Indigenous Knowledge and Climate Change: Insights from Muzarabani, Zimbabwe by Nelson Chanza Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Geography Faculty of Science, Promoter: Dr Anton H. de Wit December, 2014 Dedication To my mother, Thokozile (Thokozayi). It was on one of the days in 2006 when we were busy weeding a dry maize field in the village. We had gone for three solid weeks without a single drop of rainfall, a situation that you described as peculiar. By that time, I did not figure it that you were referring to observable changes in the local climate system. Vividly, I can remember that on the same evening, you accurately predicted that the eastern-Mozambican current we experienced signalled the coming of rainfall in the next few hours. Amazingly, we received heavy downpours on the same night. My worry is that this knowledge will be lost as your generation vanishes. In recognition of your invaluable knowledge, I dedicate this thesis to you. ii Acknowledgements My two solid years of family detachment have proven beyond doubt that my prudent wife, Nyasha is a gift from God. She defied all the odds to make sure that our kids Tabitha, Angel and Prophecy received adequate parental care. In particular, she braved the demanding questions that our son incessantly pressed concerning his father’s whereabouts – Dadie varipi mama? Vanouya rini? Vanodii kuuya kumba? Her diligent support made this output possible. An expression of gratitude goes to Dr Anton de Wit for his thoughtful comments and guidance towards the successful production of this thesis. His swift attention to technical and financial aspects of this study deserves emphasis. Thank you for the confidence you invested in me. Dr Gift Mugano’s moral and financial support was a shot in the arm. There are no words that can best describe your kindness. His wife, Mai Tawana, is a rare species in this collective generosity. Together, they took a heavy burden in these difficult times to make sure that my studies were not stymied by financial insecurity. I am also challenged to take Paul’s words in Acts 20v35 into action. This strategic intervention complemented the Research and Capacity Development (RCD) bursary I received from Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU). Thank you Nyarie and your good RCD team for the unmatched professional conduct you exhibited. The funds I received covered my tuition and field work-related costs. I am deeply indebted to the participants in Muzarabani, whose unique and invaluable knowledge about their environment is the cornerstone of this thesis. Their willingness to participate was clear testimony of a reservoir of indispensable knowledge that they can generously contribute to the course of climate change. The two field research assistants: Mrs T. Sithole and Mr H. Muzanenhamo, were experts in their own right. Their skills did not only facilitate the research protocol, but also made the field work activities enjoyable. I extend similar gratitude to all the key informants who willingly iii spared precious time of their busy schedules to participate in this study. My particular appreciation goes to Honourable A. Mufunga, Prof. C.G. Mararike, Dr L. Unganai and Mr W. Zhakata for their dedication and insights. Mrs Lee Kemp, the professional language editor at NMMU performed a sterling job to ensure that the language issues of this thesis are thoroughly addressed. The genesis of this academic achievement is traceable from my mother’s unwavering commitment towards my education. I salute her unmatched support and vision despite the fact that the dark side of her time could not offer similar education opportunities. Finally, the office stories that my friend Vuso ‘manufactured’ always punctuated our busy daily schedules with laughter. It is incredibly hilarious to tell the coincidence that has entwined us since 1998 from high school, then through undergraduate and postgraduate degree studies, until finding each other again in this foreign land. I will never forget your interesting analogous story about how you entered into science. Indeed, you are now firmly embedded in the scientific community but the challenges ahead of us are not simple. We need to make a difference to the same communities that shaped us. iv Declaration v Abstract Discourse characterising climate change has largely revolved around aspects within the realm of impact identification, mitigation and adaptation. Apparently, a burgeoning appetite to examine the role of indigenous knowledge (IK) now confronts the fronts of climate science, policy and practice. The surge in attention to local- based knowledge is attributed to growing challenges posed by change and variability in the climate system. This study argues that indigenous-based knowledge is capable of filling knowledge gaps and validating current understanding about climate change particularly at local levels. Essentially, the paucity of knowledge about local climatic events can be circumvented by engaging indigenous ‘scientists’ whose many years of direct contact with the environment have equipped them with the indispensable knowledge, skills and experiences to understand the same. Primarily, the thesis’ objectives were threefold. One, it captured useful indicators of climate change and variability from the understanding of the indigenous people, which can also be used to enhance understanding of climate change impacts.Two, it drew from the knowledge, experiences, skills and practices of the locals in order to inform appropriate community level mitigation and adaptation interventions. And, three, it highlighted the fact that knowledge of the indigenous people can be used to direct research on climate change. The study area (Muzarabani in Zimbabwe) experiences recurrent droughts and floods and its villagers rely predominantly on climate-sensitive livelihoods. As such, it was selected to provide a reliable case on IK practices and experiences of the people witnessing climatic events. The study was framed within an epistemological and methodological configuration of emancipatory pedagogy that looks at the generators of climate knowledge as ‘scientists’ in their own right. A qualitative elicitation interviewing technique involving in-depth discussions with traditional leaders and elderly knowledgeable citizens was conducted. The participants were selected through chain referrals until the level of theoretical saturation. In addition, vi directed field observations, document analysis and key informant interviews with other respondents selected through theoretical sampling enhanced the robustness of data acquisition methods. Group-based participatory data analysis and reflexive pragmatism also enhanced rigour and quality of research findings intended to balance between the strictures of the scientific audience and the views of the knowledge generators. Three key themes were derived from IK-climate change linkages as: indigenous- based indicators of climate change, indigenous-based mitigation and indigenous- based adaptation. A range of indigenous-based indicators identified pointed to a progressively drier climate with shorter growing seasons that are also punctuated by mid-season dry spells. A trend towards increased desiccation of water bodies (rivers, ponds and vleis) was further observed. There is also an upsurge in the abundance and pestiferous nature of Macrotermes spp, Quelea quelea and Acanthoplus discoidalis , which are most likely related to climate change. Some of these indicators closely match with those used in mainstream climate science and they also serve to understand climate change impacts at a finer local level of analysis. Indigenous-based mitigation is mainly driven by the notion of sacredness where the locals regard forestry, certain trees and vleis as sacrosanct. Tampering with these is believed to upset the spirits who have powers to influence climate. Opportunities associated with IK deployment in climate mitigation are understood from the viewpoint of enhancing greenhouse gas (GHG) sinks and that of reducing vulnerability to extreme climatic events. Specifically, this can be achieved through enhancing GHG sequestration through forestry and land-use management initiatives; that is, reducing emissions from deforestation and forestry related degradation (REDD+) and Land Use and Land-Use Cover and Forestry (LULUCF). These two are the dominant schemes adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to govern climate mitigation. Indigenous disaster risk management (DRM) strategies abound in drought, famine, flood and violent storms through various forms such as Zunde raMambo, nhimbe , rain-making ceremonies and community early warning systems (EWS). vii The locals in Muzarabani are not passive observers of the changing climate system. Increasing environmental risks necessitates them to devise countermeasures for responding to climatic stimuli with the intention of minimising harm and/or enhancing the benefits brought about by the same. Thus, a portfolio of IK-based adaptation strategies best described as an assortment of short-term coping practices and long- term adaptive strategies were identified. These range from exploitation of ecosystem services, agricultural based interventions, riverine farming, traditional phenological knowledge (TPK) to migration. Therefore, it was revealed that community-based adaptation (CBA) can adequately leverage on IK to improve adaptive capacity and build community resilience against climate change.