about a group of individuals who shared significant overlap in preference for a particular genre (i.e. classical music enthusiasts are highly intelligent, rock and roll music enthusiasts are anti- social, hip hop music enthusiasts come from a low SES, etc.) This approach is quite reductionist, simplistic, and attempts to explain a complex interaction in overly simplistic terms. For purposes of assessment this would be quite convenient (if it was effective), but with the research only providing limited correlations, and with the cause and effect nature

112 between variables being unclear, being able to make sweeping generalizations about individuals based simply upon their relationships to music is not possible at this point.

An idiographic approach to understanding this relationship is indicated for the following reasons. The musical preferences, experience, and use of an individual occur due to a very unique combination of factors. Musical preferences, experience, and use of an individual cannot be explained by simply understanding which group or system an individual belongs to. By group or system, I am referring to the individual’s race, age, diagnosis, personality type, etc. A general one to one relationship between music and individual characteristics does not exist, and does not help to fully explain the multitude of factors which come together to develop individual musical preferences, experiences, and use. In psychological assessment processes involving music, it is most efficacious to take a holistic overview of the person’s involvement with music, to help guide proper assessment and to reveal the full range of influences at play. To help to understand the key factors in this interaction, a systems model such as the one developed by Urie

Brofenbrenner (Brofenbrenner, 1977) could help to map out the mediating factors and the way in which they exist in society. An idiographic approach to understanding an individual’s relationship to music helps to take into account the unique way in which they respond to music, the personal meaning they assign to music, and the unique personal characteristics that are expressed through their musical selections. This idiographic approach helps get at the individual pieces of the puzzle, without initial speculation on how the pieces of the puzzle might fit.

113 Limitations

The purpose of this literature review was to present information about music’s connection to emotions, personality, and social identity. However, after a thorough investigation of the current literature on these topics, it became quite apparent that the field of psychology has a minimum of research available on the topics examined by this project. This ultimately limits attempts at generalization of results to the public at large.

Research on the history of music as a therapeutic agent, gives only sporadic examples of music used throughout the ages, and is limited by the potential for historians to record a biased account of its occurrence. The potential for information about musical use in the Greek and Roman era to be fabricated and/or distorted over the centuries is quite high. This results in limited ability to truly account for music’s actual use throughout the ages in the many healing professions. Also, there is the possibility that knowledge of advanced practices (in the use of music as a tool for assessment and treatment), may have been lost throughout the centuries due to lack of documentation, lack of proper documentation technologies, loss of documentation, or simply inaccurate documentation. Developing a historically accurate and truly representative account of music’s influence on the healing arts, appears to be an extremely difficult (if not impossible) endeavor.

Research examined on the relationship between emotions and music presents with limitations. Objective evaluation of human emotions is quite difficult, as emotion is primarily a complex subjective experience. Research on physiologic arousal states helps to provide indicators of particular emotional states, but that is simply one piece (albeit a large one) of the puzzle. The other piece, is the subjective experience that an individual

114 can provide through verbal self report. Self-report is fraught with many difficulties (many of which were overviewed in this project). The most concerning, is the reactivity of the examinee to the examiner and the examination proceedings. In addition, individuals have different unique meanings for emotions and experience them in unique ways. What one might say is a sad feeling, might not be sad, it may be categorized as lazy, tired, melancholy, all related but different. Cultural norms for emotional experience and expression, may have an effect on the meaning an individual assigns to particular emotional states, as well as affect the decision to express/discuss emotion with an examiner.

Music’s ability to activate emotions appears to operate in a unique and individual manner. Determining what it was about the musical experience that activated a particular emotion for an individual, is difficult to determine. An emotional response from an individual after exposure to music, could be related to the dynamics of the music, the associations related to the music, who is presenting the music, the loudness of the music being presented, the genre of the music, the lyrics, the lack of lyrics, the social expectations an individual feels he must experience with a particular type of music, etc.

These are just a few of the confounds that could be at play when trying to determine the causal factor involved in music’s emotional activation effects.

An overview of the research also demonstrated a dearth of information available on music and its connection to emotions, personality, and social identity, in non- industrial societies. The limited research available focused primarily on select populations within the United States, England, Ireland, and various Scandinavian countries. All of these are modern industrial nations. It is unclear whether the effects of

115 music play out in a similar fashion in less developed and less modern nations. This could be due to different musical instruments/technologies, differing musical dynamics of instruments/method of playing, differing cultural roles for music, and other variations in musical preference, experience, and use inherent to less developed nations. The direction this may go is unclear. It is possible that less industrial/modern/indigenous nation may have actually integrated music in a more significant manner than more developed/modern nations.

During the research of current literature, a dearth of information was apparent regarding many of the musical subgenres that have sprung up in recent times. Generation of new musical subgenres has been occurring rapidly, and this has occurred due to changes in the music industry, easy accessibility of music (vis-à-vis the internet), and the subsequent cross pollination of different music genres. Examples of subgenres which have received little to no attention in the current research include: Hyphy, Crunk, Emo,

Ambient, Reggaeton, Acid House, Dub, Booty Bass, Deathcore, P-Funk, Ska, just to name a few of the many (in the hundreds) subgenres that are developing on daily basis.

With music being able to be converted to an electronic MP3 file and transferred onto disks, memory sticks, laptops, sent over the internet, posted on websites for downloading; music is being shared as it never has before. Current research on musical genres would be hard pressed to address the full range of musical styles that are currently available commercially and in the musical underground. The literature reviewed in this project was limited by the minimum of genres that the studies chose to include.

116 Future Directions for Research

What will be essential in integrating music based assessment into the field of psychology will be continued development of standardized music based assessment tools.

For the field of psychology to even consider a shift towards psychological assessment procedures that integrate music, it is most likely that this would not even be considered without empirical data and standardization to support the use of musically based psychological tests. Verbal questioning and questionnaires may be effective in some settings for specific reasons, but they will do little to carve out a permanent niche in the scientifically rigorous field of psychological assessment. Research to examine the efficacy of these tests amongst a full range of age groups and cultures will be essential.

Separate age groups which appear to have specific developmental characteristics related to music include: adolescence, early adult, and geriatric. Understanding the role of age in musical preferences is important, as there is evidence that musical preferences change throughout the life span (Russell, 1997).

