How Do Students Cope? : Coping Strategies Adopted by Undergraduate Students

How do students cope? : Coping strategies adopted by undergraduate students.

Ashford, Kelly 1* and Lawrence, Julia 2

1 Brunel University, UK 2 Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference,

University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006

Abstract

This study sought to identify whether levels of self-esteem were linked to the coping strategies adopted by first year undergraduate students. Further, it investigated the challenges students perceived they would encounter on arrival at university, how these changed after a period of induction and how they felt they would need to adapt their behaviours in order to cope. Results revealed significant differences between participants with high and low self-esteem in terms of engagement with coping strategies. Specifically, participants high in self-esteem showed a tendency towards greater ability to rationalise situations, express emotions, vent frustrations and deal with stressful situations. Qualitative analysis identified that students’ perceptions of the challenges they face during their first year changed after a period of induction however, academic and organisational issues remain salient throughout. Practical implications and recommendations for future research are identified.

Keywords: coping, self-esteem

*Corresponding author. School of Sport and Education, Brunel University, Uxbridge,

Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK.

Total number of words: 3643 1 Email: [email protected]

Total number of words: 3643 2 Introduction

Movement between phases of education for many students can be a stressful experience. When transferring from post 16 to higher education, students are required to adapt to an environment that not only changes in respect of academic requirements but also in respect of personal independence. Research suggests that students’ inability to adjust to environmental changes is a major cause of withdrawal from higher education (Edward, 2003). Further, inappropriate course choice, as well as personal issues and financial constraints (Beach, 2003; Davies, 1999) may also be influential. However, where students are effective in coping with the stress caused by such change for example, through the use of appropriate support structures, a tendency to experience better adjustment is seen (Pancer, Hunsberger, Pratt & Alisat,

2000).

The negotiation of transfer to higher education for most students is achieved with limited stress. In order to cope with the transfer, Kashden, Barrios, Forsyth and

Steger (in press) suggest students adopt self-protective mechanisms, which are reflected in the types of coping strategies they utilise. Where the individual effectively applies such strategies they are able to “resolve problems, relieve emotional distress, and stay on track towards achieving their goals” (Brown et al., 2005: 792). However, where the application is ineffective “subtle avoidance or suppressed behaviour” may occur (Kashden et al., in press).

Coping can be defined as an individual’s cognitive and behavioural strategies to manage, reduce or tolerate the external and / or internal demands encountered in any situation (Crocker et al., 1998; Folkman & Lazurus, 1985; Lazarus, 1999; Litman,

2006) and is reflected in the self-protection strategies adopted by the individual

Total number of words: 3643 3 (Kashden et al., in press). Two distinct categories of coping can be identified; problem-focused which looks to manage the source of the stressor and emotional- focused, which looks to regulate the thoughts and feeling of the individual without specifically addressing the problem (Brown et al., 2005; Crocker et al., 1998;

Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Litman 2006). Within the context of problem-focused strategies, examples include, problem solving, planning and effort (Holt, Hoar &

Fraser, 2005); emotional strategies focus more towards avoidance, detachment and suppression (Kashden et al., in press).

In relation to coping, the strategies employed and perceived levels of self- esteem have been shown to have an impact upon individual well being (Lane et al.,

2002; Rector & Rogers, 1996). Self-esteem can be defined as the extent to which

“one accepts oneself, respects oneself, considers oneself a person of worth”

(Rosenberg & Kaplan, 1982, p.4). Relationships have also been established between self-esteem and performance. Specifically, low levels of self-esteem have been associated with decrements to performance and motivation resulting in a tendency to reduce engagement with problem-focused strategies, which potentially impacts negatively on self-esteem (Ader et al., 1991; Bednar et al., 1989). Thus, unless support is sought a downward spiral of self-esteem, performance and motivation may ensue.

Current educational policy in respect of a focus towards widening participation has changed the composition of the student cohort resulting in academic and social diversity. Further, increased student numbers and a move within some universities towards a research agenda have resulted in changes in the way courses have been traditionally delivered and to the staff: student ratio. Support for such a premise was provided by Montmarquette, Mahseredjian and Houle (2001), who

Total number of words: 3643 4 suggest that increases in the percentage of students dropping out reflects the increase in the number of students enrolling as a result of governmental strategies on recruitment to higher education.

