Unit 1: Cognitive Psychology

Name ______

PSYA1 UNIT 1

Developmental Psychology

Booklet 1

Attachment & Early Social Development

The Specification  Explanations of attachment, including learning theory, and evolutionary perspective, including Bowlby  Types of attachment, insecure and secure attachment and studies by Ainsworth  Cultural variations in attachment  Disruption of attachment,  failure to form attachment (privation) and the effects of institutionalisation

Assessment

One of three topic areas assessed via the 90 minute written examination (50% of AS marks). Structured compulsory questions include short answer, stimulus material and one 12-mark question requiring extended writing in which QWC will be assessed. Explanations of attachment

Attachment: is an emotional bond between two people. It is a two-way process that endures over time. It leads to certain behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant.

You need two explanations of attachment

Learning theory Bowlby’s theory (attachment is learned) (attachment is innate)

Learning theory (AO1)

This theory is often referred to as a ‘cupboard love theory’ because it suggests that the infant becomes attached because their physiological needs are met. Behaviourists suggest that attachment is learned by conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests we learn by ………………………………………………………………………………… Classical conditioning suggests that a child learns to associate their caregiver with their needs being met and so an attachment is formed. The stimulus of food produces pleasure (an unconditioned stimulus which produces an unconditioned response). The person providing the food (usually the mother) becomes associated with this pleasure and therefore becomes a conditioned stimulus (conditioned stimulus). The food-giver then becomes a source of pleasure regardless of whether they provide food or not.

Summarise the main points of the theory (in your own words): ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… Evaluation of learning theory (AO2)

Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) studied babies in Glasgow and found that ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………

This criticises learning theory because… ……………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………

Harlow (1959) used Rhesus monkeys to test the learning theory. The newborn monkeys were immediately separated from their mother and placed in a cage with 2 wire ‘mothers’. One had a feeding bottle attached to it; the other was wrapped in a soft cloth but offered no food. According to learning theory, which ‘mother’ should the infant form an attachment to? Why? ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………

However, this is not what Harlow found. The monkey’s spent most of their time with the soft ‘mother’, and would cling to it especially when they were frightened. In fact the monkeys would frequently reach over to the wire monkey only to get food while still clinging to the soft mother. This strongly suggests that ‘cupboard love’ is not likely to be an explanation for attachment.

However, can you think of any problems with Harlow’s research? ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……..………………………………………………………………………

Lorenz (1952) suggests that newborns ‘imprint’ an image of their parents within hours of being born. This then allows them to stick closely to this important source of protection and food. This criticises learning theory and suggests that attachment is innate because the infants are far too young to have learned anything at this stage.

There is substantial evidence that we do learn through association however, food may not be the main reinforcer (as suggested by learning theory). Attention and responsiveness from a caregiver are also rewarding.

Bowlby’s theory (AO1)

Bowlby’s theory is largely rooted in evolutionary theory. He proposed that infants become attached to a caregiver because attachment is adaptive. This means that it is good for their reproductive success. Infants who do not become attached are less likely to survive and reproduce. Therefore those with the ‘attachment’ gene are more likely to pass it on and as a result infants are born with an innate drive to form an attachment to a caregiver. This means that the infant is more likely to be well cared for when young and defenceless.

The innate drive also means that infants can learn an attachment ‘template’ for later social relationships with other people which again promotes survival and reproduction (he called this the ‘continuity hypothesis’ as the attachment type continues due to the template). Summarise the main points of the theory (try to make 3 clear points): ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………

Evaluation of Bowlby’s theory (AO2)

Bowlby’s theory has had an enormous influence, in terms of practical applications and the vast amount of subsequent research that has been generated.

There is evidence that infants learn an attachment template (as suggested by Bowlby) which is then echoed in their later relationships. What did Hazen and Shaver find (page 15)?? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………… …………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………… Bowlby argues that early attachment forms the template or prototype for future relationships. This would lead us to expect children to form similar relationships with others. However, Howes et al (1994) found that parent-child relationships were not necessarily the same as child-peer relationships. Meaning that the child may posses more than one ‘template’. Lorenz (1952) suggests that newborns ‘imprint’ an image of their parents within hours of being born. This then allows them to stick closely to this important source of protection and food. This supports Bowlby’s theory that attachment is innate because the infants are far too young to have learned anything at this stage. Konrad Lorenz was the first thing that these ducks saw after hatching. They therefore ‘imprinted’ his image and formed an attachment to him, following him everywhere he went

A further criticism of Bowlby’s theory is the emphasis that he places on the evolutionary significance of attachment behaviour. The evolutionary argument is a post-hoc assumption (i.e. after the fact) rather than a proven fact. It makes judgements by looking backwards and arguing that a specific behaviour must be adaptive because it persists.