For future research regarding emotions and musical preferences, experience, and use, it is recommended that more objective measures be utilized to obtain information on actual emotional response to music. Self report measures are limited by the descriptive abilities of the examinee to articulate their experience, their awareness of affective states, and they are subject to social desirability reactions to the examiner during inquiry.

Continued use of electronic physiologic measures (EEG, EKG, etc.) appears to be an important component of future research on music and emotions. However, this approach is not 100% complete. It does not include measurement of the actual subjective evaluation of emotional experience, but it at least allows for some degree of objectivity.

117 It is recommended that future research regarding personality and musical preferences, widen the range of variables in which they examine in relation to music.

Looking at one particular trait and its relationship to musical genres is quite interesting, but really misses out on the full range of factors which may be at play. A rich understanding of one link between a personality trait and a musical genre pushes research forward, but a more complete understanding could be generated by taking into account the many contextual factors which accompany this interaction. A systemic framework

(Brofenbrenner, Minuchin, and/or Haley) is suggested to help inform proper understanding and exploration of factors at play between emotion, personality, social identity, and music. More specifically, this encourages the use of the aforementioned system theorists frameworks to guide exploration of the micro, mezzo, macro, exo, and chrono systems which interact during a persons development of musical preferences, experience, and use. This approach is suggested to help future researchers from becoming too narrowly focused on only one element of an extremely complicated and multidimensional interaction.

For future research looking at social identity and its connection to music preferences, a topic worth examining would be the discrepancy between an individual’s private and social use of music. An examination of these two (potentially) differing areas of activity, may help to reveal the differences between an individual’s actual self, their idealized self, and their socially constructed self. The variation in musical preferences and the reasons why the individual made the selections (for personal or social use) may be quite telling. The privately selected music may reflect personal states and traits, and the socially selected music may be representative of the message that the individual

118 intends to relay to others about themselves or what they would like others to think about them.

Of key importance, is for future researchers to factor in the effects of culture on musical preference, experience, and use. These three elements are greatly influenced by the culture in which the individual is raised, the level of acculturation, multi-cultural identities, and other culture-based factors which need to be accounted for. When looking at musical connections to emotions, personality traits, and social identity, cultural factors will always be at play. What is crucial, is to determine the degree to which they operate.

For future research on the effects of music on an individual, it is recommended that the music that is utilized (in the study) be self selected by the participants involved in the study. In past research, musical stimuli consisted primarily of classical music, and for some cultures, age groups, ethnicities, and SES groups, this particular musical genre may not be particularly relevant or applicable. Using music which is unfamiliar may produce effects related to a lack of familiarity, rather than through the genre, dynamics, or prior

(or lack of) associations. Letting a participant bring in their own music (CD’s, instruments, iPod, etc.), allows the participant to respond to musical stimuli that is familiar, congruent, and relevant to them.

For research using musical stimuli as part of their experimental method, it is recommended that appropriate musical equipment be utilized. The musical processing equipment (CD player, DAT player, record player, etc.), the amplifier, the size of the speakers, the staging or placement of the speakers, the equalizer settings, the volume, and the appropriateness of all of these factors to the musical piece selected, are all critical factors in designing an appropriate experimental condition for the participant. Emotional

119 and physiological reactivity to exposure from a musical piece can be greatly augmented by the audio equipment and their set up. It is possible to present a musical piece that has great emotion stimulating qualities on a small tape player, and due to the poor audio dynamics emanating from the primitive audio device, a lack of emotional reactivity could be the result of the audio equipment and its use, not the musical piece selected.

Presenting the same musical stimuli through different musical system configurations

(amplified, non-amplified, analog, digital, in stereo, multi-speaker, surround sound, etc.) may help to gather information on the potential confounding effects of the music system specifics.

Research presented in the section on the “Clinical utility of music as an assessment variable” clearly illustrated the growing trend and untapped potential of computers and electronic equipment to aide in psychological assessment of individuals through their musical preferences, experience, and use. The tools highlighted as particularly significant and useful for this endeavor, are Apple’s iPod and the supporting

Apple program iTunes. It is recommended that utilization of an individual’s iPod and iTunes data (potentially containing the unique music that the individual has self selected), be the focus of research regarding musical preferences, experience, and use. Musical songs, bands, genres that are selected by experimenters in preconceived experimental conditions do not allow for as accurate an assessment of the persons actual connection to music. Results from contrived experimental conditions may only be reflective of the controlled conditions developed by the experimenter. The use of archival research through an analysis of a persons iPod and iTunes (without prior knowledge from the user that these items will be analyzed), will provide a much more accurate picture of the

120 persons preferences, experience, and use. In turn, analysis of correlating psychological factors (emotions, personality traits, social identity) will be much more reflective of the individual as they are, in their day to day life. Future developments could include specialized software that could allow an experimenter to access and interpret personal iTunes data from a consenting client. The particular songs, bands, lyrics, or genres that a client selects and enters into their iTunes database, have unique personal meaning and associations to the client. A software program could be designed to allow the client to assign (by either experimenter or client typing them into the computer) these personal associations to their iTunes contents. The experimenter would then have the opportunity to work with the rich personal information available to them, helping to understand the client through the correlations between their music and their emotions, personality, and social identity. This novel self-exploration method would best be done in a collaborative fashion. This would be an important direction for musically related assessments to take, as it would be important to focus future research on developing an understanding of the personal meaning that the person assigns to the music. This would be in contrast to an approach that would attempt to develop a categorical system that would assign a meaning to the person based strictly on normative data previously gathered. The assessment of an individual would be much more valid, through the elimination of experimenter interpretation, and a reliance solely on the individual’s personal interpretation of their musical preferences, experiences, and use. No matter how much research, data, normative statistics, etc. that an experimenter gathers regarding music and psychological characteristics, the individual who lives the experience, preferences, and use will always be the utmost “expert” on their unique meanings and individual associations.