Thus, owing to the diverse and growing population within higher education, a need arises to provide a variety of support mechanisms that are integral to all aspects of the student experience in order that student retention and overall cognitive development are enhanced (Fertig, 2003; Owen, 2002; Ul-Hag et al., 2003).

Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the coping strategies adopted by first year students, and the extent to which such strategies were associated with self- esteem. The intention was to establish a mechanism of identifying students at risk of withdrawal in order to provide support as necessary, and to establish generic support recommendations, reflective of students perceived challenges, in order to encourage students to access support systems effectively and to develop appropriate coping behaviours.

Method

Participants

Ninety (56 male and 34 female) first year sport sciences undergraduate students participated in the study. The students were aged between 18 and 20 years of age.

Measures

York Self-Esteem Inventory (YSEI: Rector & Roger, 1996). The YSEI comprises

30 items measuring global self-esteem. Specifically, they assess the degree of

Total number of words: 3643 5 evaluative uncertainty across a number of self-domains including personal, interpersonal, familial, achievement, physical attractiveness. Rector and Roger (1996) reported good internal consistency ( = .86) and test-re-test reliability (.83). In addition, strong concurrent validity has been established with other recognised self- esteem scales including the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES: Rosenberg, 1965).

Based on the global self-esteem score a median spilt was conducted enabling participants to be categorised as being high or low in self-esteem.

Emotional Control Questionnaire (ECQ: Roger & Najarian, 1989). The scale comprises four factors: Rehearsal measuring the degree to one dwells on past emotionally upsetting events, Emotion Inhibition reflecting one’s willingness to express emotion, Aggression Control measuring the degree to which one is able to control their hostility and aggression, and Benign Control measures the tendency or act prior to thinking/ how impulsive one is. Roger and Najarian (1989) have reported satisfactory internal consistency (Rehearsal: .86; Emotional Inhibition: .77; Benign

Control: .79; Aggression Control: .81,) and test-retest reliability (Rehearsal: .80;

Emotional Inhibition: .79; Benign Control: .92; Aggression Control: .73) for all factors.

Coping Styles Questionnaire (CSQ: Roger et al., 1993). The CSQ comprises three factors addressing rational thought, avoidance behaviour and a bi-polar scale reflecting detached/emotional coping. Roger et al. (1993) have reported acceptable internal consistency (range: .69 to .85,) and good test-retest reliability over a 3-month period (range: .70 to .80).

Online Qualitative Questionnaires. The online questionnaire comprised two parts and was administered to provide a more in depth understanding of the perceived challenges and coping strategies of students. The first part comprised three open-

Total number of words: 3643 6 ended questions requiring participants to describe the challenges they perceived lay ahead of them, the hardest issues that they would need to cope with and what strategies they might need to employ to overcome these challenges and issues. The second part required them to reflect upon their first few weeks at university and describe how their perceptions had changed, whether the issues they felt were important had remained the same, and whether they would need to adapt their current behaviour and/ or the strategies they employ in order to successfully complete, in the first instance, their first term at university. Throughout the questionnaire students could provide more than one response to the questions asked.

Procedure

During induction week of the academic year 2005/6 two hundred and twenty first year students were asked to participate in the present study. A questionnaire package comprising a consent and demographic form and the YSEI, ECQ, and CSQ were administered to those giving verbal consent. In addition, they were also required to complete the online questionnaires in their own time; the first during induction week and the second part within the first two weeks of term. During the administration of the paper-based questionnaires one of the authors was always present to answer any questions that arose. In addition, they were also contactable in person or via email during the period in which the online survey was live.

Data Analysis

Data analyses comprised four phases. Initially, data were screened for univariate and multivariate outliers using standardised z-scores and the Mahalanobis Distance test respectively. Second, the distributional properties of the data were assessed. Third, in order to determine whether differences in coping style were present as a result of ones self-esteem a 2 (high/low self-esteem) x 7 (coping strategies) MANOVA was

Total number of words: 3643 7 performed. Finally, a content analysis was conducted to identify any themes that were present in the qualitative data.