Wextermarck (1891) is credited with identifying an interesting additional long term effect of early attachments now known as the Westermarck effect. This refers to the idea that adults apparently avoid forming sexual relationships with individuals who they have spent a lot of time with before the age of six (a sensitive period). This seems to be a kind of reverse imprinting which would be adaptive as a way of voiding incest. In support of this Shepher (1971) found that not one of 3000 marriage records he studied was between individuals who had been raised together on the same Kibbutz. Key Terms Check your understanding

Attachment Primary attachment figure

Identify which side of the table the statements below belong in

1. The person who has formed the closest bond with a child, demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship.

2. This is an emotional bond between two people.

3. It is a two-way process that endures over time.

4. This is usually the child’s biological mother, but other people can fulfil the role – an adoptive mother, a father, grandmother and so on.

5. It leads to certain behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant.

Learning theory.

The name given to a group of explanations ( ______and operant conditioning), which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any ______tendencies or higher order thinking. There is less emphasis on ‘nature’ and more emphasis on ‘______’.

Judging the validity of Learning Theory

Learning theory is largely based on studies with non-human animals. Human behaviour may be similar in some ways but also is different because human behaviour is more influenced by higher order thinking and emotions. Behaviourist explanations may lack validity because they present an oversimplified version of human behaviour.

Behaviourists believe our behaviour patterns are constructed from the same basic building blocks of stimulus and response and therefore it is legitimate to generalise from animal experiments to human behaviour. Key Terms Evolutionary perspective

Innate Imprinting Monotropy

Which is which?

1. An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with a mother figure, which takes place during a critical or sensitive period.

2. The idea that the one relationship that the infant has with his/her primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development.

3. Refers to characteristics that are inborn, a product of genetic factors. Such traits may be apparent at birth or may appear later as a result of maturation (e.g. when a boy develops a beard).

Continuity Hypothesis The idea that emotionally secure infants go on to be emotionally ______, trusting and socially confident ______.

Highlight the key words in the definitions below

Internal Working Model This is a mental model of the world that helps us to predict and control our environment. The child’s attachment IWM in the short term helps the child understand and predict the caregiver’s behaviour. It helps the child learn how to influence their caregiver’s behaviour which in turn helps a true partnership develop. In the long term the IWM acts as a template for future relationships as it gives us expectations of how others behave.

Social Releasers These are behaviours (smiling, cooing, crying) or characteristics (‘baby face’ big eyes, small nose, big forehead) that elicit a caregiving reaction. Bowlby suggests these are innate and adaptive, and are critical in the process of forming attachments.

Sensitive Period A biologically determined period of time during which the child is particularly sensitive to a specific form of stimulation (e.g. caregiving) resulting in the development of a specific response or characteristic (e.g. attachment). The child will develop the characteristic more readily within the sensitive period but the characteristic may develop outside it. This is different to a critical period which is more finite – development of the characteristic can only occur within the critical period. Exam style question

Outline and evaluate the evolutionary explanation of attachment. (12 marks)

...... Types of attachment: Individual Differences in attachment

Watch the clip from an early episode of the BBC’s ‘Child of our Times’ series. What are the main differences in the behaviour of the two little girls in the clip?

“Individual differences” refers to how children can have different types of attachment. It can also refer to the how the strength of attachments can vary between different children. Probably the most widely researched individual difference is in terms of how securely attached children are to their caregiver(s).

Mary Ainsworth developed a rigorous method of measuring individual differences in attachments in a procedure called the ‘Strange Situation.’ (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). This method was used as a way of measuring the quality and intensity of children’s attachments, thereby highlighting individual differences.

The ‘Strange Situation’ measures individual differences in attachment. It takes place in a laboratory using structured observations. An infant (12-18 months) is observed during a sequence of 8 short episodes. The key observations that are made relate to the child’s reactions to the stranger (stranger anxiety) and the caregiver briefly leaving them (separation anxiety), and to being reunited with their caregiver.

Examination style question: The baby did not cry much when his mother left the room and greeted her return with enthusiasm. He was happy to explore the room when his mother was there though he checked occasionally to see where she was. He clung to his mother when a stranger entered the room.