121 Future research incorporating paper and pencil questionnaire assessment of an individual through musical preferences, experience, and use, should consider using a

“sentence completion” format. Providing sentence fragments with an area for the examinee to finish the sentence would be the recommended format. Examples of items which could be included are as follows. “When I listen to ______, it makes me think of______, and makes me feel______”, “I listen to music when I ______”, “Rock and

Roll music makes me______”, “My musical preferences tell others that______”,

“My music tastes have changed because______”, “The song/band/genre that symbolizes me the best is______”. The sentence fragments can be tailored to gather more or less information about emotions, personality, and/or social identity. This would allow an individual to write in the personal meaning they associate with musically related concepts. This procedure would generate data that would be unique to the individual.

Also, this would be in alignment with the idiographic method proposed in the beginning of this chapter.

122 CHAPTER V

FIELD CONSULTANT PROJECT FEEDBACK

The field consultants who have generously donated time to discuss topics central to this doctoral project and to help review project writings are: Celeste Behnke, NMT,

MT-BC, Dawn DiRaimondo, PsyD., Meghan Moody, PsyD., Nina Gutin, PhD., Rhonda

Doonan, PhD., Sari Shepphird, PhD. Field consultants were comprised of five licensed

(California) psychologists and one board certified (California) music therapist. All field consultants are currently involved in clinical practice (psychotherapy and/or psychological assessment), and have been doing so for many years. A few field consultants also work as professors, one completed their dissertation on music in psychotherapy, and two have experience as psychological researchers. All psychologist field consultants identify primarily as clinical psychologists, and do not have additional training as music therapists. Most express a strong interest in the integration of musically based approaches to clinical practice, and some have integrated a wide variety of musical based assessments and interventions in their clinical work. The one Music Therapist field consultant, has thirty years of professional experience in assessment and intervention techniques specific to Music Therapy.

Field consultants were asked to provide feedback on the doctoral projects main topics and did so on an on-going basis throughout the many stages of this projects completion. During the final stages of the projects completion, field consultants were asked to provide summary feedback to be entered into this chapter. In efforts to gather

123 qualitative data (regarding key elements of researched concepts), this projects author asked each field consultant eight topic focused questions. The eight questions posed to the field consultants were as follows:

1 Is the information provided in this doctoral project potentially useful for you with your psychotherapy clients and/or psychological assessment cases? If yes, how so?

2 Do you feel like emotions, personality, and social identity are accessible through examining a client’s musical preferences, experience, and use? Do you see strong, medium, and/or weak connections between these variables?

3 How have you incorporated music into psychotherapy or psychological assessment in your own history as a therapist? What were the outcomes?

4 Can you see examination of a client’s Apple iPod and iTunes as useful in assessment and psychotherapy?

5 Do you see potential dangers, backlash, or limitations to integrating music into psychotherapy or psychological assessment?

6 Would you incorporate a musically based assessment tool in the form of a questionnaire, standard line of questioning, or a standardized psychological test? Any reservations or does it seem like a good idea?

7 Do you feel like utilizing the concept of music or playing music in therapy provides valuable therapeutic information?

8 Any last free associative thoughts about music and psychology?

124 Feedback from the three field consultants who responded (in its unaltered entirety), is as follows:

Dr. Shepphird responded:

(Question #1)

Yes, most certainly. I think the ideas are particularly useful in working with youth, perhaps the population that listens to the greatest amount of music, in that it can be a window into conversation about one's life and interests. Assessing for social and personality factors, as this project has suggested would be a useful tool in both treatment and for establishing rapport with an adolescent client. If the type of music a client listens to can be a means of understanding their mood state, as this project has put forth, then the benefits for use in psychotherapy would indeed be both practical and beneficial.

(Question #2)

On face examination, I would assign a strong connection between state of emotions and music listened to, a medium connection between personality and music preferences and a strong connection between social identity and music use, particularly among adolescents. The variables would of course have to be measured empirically, but this would be my sense based on face-value.

(Question #3)

I have not incorporated much use of music in psychotherapy to date, with the exception of noting my clients' personal and social interests in general. A therapist has not done this with me either. However, with a connection between music and the above variables firmly established, I see a valuable potential in incorporating this aspect of one's personal life into an overall assessment picture, as well as clinical discussion. I think this is a valuable area of study that can have a substantial impact on the field of psychotherapy and the therapeutic disciplines.

(Question #4)

Yes, particularly if there was an accompanying discussion of the selections, such as the time-frame in which they were chosen and downloaded, the client's stated preferences for the selected material, and inclusion of other questions that elicit client's responses regarding the music included on their iPod.

125 (Question #5)

One might say that a potential danger could arise if the information was taken in isolation, or "out-of-context", so to speak. As with any assessment instrument, it is necessary to examine a client's overall presentation and to integrate finds on many assessment instruments. One would not want to be guilty of committing the "Fundamental Attribution Error" of assigning a variable to understanding another's personality (trait), when in fact, it could better be used to understand another's situation (state)! One would need to be careful to use such an assessment as it is intended, and within its stated limitations.

(Question #6)

I think it seems like a great idea, and a helpful one at that! (See above for reasoning). Again, it would be quite useful for adolescent populations, but also for use with any age, as it again provides a point of discussion and a window into a person's social and personal interests.

(Question # 7)

It certainly may. Perhaps not in every case, as some people may not consider music an important area of interest in their own lives. However, just as the author of this project has made reference to the substantial impact that music had on his own life, I suspect that clients of any age and cultural background might say the same. This again makes it a valuable tool to incorporate into assessment.

(Question #8)

I would be curious to know if any of the notable pioneers in the field had any strong musical interests and/or preferences, for example Freud, Jung, Skinner, Erikson, etc. And I wonder in my free associations if there would be a difference in preference for a staunch behaviorist versus a devoted psychoanalyst...it would be interesting if that were the case!

Dr. Doonan responded:

(Question #1)

I already discuss musical preferences and uses with most of my clients.

126 (Question #2)

I believe that music and other artistic preferences are indirect windows into a client's personality, self-image, and social identity. I see strong connections between the ways in which someone chooses to amuse, distract, soothe, or express themselves and many aspects of human personality, behavior, functioning and interpersonal relationships.

(Question #3)

I have not used music in therapy although I do discuss music and other modes of artistic expression with virtually all of my clients. No therapist has ever used music in my own therapy nor has anyone even asked about my musical preferences or any other artistic realms of my personality. I find this interesting since I always share that I love music and literature. No therapist has asked me to say what I listen to or read.