Results

Data Screening and Descriptive Statistics

Data screening revealed no univariate or multivariate outliers. The distributional properties of the variables for those classified with low self-esteem (M

= 108.58, SD = 8.57) and high self-esteems (M = 127.09, SD = 5.95) showed normal distribution. Descriptive statistics can be found in Table 1.

Insert table 1 here

Differences in Coping Style

Results of the MANOVA revealed a significant difference between participants with high and low self-esteem on the combined dependent variables,

Hotelling’s Trace = .25, F (7, 82) = 2.88, p < .05, η2 = .20. Follow-up univariate F- tests revealed significant differences in emotional inhibition, F = 3.47, p < .05, η2 = .

04, aggression, F = 7.44, p < .01, η2 = .08, rational thought, F = 10.49, p < .01, η2 = .

11, and avoidance, F = 8.24, p < .01, η2 = .09. Inspection of the mean scores revealed that in all cases participants low in self-esteem reported higher engagement in these strategies, with the exception of rational thought where participants high in self- esteem reported significantly higher engagement.

Analysis of qualitative questionnaires

Data was edited by reading and re-reading to identify common and emerging categories. Responses were then allocated to the identified categories allowing them to be assigned a numerical form. In order to establish objectivity both of the authors

Total number of words: 3643 8 independently categorised responses. Comparison of allocations revealed consistency of recording across all questions.

Perceived challenges during and post induction

Results revealed that during induction socialisation (the development of friendships and integration into established social networks e.g. sports teams), organisation (e.g. time management / work life balance) and independence in terms general living skills were reported as the main issues of concern. Further, environmental challenges (e.g. finding ones way around / getting used to new surroundings) and academic requirements were also noted. Following the induction process and experiences during the first few weeks of university, students identified organisation and academic requirements to be of most importance. It is interesting to note that financial, health and motivation issues remained stable (see Table 2).

Insert table 2 here

Perceived coping strategies needed during and post induction

Results revealed that during induction, students perceived that organisation, motivation and socialisation strategies were required to cope with the new environment. Further, strategies associated with building confidence and developing independence were also required. Following the induction process and experiences during the first few weeks of university, students identified an increased need to develop organisational strategies, this coincided with an increased need to adopt academic strategies e.g. study skills, presentation skill, writing skills. In addition, whilst motivation was maintained, the need to develop strategies associated with socialisation and confidence decreased (see Table 3).

Insert table 3 here

Total number of words: 3643 9 Perceived behavioural changes

Results revealed that post induction students perceived a need to change their behaviours associated with organisation and motivation. Interestingly a large proportion of students reported that no change in their behaviour was required over the coming academic year (see Table 4).

Insert table 4 here

Discussion

This study sought to identify whether levels of self-esteem were linked to the coping strategies adopted by first year undergraduate students. Further, it investigated the challenges students perceived they would encounter on arrival at university, how these changed after a period of induction and how they felt they would need to adapt their behaviours in order to cope.

Differences in Coping Style

Results suggest that levels of self-esteem have an impact on the strategies adopted by students. More specifically, low self-esteem has been identified as impacting negatively on performance and motivation, resulting in disengagement from problem-focused strategies (Ader et al., 1991; Bednar, et al., 1989). In addition, findings from this study indicate that students with lower self-esteem lack the ability to rationally reflect on a situation resulting in a tendency to withdraw effort as reflected in low levels of rational thought and high levels of avoidance. Further, such individuals lack the ability to express themselves emotionally, demonstrating high emotional and aggression inhibition.

Total number of words: 3643 10 Such findings raise issues regarding the support structures necessary for students during their first year in higher education. More specifically, it raises issues regarding how students with low self-esteem can be encouraged to adopt adaptive strategies focused towards emotional release and problem control. Practically it would be advantageous to look at ways of identifying students who may potentially demonstrate low self-esteem during the first weeks of the academic year. Such methods may include the use of questionnaires as in the present study and / or the effective utilisation of individual tutorials. In relation to individual tutorials, the use of personal reflection to identify areas of development, may provide a foundation on which to set realistic targets and identify strategies that can be employed to achieve these targets (Cowan, 2006; Hinett, 2002; Lawrence et al., in press). However, ideally all students should access the support structures available on a regular basis if learning is to be enhanced. This may require a change in the perception of what support structures are for.