(a) Identify the type of attachment displayed by the infant. (1 mark) (b) Describe one other type of attachment. (2 marks) (a) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

Episode Persons present Duration Brief Description 1 Mother, baby, 30 secs Observer introduces mother & baby to observer experimental room, then leaves 2 Mother & baby 3 mins Mother is non-participant while baby explores; if necessary play is stimulated after 2 minutes 3 Stranger, mother & 3 mins Stranger enters. 1st minute stranger is baby silent. 2nd minute stranger converses with mother. 3rd minute stranger approaches the baby. After 3 minutes the mother leaves unobtrusively. 4 Stranger & baby 3 mins or 1st separation episode. Stranger’s less* behaviour is geared to that of the baby 5 Mother & baby 3 mins or 1st reunion episode. Stranger leaves. more** Mother greets and/or comforts the baby, then tries to settle the baby again in play. Mother then leaves, saying ‘bye-bye’ 6 Baby alone 3 mins or 2nd separation episode less 7 Stranger & baby 3 mins or Continuation of 2nd separation. Stranger less enters and gears their behaviour to that of the baby 8 Mother & baby 3 mins 2nd reunion episode. Mother enters, greets baby, then picks up the baby. Stranger leaves unobtrusively.

* Episode is ended if the baby is unduly distressed ** Episode is prolonged if more time is required for the baby to become re-involved in play.

From her observations, Ainsworth believed that there were 3 main types of attachment. Children were assigned to one of these categories on the basis of their behaviour: stranger anxiety, separation anxiety and their behaviour on being reunited with their mother. There was a detailed coding scheme to assign children to one of the three categories of attachment.

The 3 main types of attachment (findings)

Type A: Insecure attachment - Anxious Avoidant (22% of sample) Anxious avoidant infants do not attempt to interact with the mother when with her, nor do they appear to be particularly upset when left with the stranger. When the mother returns, the infant may not make any attempt to get close to her.

Type B: Securely Attached (66% of sample) When the caregiver is present, the infant explores the strange environment, plays happily with the toys and uses the caregiver as a secure base. The infant shows moderate distress when separated from the caregiver, goes to her for comfort when she returns, and is easily soothed. The infant clearly prefers the caregiver to the stranger.

Type C: Anxious-resistant (12% of sample) The infant is very distressed when separated from the caregiver and is difficult to console on reunion. The infant rushes to her but may show anger, and struggle to be put down. The caregiver’s behaviour is also inconsistent – sometimes rejecting and angry and sometimes over sensitive and responsive. The infant tends to ignore the stranger and resists the stranger’s attempts to interact and provide comfort. There is limited exploration of the environment.

Key study – individual differences in attachment Ainsworth et al (1978)

Aim: Ainsworth devised a method of controlled observation called the strange situation. The aim was to see how an infant behaves under controlled conditions of mild stress. Stress is created in the strange situation by the presence of a ‘stranger’ and also be ‘separation’ from a caregiver. The strange situation is also new to the child and thus aims to encourage exploration and test the ‘secure base’ concept.

Procedure: 106 middle class infants were tested in the strange situation which involves 8 episodes, each lasting for approximately 3 minutes. Three people are involved, the caregiver, the infant and a stranger. Observer’s recorded infant behaviour throughout the episodes. They were particularly interested in separation anxiety (when the caregiver left the room), stranger anxiety (when a stranger approached the infant) and reunion behaviour (how the infant responded to the caregiver when they returned). They also recorded the infants willingness to explore the new environment (whilst using the caregiver as a secure base).

Findings: The infants displayed some similar behaviour, in that all infants explored their surroundings less from episode 2 onwards, whereas the amount of crying increased. In terms of differences, 3 attachment types emerged. 66% were classified with a ‘secure’ attachment (type B), 22% were classified with an ‘insecure avoidant’ attachment (type A) and the remaining 12% were ‘insecure resistant’ (type C).

Conclusions: The strange situation highlights important behaviours related to attachment: willingness to explore, stranger and separation anxiety, and behaviour at reunion. Infants vary in the way in which they behave, showing individual differences which may be related to the behaviour of their caregiver.