(Question #4)

Your project brought up many ideas for me about how iPod or iTunes could be used in research. My concerns about simply reviewing someone's iPod are varied. In working with adolescents and young adults especially I have found that the iPod itself can be a social venue and the music included maybe the favorites of friends, romantic partners, or others that has been shared. Swapping music is a common way to connect with others. Since the iPod can now be plugged into the home or car stereo system I have discovered that many parents include music for their young children on their own iPod. I do believe that review of the iPod or iTunes could be the beginning of a discussion on how someone came to choose the music and how they use that music in their daily lives.

(Question #5)

My only concern is that I would not want to see information gleaned from assessing someone’s musical preferences to be over generalized. As you said in your project, this is only one aspect of the whole person. I also think it is important to consider that for many clients music is not the only or even the most telling form of expression of their personality. For example, someone who is also interested in visual arts (painting, photography, videography, film) or in literature might say that music is the lesser expression of their personality while reviewing the movies they watch, artists they admire, or books they read might give you a better picture of the deepest corners of their souls.

127 (Question #6)

I would love to see more research in this area. As a matter of fact, your project sparked several research ideas as I was reading. At this time I don't think we know enough about music and personality functioning to be able to utilize a standardized tool. A questionnaire might be helpful for clinicians who are not familiar with ways to discuss music with a client.

(Question #7)

I discuss musical preferences and uses along with other forms of artistic expression with virtually all of my clients. This is a great rapport builder in the early stages of therapy and can identify doors that can be opened later in the therapeutic process. I find that, as your project showed, people are more willing to talk about music, art, literature, etc. much earlier in the therapeutic process and often feel free to assertively explain their tastes or preferences in ways that give me a significant amount of information about who they are as a person. When a client expresses especially strong feelings for certain music I will listen to the music myself to note what emotions it elicits in me and how that compares to what the client is expressing. I also take special note of lyrics, beat, key, tempo, and other aspects of the music to see if I can detect patterns of interest. I have treated several professional musicians and have found it interesting to compare and contrast what they play with what they listen to in their leisure time. Often when I am asking questions about music or other art forms clients will begin to relate stories from previous times in their lives or past relationships that might have taken much longer to surface without a discussion of their musical preferences.

Because I have some musical training and love music myself, I find that using music as a metaphor especially with professional musicians or songwriters can be very powerful and assists them in understanding what is happening in therapy on a deeper level. I once told a musician/sound engineer that while the melody of his story was coming through loud and clear I felt I wanted to enhance the baseline. He looked at me for a few moments and said, "You know that the baseline is the driving force of the music. You want me to figure out what drives me." From then on we talked about melody, harmony, and baselines in relation to stories he was sharing and the work moved quickly. This is only one in a series of powerful examples of music as a metaphor for the song that is our lives.

I have also had adolescent and young adult clients that use music as their way to connect with others and to define their social identity. Again, this often leads to discussion about what aspect of the music and the people with whom they want to associate that draws them in. By talking more about the music and the culture associated with the music it seems less like I am "attacking" their choices (as many feel their parents have done) and allows for open exchange of ideas and

128 information. This can be a great source of rapport building especially with adolescents. It also gives me important information about how the client sees themselves and how they want to be seen by others.

(Question #8)

No answer provided.

Dr. Moody responded:

(Question #1)

The information in this doctoral project has piqued my already existing interest in music and psychotherapy. It’s provided a solid base of research that demonstrates the connections between music, emotions, personality, and social identity. I feel inspired to think out of the box and incorporate explorations of music as a more regular part of my work with my clients, especially teens.

(Question #2)

Yes, definitely. Examining musical preference, experience, and use can be thought of as an “audio Rorschach”, and, at least, exploration into these areas can serve as an experience-near approach to developing rapport with a client that could lead to less guarded self-expression during the early phase of treatment or times when the client is reluctant to being open. I see the potential for a strong connection between these variables; however, the individual’s level of current or historical guardedness/defensiveness must be considered. I’m referring to the potential for an inverse correlation due to sublimation of certain unwanted emotions or personality traits. For example, the genre of classical music is not typically associated with the emotion of anger, but, it is possible that a very angry person sublimates his/her anger through the use/creation of classical music. It seems that social identity has the potential for the greatest correlation with musical preference, experience, and use because it can be thought of as less subjective and less rapidly fluid than day-to-day emotional experience. When a person prefers a particular type of music, she then belongs to a category of others who like that same music, let’s say punk rockers. She is part of a social category (categorization). This seems especially pertinent to adolescent development. She identifies with the attitudes and beliefs of that social category, let’s say rebellion, individualism, and anarchy, and feels a part of something (identification). As a part of a social group she then has the strength to compare herself to others and gain a level of self-esteem that comes from belonging (comparison). She may now be able to set herself apart from others, with the aid of the group, and even look down on others as way to build a sense of self. I believe this social identity process is key to development and key to becoming an individual who could use a therapeutic exploration of music as a way to understand one’s emotions and

129 personality. In short, when using music as a therapeutic tool, perhaps beginning with its social role is a good place to start.

(Question #3)

My use of music in therapy has been two-fold. First, I have had clients present music in the session on their own volition. When that is the case, the music becomes and easy vehicle for exploration and understanding of the person’s emotional world and the social meaning of the music. Second, with musical clients, I have found it very fruitful to explore where they are in their creative process. Are they actively pursuing the creation of music? Have they stalled out? What’s getting in the way? What does the creation of music mean to them and what are the emotional components?

When clients have brought in music to listen to with me in the session, it has always been a positive therapeutic experience. Clients were able to gain access to certain emotions that they were struggling with. Primarily, the sharing of music seems to be a communication of trust and connection from client to therapist. Sharing music is intimate, and I’ve had success interpreting it as such. Also, exploring the social aspects of the music has been very useful. One client, whose brother had moved away to a residential treatment center, started bringing in his iPod with all of his brother’s music on it, and we listened to it together while playing. Through this, the client was able to share the loss of his brother with me and identify with and feel connected to his brother. For a child like this one who struggles with finding words to express himself, it was a very important piece of work. Exploring the creative process with my musician clients is also a welcome window into the psyche that clients seem able to explore with less resistance than family/relationship dynamics and other patterns of personal self-defeat. One particular client was able to make sense of her need to abandon creating music as her needs were put into substance abuse. As this client moved through the early part of sobriety, she began to understand how she needed to stay removed from that highly emotional part of her life and the social consequences of the rock scene for someone working on sobriety. The discussion of her musical experience, or long-term lack thereof, illuminated the profound loss of joy in her life, her high threshold for self-punishment, and her fear of her own emotional experience and needs.