Perceived challenges, coping strategies and behavioural changes

As expected students on arrival at a higher education institution students identified a range of challenges associated with the transfer to this environment including socialisation, independence, personal organisation and academic expectations (Beach, 2003; Davies, 1999). These were mirrored in the coping strategies students felt they would need to adopt. However, in contrast to Davies

(1999) financial issues were not identified as a major challenge.

Following a period of induction the perceived challenges identified by students decreased in number. This included a substantial decrease in concerns related to social and emotional adjustment, which is reflective of the induction programme

Total number of words: 3643 11 delivered in the university in which this study took place. Within this institution the focus during induction week is primarily towards team building and social integration.

However, organisation and academic expectations remained salient, with increases in the percentage of students identifying these as both a challenge and requiring the adoption of a relevant coping strategy. Interestingly, these increases were reflected in the behaviours that students identified they would need to change. Thus, although academic and organisational issues are addressed within the induction programme, consideration needs to be given to how these are delivered in order to reduce student concerns in a manner similar to those of social and emotional adjustment.

The strategies identified by students as requiring development appear to reflect problem-focused issues for example, organisation and academic expectations.

However, students also identified the need to adopt emotion-focused strategies specifically in respect of motivation. Student support structures therefore need to ensure that both problem- and emotion-focused strategies are developed within the tasks and activities undertaken by students and that these also reinforce the need for reflective practice (Cowan, 2006; Hinett, 2002; Lawrence et al., in press).

Further research is needed to address some of the issues raised through this current study. Students’ identified motivation as an aspect they needed to develop during their first year within university. Thus, research addressing the relationship between motivation, self-esteem and perceived academic challenges is warranted.

Further, monitoring of these aspects over an extended period of time is needed to identify whether fluctuations are evident across transitional events for example across academic years. In relation to changes in the student population, evaluations of current induction and support structures should be undertaken across a wider sample of higher education instructions to identify frequency of current utilisation, reasons

Total number of words: 3643 12 for seeking support and examples of best practice. Such research could be used to inform and develop future practice.

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Total number of words: 3643 16 Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the ECQ and CSQ.

Self-Esteem M SD High 6.64 2.42 Rehearsal Low 7.36 2.25 High 6.78 1.76 Emotional Inhibition Low 7.42 1.63 ECQ High 6.09 1.64 Aggression Control Low 7.07 1.76 High 5.91 2.29 Benign Control Low 6.42 2.12

High 17.87 2.51 Rational Thought CSQ Low 16.20 2.37 High 19.40 3.58 Avoidance behaviour Low 17.31 3.31 High 29.93 5.091 Detachment/Emotional Coping Low 31.36 4.62

Total number of words: 3643 17 Table 2. Perceived challenges during and post induction.

During induction Post induction Category What do you perceive to be the What do you perceive to be the most important issues to cope most important issues to cope with? with? N % N % Organisation 40 20 96 55 Socialisation 49 25 12 7 Independence 41 21 7 4 Environmental 31 16 12 7 Academic 22 11 30 17 Financial 10 5 11 6 Health 1 1 3 2 Motivation 2 1 3 2

Total 196 100 174 100

Total number of words: 3643 18 Table 3. Perceived coping strategies needed during and post induction.

Pre induction Post induction Category What strategies will you need to Are there any strategies you adopt in order to cope? need to develop? N % N % Organisation 47 31 86 52 Socialisation 25 16 12 7 Independence 16 11 8 5 Academic 7 5 20 12 Finance 4 3 4 2 Motivation 30 20 30 18 Relaxation 2 1 1 1 Confidence 19 13 3 2 Don’t know 0 0 2 1 Total 150 100 166 100

Total number of words: 3643 19 Table 4. Perceived behavioural changes.

Post induction Category What behaviours will you need to change over the next academic year N % Organisation 55 44 Socialisation 11 9 Independence 3 2 Academic 2 2 Finance 1 1 Motivation 31 24 Confidence 2 2 No change 20 16 Total 125 100

Total number of words: 3643 20