Evaluation of Ainsworth et al (AO2)

The strange situation has been widely used in attachment research with infants. It has also been adapted for use with children. Therefore the methods used are thought to be successful. Ethics: However, the intention of the strange situation is to cause mild distress

to the infant. This raises ethical issues as to whether it is acceptable to do this to infants. Such issues don’t have clear cut answers so this can cause problems. Ainsworth suggests that the situation is no more disturbing than any real life experiences. However, in episode 6, 20% of the infants reportedly cried ‘desperately’. Ethical guidelines state that psychologists should avoid causing any distress to participants.

Two way process: The strange situation focuses solely on the behaviour of the infant. The behaviour of the caregiver is not given much consideration. Surely attachment is a two-way process. This is clearly not addressed within the

strange situation.

Do all babies fit the three descriptions produced by Ainsworth? Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth type ‘D’ of attachment (Disorganised Attachment). This was used for babies who were inconsistent and did not fit clearly into one of Ainsworth’s three attachment types. A type ‘D’ infant might cry the first time the mother leaves the room but not the second time.

Is it really measuring attachment type? Main & Weston (1981) found that the results of the Strange Situation were different depending upon which parent took part. They concluded that the strange situation measures a specific attachment rather than the overall attachment type of the child. If attachment were a characteristic of the child (i.e. their innate responsiveness) then you would expect them to have the same attachment with both mother & father. This suggests that what is being measured is one relationship rather than something within the individual.

Ecological validity: Furthermore, Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggested that the setting is controlled and artificial meaning that the findings are not representative of a real-life setting. Therefore the study can be criticised for lacking ecological validity.

Can you think of any criticisms of the sample ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………. TYPE BEHAVIOUR Separation anxiety Stranger anxiety Reunion behaviour Secure

Insecure avoidant

Insecure resistant

………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………….

Effects of attachment type

1. Behaviour at school: Children who are securely attached explore their environments more thoroughly, are better able to deal with challenging situations and are better at problem solving, whereas insecure (avoidant) children often develop behaviour problems and lack persistence in learning.

2. Adult romantic behaviour:

Bowlby’s theory of attachment suggests that the infant’s relationship with his/her primary caregiver forms the basis of the child’s internal working model of relationships. This will affect the child’s expectations about what relationships (including romantic ones) will be like. Therefore we would expect a link between early attachments, attitudes about romantic relationships and actual romantic relationships. This is called the Continuity Hypothesis and can be taken as support for Bowlby’s hypothesis.

Hazan and Shaver (1987) extended Bowlby’s idea that later love relationships should be predictable from knowledge of an individual’s early attachment style. In particular, they predicted the consequences shown in the table below.

Hazan and Shaver (1987) tested Bowlby’s hypothesis with their ‘love quiz’. This was a quiz of nearly 100 questions published in the Rocky Mountain News. They received 620 replies to their questionnaire and drew the following conclusions. Securely attached adults:

● had certain beliefs about relationships (love is enduring); ● reported certain experiences in relationships (e.g. mutual trust); ● were less likely to have been divorced.

Insecurely attached adults: ● felt true love was rare, and fell in and out of love easily; ● found relationships less easy; ● were more likely to be divorced. In terms of attachment style 56 per cent classified themselves as secure, 25 per cent as avoidant and 19 per cent as resistant. Love experience and attitudes towards love (internal working model) were related to attachment type. In the following short version of the quiz questions make assessments as follows: ● Q 1, 2 and 3 assess attachment history. ● Q 4, 5 and 6 assess adult attachment type. ● Q 7, 8 and 9 assess mental models of relationships.

Ethics briefing This study involves questions that may be related to sensitive information about an individual’s early life experiences and which may suggest problematic adult relationships. Always seek informed consent beforehand, where possible, or offer thorough debriefing including the right to withhold individual data. In this case one should emphasise that the suggested correlation between early experience and later relationships is not 100 per cent – there are many individuals who overcome early, unfavourable circumstances. In addition this correlation is not proven.

A Short Version of the ‘love quiz’