I was once part of a group workshop involving a drum circle as a way to connect with ourselves and push ourselves (us non-musicians) outside of our normal comfort zones. It was a freeing, inspiring, and empowering experience. That is the only time music has been incorporated into my own personal therapy.

(Question #4)

I can see it as a useful assessment tool, especially with a more in depth look into

130 the genres and frequency of music listened to. I think it would be most useful as a projective measure, where the analysis of iPod and iTunes involved discussions with the client about what the music means to them, what emotions get stirred up or buried by the music, and how the music is socially relevant to them.

(Question #5)

I think the use of music in psychotherapy is beneficial as way to understand more deeply a client’s psyche and as a way to facilitate relaxation and reduce anxiety. In terms of assessment, I see more potential limitations here. Due to the intimate nature of music and highly personal appraisal many may give to their iPods, access may be thwarted by the client or seen as overly intrusive, the latter of which could be counter-therapeutic, especially if the therapeutic relationship is tentative at all or if the client is particularly vulnerable. Creating a standardized process for interpreting iPod data would need to adjust for a possible spoiled data set, for example a client clears their iPod of all music except hard core rock, skewing the interpretation. Perhaps as the MMPI has the L-F-K scales, something similar could be implemented to adjust for guardedness, malingering, naïve efforts to look bad, or faking good.

(Question #6)

I mentioned my reservations above. I would incorporate a questionnaire, a standardized line of questioning, or a standardized test before a hands on look into the contents of a client’s iPod. I feel that looking into a client’s iPod could be done most successfully with their feedback and incorporating discussion of it into the therapy. The timing of this exploration would be crucial so as not to intrude too far too soon. But, with less guarded clients, exploring the iPod could conceivably happen right away. Still, I would only implement this in a therapeutic setting if it seemed of interest to the client. In an assessment situation, where no therapy is taking place, musically based assessment tools could provide an additional layer of understanding into a client’s moods, emotions, personality, and social identity. I think exploring and analyzing the content’s of a client’s iPod would be most revealing and useful for the client in a therapeutic setting, where it could be a part of the ongoing therapy.

(Question #7)

Yes, I definitely think discussion and use of music in therapy can be valuable.

(Question #8)

No answer provided.

131 Dr. DiRaimondo responded:

(Question #1)

I would still need to be educated on the actual assessment material before knowing if I would use it during assessments. However, this dissertation reminds me of what a useful tool music can be in therapy and motivates me to continue using it in my clinical work.

(Question #2)

I think that information on one’s emotions, personality and social identity can all be ascertained through learning about one’s musical preferences and experiences. The strength of this connection would depend on several variables, i.e. the content of the conversation that is generated by listening and exploring the music together, the ‘feel’ or tone of the music itself and the relationship a client has with the music. The stronger the client feels connected to particular music, the more informative or significant.

(Question #3)

I invite my adolescent and young adult clients to bring in music of their choice to listen to together during session. I’ve found that this not only helps build rapport with clients but allows me to get to know them, their interests, and relationship with music in a format that is comfortable, non-threatening and even fun for them. Asking to share their music with me seems to help them feel more confident that I am genuinely interested in them as a person. It is also gives them the opportunity to “teach” me about music, which alone can build self-esteem. Since many adults are critical and judgmental of adolescents’ musical preference, it is also a rare opportunity to have a positive experience with an adult and their music. Other than occasionally asking what types of music adolescents like during an intake, I have not used music during formal assessments. With my own therapist, I was invited to bring in a particular song that had significance to me after initially discussing the song with him. It felt meaningful to me to see his interest and listen to the song together in session.

(Question #4)

I see this as a possible tool in on-going therapy more so than in an assessment.

(Question #5)

I think a therapist would need to be careful not to be judgmental of a client’s musical preference. This may be difficult if someone’s music however, is offensive, negative or off-putting to a therapist, i.e. lyrics that endorse drug use,

132 violence, sexism or homophobia. The therapist may be conflicted with wanting to support a client yet not wanting support the values portrayed in the music.

(Question #6)

I would be open to learning about any of the above measures. I am not aware or familiar with them at this point in time. I would also hope that they would be time-limited (and therefore more user-friendly) since the assessment process is already quite lengthy. I think music is a particularly untapped medium that could have many uses in psychotherapy and assessment.

(Question #7)

Yes, it certainly can. I think this is especially experienced with more guarded, closed off and less verbal clients. I have had several clients share music with me who struggled to share their feelings verbally. Sharing their music provided a language for them and opened a new world of getting to know them. Sometimes it felt like the only bridge we could find.

(Question #8)

For individuals who struggle with connecting to others, and especially adolescents, music can serve as a close friend or an only friend. They go to music for support, companionship and to feel a part of something. It gives them a sense of identity and belonging. To bring this in to therapy can be an intimate experience and create a connectedness with the therapist that words alone can’t always generate.

133 CHAPTER VI

PERSONAL PROCESS

I’ve been working on this project unofficially since I was a kid. The minute music entered into my life, I was curious about why I liked certain music and why others listened to the music that they did. I wouldn’t say that I had more exposure to music than the average guy, but I would definitely say I was way more curious about music and the effects it produced. Looking back on my life and how it has been impacted by music, I see how my musical preferences, experience, and use have affected my emotions, personality, and social identity development. My interest in this topic and taking it on in this doctoral project was really my way of making sense of that process and attempting to clarify and legitimatize a working hypotheses that was unconsciously generated through years of self reflection and curiosity. To help tie in the information I have presented in previous chapters, next I am going to present my own personal musical history in efforts to illustrate how the research and theory I have presented about music have played out for me.

Finding a definitive starting point to begin telling my musical story, was a little more difficult than I first thought it would be. As I attempt to reach deep into my past, the oldest memory I can stir up about music is a flash of my mother and I laying on the couch and her singing a lullaby to me. I remember being in the living room in our Rockville,

Maryland apartment with my head in her lap, and she was singing the “hush little baby, don’t say a word” song. I remember a feeling of security, calmness, and connectedness.