Question 1: Which of the following best describes your parents’ relationships with each other? (a) My parents had a caring relationship and are affectionate with each other. (b) My parents appear to have a good enough relationship with each other but are not especially affectionate. (c) My parents have a reasonable relationship and are sometimes affectionate towards each other. Question 2: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your mother? (a) My mother treats me with respect and is accepting and not demanding. She is confident about herself (b) My mother is humourous, likable and respected by others. She treats me with respect. (c) My mother treats me with respect but is sometimes cold and rejecting. Question 3: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your father? (a) My father is sometimes affectionate but can be unfair. (b) My father is caring, affectionate and humourous. (c) My father is reasonably caring. Question 4: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. (a) I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. (b) I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. (c) I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. Question 5: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. (a) I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me. (b) I often worry that my partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me. (c) I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often romantic partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. Question 6: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. (a) I enjoy relationships but am generally quite self-sufficient. (b) I have been lucky in love and most of my relationships are rewarding. I still like the people I was involved with. (c) At times I wish I could just melt into someone so we could get beyond our separateness. Question 7: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. (a) The kind of head-over-heels love that is depicted in novels and in the movies does not exist in real life. (b) It is easy to fall in love and I frequently find myself beginning to fall in love, though I am not sure that it really is love. (c) Love is a positive and real experience. Question 8: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. (a) It is rare to find a person one can really fall in love with. (b) In some relationships romantic love never fades. (c) Most of us could love many people equally well, there is no ‘one true love’. Question 9: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. (a) I think that romantic feelings do wax and wane. (b) Romantic feelings wax and wane but at times they reach the intensity experienced at the start of a relationship. (c) Intense romantic love is common at the start of a relationship but rarely lasts. Examination style question

The ‘Strange Situation’ has been used to investigate attachment. Outline aspects of the infant’s behaviour that are recorded when using this research technique. (3 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………… Cultural variations in attachment Background: Cultural differences in childrearing practices may have an effect on attachment.  In Japan it is extremely rare to leave an infant alone and their mothers rarely leave them in the care of anyone else.  In Israli Kibbutzim the infants have very little contact with strangers as the self contained community is like a large extended family.  In Germany, the parent’s value independence, they want their children to stand on their own two feet. Some of the behaviour in the strange situation which is supposed to indicate secure attachment is seen by German parents as ‘clingy’. Cross-cultural variations are the ways that different groups of people (e.g. members of a society or subcultures within a society) vary in terms of their social practices and the effects these practices can have on development and behaviour. Key study – cross cultural variations in attachment Grossman et al (1985)

Aim: The aim of the study was to test the attachment type of German children. The strange situation was used to measure secure and insecure attachment type. Ultimately the study was to see if Ainsworth’s findings apply in other cultures.

Procedure: ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………

Findings: 49% of attachments were classified as insecure-avoidant, and only 33% as secure (compared to 22% insecure avoidant and 66% secure in America). Insecure-avoidant attachments are characterised by the infant paying little attention to the caregiver, and showing little concern when she leaves.

Conclusions: Grossman concluded that there are cross-cultural variations in attachment. Evaluation of Cross-cultural variations (AO2)

Cultures are not made up of one attachment type: Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) carried out a review of 32 worldwide studies, using the strange situation, involving 8 countries and 2000 infants. They found that there were large differences within cultures in the distribution of types A, B and C, e.g. In the Japanese studies there was a complete absence of type A but a high proportion of type C in one study, whilst the other study was much more consistent with Ainsworth et al’s findings. They concluded therefore that it is wrong to suggest that one culture consists of the same practices. There are several-subcultures within most large countries; therefore the idea of making cross- cultural comparisons may lack validity.

The measurement may be ethnocentric: The principle behind the Strange Situation is that attachment is related to anxiety on separation. The procedure assumes that the behaviour of all children in all cultures means the same thing but this may not be the case at all. E.g. Separation from the main caregiver was an unusual occurrence for Japanese children and therefore does not have the same meaning that it has for American children who may experience frequent separation. As a result Japanese children may appear to be insecurely attached. This is further illustrated in Germany where ‘insecure avoidant’ behaviour reflects the effects of specific encouragement towards independence in the child, and a move away from ‘clingy’ behaviour.

Furthermore, the strange situation suggests that secure attachments are better than insecure attachments, but this suggests that American children are better prepared for later life than German and Japanese children. This kind of judgment can be seen as ethnocentric - seeing the world and judging other cultures in terms of the norms and values of your own culture.

You can also criticise the measurement used (the strange situation) ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

Disruption of attachment

Ainsworth’s strange situation test illustrates the distress experienced by infants when physically separated from their primary caregiver. The Robertsons (1967-1973) made some landmark films of ‘children in brief separation’. On of the children filmed was ‘John’, a 17-month-old who was cared for in a residential nursery while his mother was in hospital.