In fact I remember everything about that moment when she was singing the song, I can’t

134 remember anything outside of the moments when she singing. I was probably about three or four years old back then. I have been gifted with a strong ability to recall information, so luckily I am able to remember vivid memories from my childhood. What is interesting, is that I am able to recall a significantly larger number of memories that are attached to moments where music was in the air. Something about those moments seem to carry strong emotions, unique meaning, and complex associations.

Rewinding the tape before that moment, required the assistance of my mother.

After many discussions with her about her musical preferences, experience, and use, there appears to be an overlap in time where these were the same for her and I. My mother has many years experience as a music teacher and piano player, and it is through these qualities that my own musical experience may have began. Through my early days in utero, my mom spent many hours playing piano, singing, and listening to music. Can I say definitively that these experiences had an effect on me? Absolutely not. But I think it makes intuitive sense that as my sensory abilities began developing as a fetus, there is a definite possibility that I may have felt the vibrations from the piano, my mom singing, the record player playing. Even further, the musical experience that my mother was going through, may have had an effect upon me as well. The changes in her mood along with the resultant changes in biochemistry during her musical experience were probably felt by me as a fetus. With two beings so inextricably linked and intertwined, the experience for one can only be an experience for the other. Now this is pure speculation on my part, but aforementioned research in the chapter on music and emotions, hints at the legitimacy of this dynamic as a real and significant one for mother and child. After I was born and through my toddler days, I am told that music was often in the background, more than

135 likely coming from my mom and the piano, but sometimes from old records spinning on the stereo. My mother was also a pre-school teacher, so she was well versed in teaching activities to get a young child interested in learning. Many of these activities involved sing along’s and musically related exercises. I remember learning my alphabets, phrases, and numbers more as fun songs, rather than boring school assignments. Now I think these are relatively normal experiences for toddlers, but I think my mother incorporated more musical activities than the average parent or teacher.

In retrospect, I actually remember bits and pieces of those days. I don’t remember the exact song or words, but I remember the dynamics of the song and feeling associated with it. I remember some songs being stimulating and increasing my energy, then I remember some songs being slow and melodic and putting myself and other kids in a calm trance like state. I grew up in a very diverse neighborhood which was a collection of

Jewish, Korean, Indian, Persian, Polish, and Spanish families. I remember many multicultural faces in my preschool kindergarten years. We were different in many different ways, but musically, we all connected in a similar way. I feel like the connection was in the music dynamics. We all understood the universal sound of a “happy” song, a

“serious” song, or “sad” song. These vivid recollections of my early childhood days still retain the strong emotions experienced during those bygone moments. Luckily, they are forever encapsulated in memory for me.

The next significant memory for me (around age 7 or so) was my growing interest in learning the piano. I remember sitting next to my mother on the piano seat, and poking away at the treble clef portion of the song, trying to sing along with my mom. I remember classical pieces by Mozart, Beethoven, the Finnish national anthem, showtune music,

136 campy tunes from the 20’s and 30’s, and other random/assorted songs from different time periods. It was an eclectic mix for sure. At that point I was signed up for piano lessons, and my first official step into the world of music began. I began once to twice a week piano lessons which continued for the next couple of years. I distinctly remember my piano teacher, a tall ghostly white apparition with the palest coldest longest fingers I have ever seen dance across a keyboard. During my first few lessons, he would show off for me, and play musical pieces that flat out blew me away. He was a musical virtuoso who could play classical music pieces which would make my eyebrows raise, chills run down my spine, make my heart race, make me scared and excited at the same time, and gave me a hint at what lies inside the quiet/reserved outer shell of this man. The next few years were a love and hate relationship with an instrument that provided me equal servings of joy and unhappiness. As I began to develop as a piano player I noticed how my mastery of songs and my ability to feel the music, provided altered affective states. One part was the successful acquisition of skills, one part pleasing my parents, and another, being able to feel the emotion in the music and really feel the dynamics emanating from my occasional singing and from the piano’s body. Eventually, my identity as a budding piano player conflicted with my desire to be soccer player, and my interest in playing piano waned. Also, the lack of “coolness” in playing piano to other kids and myself began to have an effect, as I did not see a place in my burgeoning social identity for a “piano guy”.

I was much more interested in developing myself as a “soccer player”. In addition, the lack of interest I had in the predominantly classical pieces I was learning, led to my decreasing interests in piano playing. I think if I was able to select music that I preferred,

I would have been inclined to continue playing the piano (as long as my buddies didn’t

137 know I was still pursuing these “uncool” interests). Lessons learned so far, taught me that music is important, music can stir up powerful emotions, the music a person likes can tell you a lot about a person, music is deeply personal, musical preferences/use tell the world what you are about, and music is a way of connecting with others.

Throughout my late childhood years (9-12), there is a relative calm surrounding my involvement with music, and my music experience pretty much consisted of the music my parents chose to play on the radio, records, and piano. I don’t remember being interested in any particular type of music, I wasn’t playing any instruments, and I was happy being connected to whatever my parents were interested in. In school, some of the

“cooler” or more sophisticated kids began talking about music and impressed others with their knowledge of the latest hit records, bands, singers, songs, etc. In fact some of the really hip kids would come in with a walkman on their hip and would walk around the playground jamming the latest rock tunes. We would all gather around to see what magical music was emanating from that fancy music player and what band is on that shiny white music tape. The kid would always make a point of popping the tape out and proudly flashing the name of the latest and greatest rock hero popular in the early 80’s that he was listening to. As I got closer to the teen years, kids starting showing up with concert t-shirts, clip on buttons of singers/bands, stickers of rock hero’s, and other paraphernalia related to the music scene. Man this was getting serious, some kids already had full on musical identities and there were already divisions visible amongst the kids, clearly delineated by musical preferences. I wasn’t sure if I fit in with the “rockers”, the

“preppies”, “the new wavers”, the “rappers”, the “punks”, it became clear to me that I needed to start figuring out this music thing and where I fit in with it.

138 Cut to age 13, and my family is going through a big divorce. My world is flipped upside and everything changed real fast. My hormones are kicking in full force, my

ADHD begins to gain in strength and ferocity, teenage angst is fueled by the effects of the divorce, I say goodbye to my lifelong friends and neighborhood, no more dad around, and my mom, brother, and I begin our new lives bouncing from state to state trying to re- establish ourselves. Around that time, I begin to gain an interest in the newly developing genre of rap music. I soon began breakdancing with friends and associates of mine at school and in the neighborhood, and from there I developed my first real musical preference, completely on my own, and not influenced by family members. This music spoke to me on different levels. At this time around (1985), it was not mainstream at all, and was very much a new and underground development. This was appealing to me, because as I moved into new schools and cities I felt like an outsider. The music was alternative, anti-authority, broke the rules, was provocative, the dynamics were highly stimulating, it was cultural, it raised eyebrows, it brought people on the outside together, it made you dance, it was angry, it was everything I was trying to be and in some ways was reflective of me at the time. Throughout my teen years, the friends I associated with almost always shared a love for rap music. They came in all forms, older teens, younger, white, black, Asian, European, Mexican, Persian. The people I associated were from widely varying backgrounds, but for the most part, we were all individuals who were quite high in sensation seeking, limit testers, open to new experiences, somewhat angry, and all heavily interested in anything and everything that had to do with rap music. Even though rock and roll was the genre that was most popular and widely listened to, we wanted nothing to do with it. Between my friends and I, we communicated and connected

139 with mixed tapes. We would build outrageously high powered stereos in our houses and cars, to maximize the musical experience and to let the music coming out of our thumping stereos tell the world where our musical allegiances lied. At school, in-group favoritism and out-group derogation played out on a daily basis based upon musical identities. My musical allegiances trumped cultural and racial lines, and relationships with people outside of my race, SES, etc. were facilitate by mutual understanding of musical preferences. Throughout the days of my tumultuous adolescence, my music listening experiences (by myself and especially my musical experiences with others) were instrumental in managing moods, developing identity, and bringing out elements of my personality. Again, my most vivid memories of my adolescent years are locked in memory with music that was playing at the time. The soundtrack of my life.

For the later part of my teen years and into the first few years of my twenties, my musical preferences reflected the realities of my life and the stagnation within it. Instead of new musical preferences being developed and changes happening as I transitioned out of adolescence, my musical preferences were retained rigidly along with the conduct disordered, oppositional, and angst ridden characteristics that I had developed during my adolescent years. I continued to listen strictly to rap music, and even though the genre had developed to include a full range of styles and characteristics, subgenre’s I continued to stay interested in were the angrier, anti-authority, etc. types of rap music that reflected my inner turmoil. The lack of progress in musical preference development was indicative of my lack of progress in my own personal development. The music also kept me connected to some delinquent friends who also were stagnating and not moving forward from the difficulties of adolescence. I ended up working at a night club called “Politics”

140 in Emeryville, CA and I further immersed myself into musical experiences, most of them surrounding rap, soul, and other urban music styles. It was here, where I got to meet some of the musicians, artists, DJ’s, producers of the rap genre and R&B genre’s that I was so interested in. Talking with them and hearing there stories, further cemented my thoughts and feelings about the powerful effects of music. For some, their moment to moment existence circled around making music, listening to music, producing music, selling music, and anything else you could imagine one could do with music. Their personas were so deeply intertwined with music, it was hard to even see them as individual’s. They almost appeared to be a human byproduct of the musical genre’s they came from. What was also apparent, was the ugly underbelly of those in the music industry. Many who appeared to be so happy and successful now, pulled themselves out of some very dark times through an involvement with music (playing, listening, producing, etc.), that seems like it was done out of necessity. In fact it appears that they were compelled to become involved with music to save their very lives.

Around age 22, I began to get serious about school, I began to interact with new people, and my musical interests began to change as I became more open to new experiences. At this point I became passionate about school and a career in psychology.

From there things started to change quickly. My girlfriend at the time was into a wide variety of alternative music genres and sharing music became a way of connecting and growing together. Through learning about her musical experiences and interests I began to know deeply personal information about her life. Throughout this time, I began listening to a lot of alternative rock and roll, reggae, some punk, rock-a-billy, and my interests in rap began to wane. As I transferred into Long Beach State, and entered the

141 dorms, I was exposed to a whole new group of people; a new group who were actually quite positive, focused, and not caught up in an extended teenage delinquency. It was a breath of fresh air for me. A whole new social group to relate to with a whole new set of musical interests. Through these later undergraduate years, I was exposed to classic rock, jazz, ska, techno, blues, folk, funk, 80’s hair bands, grunge bands, hip hop, soul, R & B,

Motown, just to name a few. As I began to open up to the world, my teenage angst began to lose momentum, my social groups began to change, my academic/cognitive abilities began to blossom, and my musical interests began to change and reflect my own personal growth. Shifts in my musical interests were truly reflective of significant internal shifts in my self view, views of others, and world view.

Around age 25-28, I was out school and in the working world and my musical interests reflected current interests and feelings. Not feeling the anti-authority, f*** the world, aggressiveness of rap, I was drawn to “happier” music such as reggae, ska, and funk. The care free lyrics, upbeat tempos, bright horns blaring, high beats per minute, flashy fun image, I was feeling all of that. To be honest, life was relatively good. I was in a long term relationship, working a job I loved, feeling like an adult, and interested in enjoying life. This was reflected in the music I listened to. Also, I began going out to see live music on a regular basis. The musical experience of a good live performance was one which really moved me, the emotions it could produce were almost addictive. The feelings of connectivity with people of similar interests as well as the uniquely powerful musical dynamics a live music performance would produce, provided cathartic experiences that changed me a bit for the better each time they occurred. The feeling of

‘congruence” pervaded many of these musical experiences: with the people, the music

142 dynamics, moving in time to the music, connecting to the lyrics, sharing the experience with others, reminiscing about related musical experiences, participating in the music playing (jamming with them), the corrective emotional experience, leaving worries behind, making friendships, feeling passionate… This feeling of congruence with all of these factors illustrate the many ways in which music has been so powerful and life altering for me.