Over the course of 9 days John went from a happy well adjusted child to a child so distressed by the experience that upon reunion with his rejection of her was clear: ‘A few minutes later his father entered the room and John struggled away from his mother into his father’s arms. His crying stopped, and for the first time he looked directly at his mother. It was a long hard look, one she had never seen before’. (Robertson and Robertson, 1989)

Robertson and Bowlby’s (1952) study of the short-term effects of separation

AIMS: Robertson and Bowlby aimed to identify the short-term effects of separation from the caregiver on young children. This was based on Bowlby’s theory of attachment and maternal deprivation hypothesis, which predicted that separation from the mother could result in deprivation, particularly if the child was under 5 years. Bowlby intended that this research would support his belief that deprivation would occur if the separation resulted in bond disruption.

PROCEDURE: Naturalistic observation of young children, aged 1 to 4 years, placed in residential nurseries by their parents because their mothers would be absent for some time. In the majority of cases this was because the mother was entering hospital. Films were made using time-sampling methods to avoid observer bias. Behavioural and emotional reactions to this separation were observed to assess the effects of separation on the children.

FINDINGS: There are three progressive reactions to separation (the PDD model), which are evident in a consistent pattern of behavioural and emotional effects. • Protest: The children showed great distress, calling and crying for the absent caregiver, and some appeared panicstricken. Anger and fear were evident. • Despair: The children became calmer but apathetic as they showed little interest in anything. Self-comforting behaviours were observed such as thumb sucking and rocking. • Detachment: The children appeared to be coping with the separation as they showed more interest in their surroundings, but they were emotionally unresponsive. The children avoided forming new attachments and no interest was shown when the caregiver returned, but most children re-established the relationship over time. CONCLUSIONS: Bowlby and Robertson concluded that most young children who experience separation suffer distress. The emotional effects during separation can be severe and can result in emotional damage, but rarely bond disruption. Separation was distressing for most of the children but they did resume their attachment on reunion and so the effects are relatively short-term. Greater separation anxiety is the most common long-term effect. CRITICISMS • Short-term separation does not necessarily result in distress. Robertson and Robertson (1968) showed that measures could be taken as part of the substitute care to minimise the effects of separation • The research is correlational; separation cannot be manipulated as an IV, which means cause and effect cannot be inferred. Thus, it cannot be said that separation causes emotional damage or deprivation. Other factors may have led to the separation and emotional damage, e.g. the parent’s ill-health may have disrupted the attachment bond before the separation took place if it resulted in the parent becoming physically or emotionally detached.

AO2 How valid is this research into the effects of separation?

High Validity Low Validity Naturalistic Observations Case studies examination of just a few children Meticulous observation records avoiding All were British and from urban observer bias communities

From the key points above can you create full paragraphs of evaluation to support / challenge the validity of the above research?

What factors affect the child’s response to separation?  Age of the child: Schaffer and Callender (1959) studied 76 babies between 3 and 51 weeks admitted to children’s hospital. Children under 7 months were found to show minimal upset. After this age the strength of the response increased up to about 18 months.  Type of attachment: A securely attached child is more likely to cope better with short separations than an insecure resistant child  The sex of the child: Boys seem to react more strongly to separations than girls although there are wide variations within each sex as well as between the sexes. Exam style questions

Some Psychologists wanted to see the effects of separation upon children’s development. They conducted a case study on a two-year-old child who was separated temporarily from her parents when she had to go into hospital. It was found that the child demonstrated protest, followed by despair and finally detachment.

(a) Explain one advantage of using a case study in psychological investigations. (2 marks)

(b) (i) Explain one difficulty in drawing conclusions about the effects of separation from this study. (2 marks)

(ii) Explain how this problem could be overcome. (2 marks)

(c) (i) Explain one ethical issue that should be considered when undertaking psychological research that involves children. (2 marks)

(ii) Explain how this ethical issue would be dealt with. (2 marks)

There is a danger with case studies of investigator effects.

(d) (i) Explain one investigator effect that may have occurred in this case study.

(2 marks)

(ii) Explain how this investigator effect could be reduced. (2 marks)

Deprivation

Deprivation means to lose something. In the context of child development, deprivation refers to the loss of care that is normally provided by a primary caregiver.

Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis (AO1)

Bowlby believed that continuous emotional care between a child and its mother was as important for development as physical care. Bowlby believed that if a separation occurs (bond disruption) between mother and infant within the first few years of the childs life, then the bond would be irreversibly broken, leading to severe emotional consequences for the infant later in life. Bowlby believed that the continuous emotional care must occur during a ‘critical period’. If separation (maternal deprivation) occurs during this critical period (before the age of 2 ½ ), then there would be permanent consequences for the child. The consequences include aggressiveness, depression, delinquency, dwarfism, affectionless psychopathy. The child may also suffer intellectual and social maladjustment.