Around age 28, I went through a big break up with my ex-girlfriend, moved to

Michigan and entered a masters program in social work. This was a particularly difficult and trying time for me. A lot of the happier ska and funk music ceased to resonate with me, and I was at a crossroads with my identity development. I felt like this was it. Time to go to grad. school, grow up, and become a psychotherapist. This was a huge defining moment for me. Here is an ex-juvenile delinquent about to step up to the plate and make the polar opposite swing to adult, therapist, and treater of juvenile delinquents. When I arrived in Ann Arbor, Michigan I knew practically no one, and I felt like I had free reign to reinvent myself. During this process of reinvention, music was one of the primary processes involved in the transformation. The angst ridden intensity of rap didn’t really suit me anymore, the care free esthetic of ska didn’t really match my somber and developing serious mood now, Ann Arbor was just too white for funk music, reggae was a bit more of the relaxed and reflective mood I was in, rock and roll was feeling about right, and jazz was looking more and more fascinating. So my musical interests began to make a gradual shift in that direction over the next couple of years. It was gradual. A CD here, going to see a new band there, deciding to leave on a new radio station on the way to internship, etc. As my identity, moods, and personal interests began to shift, my

143 musical interests shifted with them. With my intellectual interests beginning to blossom, a new genre of music popped up out of nowhere for me. This may have happened as a result of my intellectual interests becoming a primary focus, or maybe this was an effort to present to myself and others that this was occurring, I began to listen heavily to old standards from performers such as Frank Sinatra, Duke Ellington, and other masters from the early 20th century. Without a doubt, there were big changes going on my life, and the music I played in my car, at home, with friends, bands I went to see, genre’s of music I would read about or watch shows on TV about, began to reflect the reformulation that was occurring within my head.

After graduating from my MSW program, I was able to land the job I had been hoping for, a pretty nice starting salary/benefits, and I was back into the daily grind of the working world. Once again I was back into a long term relationship, stable living situation, and I was developing my career as a therapist. Overall, these were good times, and my music began to shift with these changes in my life. I was only a short drive away from downtown Detroit and I began going out often and involving myself with the nightlife the city had to offer. Detroit being the birthplace of techno music, there were a lot of electronic music clubs to adventure into and see what they had to offer. The intense dynamics, bass driven intensity, hedonistic atmosphere, schizophrenic musical structure, and other qualities about the electronic music made it quite interesting to me, and I began to go to many techno clubs, began listening to different subgenre’s of electronic music

(trance, funky house, jazz house, etc.), and I began to get involved in the subcultures that sprang up around Detroit’s electronic music scene. There were many warehouse party’s, after-hours party’s, festivals, raves, big club nights, house party’s, etc. that provided

144 electronic music events. After some time it became apparent that a very particular kind of person, would come to events such as these. People seeking out such hedonistic and highly stimulating immersive experiences consisted of a few parts people who were high sensation/adventure seekers and another larger part people who were quite lost and unhappy, looking for an experience where they could lose themselves and put their unhappy lives on hold for a few hours, where they could lose themselves in the intensity of these bacchanalian experiences. The music was always pumped through the most extravagant/powerful stereo system possible at full blast, lasers and lights pulsated to the rhythms, smoke machines provided an unreal element to the atmosphere, beats per minute got faster and faster, and the music would usually lack any lyrics, simply relying on sophisticated computer generations of music. My other musical interest were still there, but definitely took a back seat, while I explored this new social scene, type of music, and new music experience.

Fast forward to age 33, and I’m moved back to California. I’m back in grad school (PsyD), pursuing interests in psychology, and looking to re-establish myself back in Los Angeles. My musical interests are now a jumble of the many genre’s that I have been into over the years. This jumble is reflective of my fear, ambivalence, and excitement, generated out of reformulating my identity and life plan again. I’m fresh out of a productive two year stint in therapy, feeling good about life, evolving my identity as therapist, moving to a place that actually feels like home (unlike Ann Arbor, Michigan where I never really felt at “home”), and the sensation seeking ADHD part of me seems to be evaporating into thin air. Now my music interests are leaning more toward, chilled out jazz, classic rock and roll, mellow indie. rock, deep house, old standards, acoustic

145 rock, lounge, old school reggae, a little bit of hip hop…To this day at age 35, those interests still predominate. I am interested in hearing all of the genre’s I have been interested in over the years, but my more reflective, mellow, mature, and relaxed qualities generate interest in hearing selections from these genre’s that reflect those qualities. My musical interests have been relatively stable in these last few years and this is reflective of my life being stable, more stable than it ever has. My identity, my emotions, my personality… they haven’t fluctuated much in the past few years, and I can see a parallel stability in my musical preferences. I continue to seek out musical experiences that solidify my feeling about who I am, connect me with people I feel close to, and provide me with corrective emotional experiences.

Without a doubt, if a therapist wanted to gain insight into my world, assessing my musical preferences, experience, and use would have been a short cut straight to my soul.

So much could have been learned by a therapist and myself, in such a short time, if a musically focused assessment helped to set the foundations for a therapeutic relationship and treatment plan. I don’t think there would have been one reason why I wouldn’t have engaged a person in a talk about my relationship to music. In fact even if I suspected someone was going to use that information to interpret things about me, I wouldn’t have really cared. Put simply, talking about music is fun. A therapist who would have taken an inquiry approach based upon music, would have been someone who I would have been able to connect with quickly and one who I would feel was really trying “to get me”. This may be due to my strong interests in music, but I don’t really think so. I think the topic of music is so compelling that more often than not, a person would be happy to talk about their musical experiences, whether it be a therapist or friend listening. If someone is

146 highly opposed to talking about their musical experiences and interests, I think finding out what that is about, may be even more telling than the information gleaned from the musically open and expressive client. Now I don’t think that developing an understanding of my musical history will give you a complete and total picture of me. But without a doubt, it provides key issues, themes, elements, people, time frames, feelings, thoughts, dynamics, that are uniquely mine and uniquely connected to my musical experience.

What isn’t important, is being able to simply categorize someone based on musical preferences, what is important, is developing a very specific and detailed understanding of the unique and individual way in which someone is intertwined with music. Their unique musical history and the personal meaning that they derive from this experience, provides rich clinical information to inform proper therapy by the therapist and to generate insight and understanding for the client. My hopes are that this doctoral project will generate a small shift in assessment and therapy practices to facilitate that very process for therapy clients in the near future.

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