Use the following 3 points to summarise the MDH

What happens if separation occurs early in a child’s life? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………

What is the ‘critical period’? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………

What are some of the consequences of maternal deprivation? Evaluation of Bowlby’s MDH (AO2)

Influential: Bowlby’s hypothesis had an enormous impact on how children are looked after in hospitals. Beforehand, children were separated from parents when they spent time in hospital, with visits being discouraged or even forbidden. As a direct result of the MDH, hospitals changed their policy to allow this to happen.

Vague: However, the MDH is thought to be vague. Bowlby did not distinguish between deprivation and privation, or short-term and long-term effects. There may be very different effects on a child if they suffer short-term deprivation (e.g. being separated from the caregiver for 2 weeks) compared to privation (never having formed an attachment). Bowlby didn’t account for this.

Key study – The effects of Maternal deprivation: The 44 thieves - Bowlby (1944)

The procedure and findings can be used as support for Bowlby’s MDH

Aim: To test the Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis (MDH). Bowlby used 44 child thieves who lacked normal signs of affection, shame and sense of responsibility and compared them to another group of children (not thieves). He aimed to find out whether the thieves experienced more deprivation during their childhood.

Procedure: 44 child thieves were used, 14 of which were diagnosed as ‘affectionless psychopaths’ (someone who lacks emotional sensitivity). A further 44 children acted as a ‘control group’, they were not thieves but had experienced emotional problems. The children and their parents were interviewed about their early life experiences with special attention paid to early separations.

Findings: It was found that 86% (12/14) of the ‘affectionless psychopath’ thieves had experienced frequent early separations from their mothers compared to 17% (5/30) of the other thieves. These early separations often consisted of continual or repeated stays in foster homes or hospitals, when the children were often not visited by their families. Furthermore, almost none of the control group had experienced early separations. Summarise the findings here:

Conclusions: This suggests that there is a link between early separation and severe emotional problems in adulthood (e.g. someone lacking social conscience). It also suggests that early separations are linked to affectionless psychopathy, meaning lack of continuous care may cause emotional maladjustment

How does this study support the MDH?? ………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………

Remember you can also criticise your criticisms! (use the 3 point rule where possible) However, the 44-thieves study can be criticised for using retrospective data: …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………

Furthermore, interviews may be affected by ‘social desirability’:

…………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… Finally, the study is a natural experiment (the IV (separations) is not manipulated): …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… Privation

Privation refers to the complete lack of emotional care for a child, especially during the first few years of life meaning that the child has never managed to form an attachment bond. It has been proposed that this can result in permanent harm to emotional and social development.

Before we move on, it is important to be able to distinguish between deprivation and privation? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………

Key study – The effects of Privation:

Hodges and Tizard (1989)

Aim: The aim of the study was to look at the long term effects that privation had on children. The researchers wanted to investigate whether a complete lack of emotional care had permanent and irreversible effects on a child’s emotional and social development.

Procedure: The study focused on 65 children who had been institutionalised before they were 4 months old (before they had formed any attachments). The institution had a policy that no ‘caretakers’ were to form attachments with the children (a high turnover of staff also ensured this). By the age of 4, 24 of the children had been adopted, 15 had returned to their natural homes (restored) and the rest remained in the institution.

The children were assessed at the ages of 4, 8 and 16 by means of interviews with the children, their parents and teachers regarding their attitudes and behaviour. This was compared with a control group of children who were raised in a ‘normal’ home environment. Findings:  At the age of 2 the children showed unusual attachment behaviours such as running to any adult stranger and demanding attention from them. They would cry when the stranger left the room even though they had no attachment with them. These behaviours are part of a pattern of ‘disinhibited attachment’.  At the age of 4, the institutionalised children did not have any deep relationships and they were more attention-seeking than the non-institutionalised children.  At the age of 8, most of those who had been adopted or restored had formed close attachments with their parents. However, they tended to be more attention-seeking and ‘over-friendly’ than ‘normal’ peers.  At the age of 16, compared to the control group, all of the children from the institution were less likely to have a special friend of to be part of a social crowd. They were also more likely to be quarrelsome and bullies.

Conclusions: The findings at age 4 and 8 suggest that children show signs of permanent damage as a result of their early institutional life. The findings at the age of 16 suggest that early privation has a negative effect on the ability to form relationships with people who aren’t willing to work hard at it (e.g. peers).

Evaluation (AO2)

Attrition: Due to the study being longitudinal, there was a reduction in the sample numbers at each assessment. This results in a biased sample because those that drop out are likely to be a particular type of person (e.g. it may be that the more ‘troubled’ children drop out).

Biased Groups: Furthermore, it may be that those who were adopted were less ‘troubled’, (parents select which child to adopt and they are likely to select those who are easy to get on with). It may therefore be because of the type of children in the ‘adopted’ group, that they were able to form close attachments with their parents. Natural Experiment: The IV was the place in which the child was brought up from age 4 onwards. This was not fully controlled by the researchers which is why the biased groups may have occurred. Genie: Genie was locked in a room by her father until she was 13½ (because he thought she was retarded). When she was found she could not stand or talk. Genie never fully recovered socially or learned to speak. It is thought that this was due to her early privation which supports Hodges and Tizard’s idea that early privation has a permanent effect on a child development. However, it may be that Genie was retarded meaning that she would have never functioned ‘normally’ anyway.

The Czech Twins: These twins were locked up for 7 years by their stepmother and couldn’t talk when they were first discovered. They were subsequently looked after by two loving sisters and by age 14 they had near normal intellectual and social functioning. By the age of 20 they were above average intelligence and had excellent relationships with the members of their foster family. This suggests that the findings may not be permanent and are in fact reversible. However, they were not alone in their early years; they had each other, meaning that they may not have experienced true privation.

However, both of the above studies are case studies. How can these be criticised?? (see table below for hints..)

Use the 3-point rule:

1. However, a problem with this is that it is a case study

2. …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… 3. …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………… Ethical Issues Methodological Issues: Lack of control Children and informed consent Physical privation, physical abuse, Intrusive ongoing follow-up / emotional privation – what are their obligation to continue participation individual effects? Retrospective data

Rutter et al (1998) studied 111 Romanian orphans who spent their early months in extreme physical and emotional privation in institutions. They were all adopted by British families before the age of 2, and by the age of 4, Rutter found that they had apparently recovered. They concluded that the effects of early privation is not permanent (which goes against Hodges and Tizard). However, it may be that these children were adopted before the critical period (as suggested by Bowlby).

The effects of institutionalisation

Rutter et al. (2007) studied the effect of early institutionalisation on emotional development and in particular how institutionalisation can be linked with disinhibited attachment. This is an ongoing longitudinal study comparing Romanian Orphans who were adopted by UK families with UK born adoptees who were placed with familes before they were 6 months old. The baies had entered the orphanage in Romania between one and two week s old. Conditions in the orphanage were very poor. At the time of adoption over half the children showed signs of severe malnourishment.

58 babies were adopted before 6 months old What type of research method has Rutter used here? 59 were adopted between 6 months and 2 years

48 were late adoptees (age 2-4)

Some of these children were followed up at age 4, 6 and 11. A range of measures were used such as interviews and observations of the child’s behaviour.

These figures were recorded for the children at age 6 No Mild Marked Disinhibition Disinhibition Disinhibition UK adoptees 21 29 2 Romanian adopted ≤ 6 mths 24 17 4 Romanian adopted 6-24 mths 26 39 23

Explain what the figures in the above table indicate about the relationship between institutional care and disinhibited attachment.

In 2007 at age 11 some of the children were followed up. The findings were that 54% of the children who showed ‘marked disinhibited attachment’ at age 6 still did so at age 11. Many of these children were also receiving help from mental health services and/or special educational support.

Evaluation (AO2)

This study uses a range of measurements such as semi-structured interview and observation. The data collected will be very detailed.

Attrition…….(elaborate)

Ethical issues with longitudinal research involving children Can children recover from institutionalisation and privation?

Describe four factors that influence the extent to which children can recover from adverse early experiences. (see Simon Green (Ed) AQA Psychology A textbook pp72-73)

Factor 1 Factor 3 Quality of care in institution Age of child when privation is stopped

Factor 2 Factor 4 Quality of care after privation/ Experiences later in life institutionalisation Examination Questions

Outline two behaviours that are characteristic of a securely attached infant...... (2 marks)

Explain what is meant by the term privation...... (2 marks)

Outline the behavioural explanation of attachment formation...... (4 marks)

Outline effects of disrupting attachment bonds...... (5 marks) (b) Explain how the behavioural explanation of attachment differs from the evolutionary explanation of attachment...... (4 marks)