World History Material

Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes Chapter 8, Section 1

Did You Know? The ottoman, a stuffed footstool also called a hassock, is named after the Ottoman Empire. Tales of this great empire excited the European imagination, and by the end of the eighteenth century a large market had formed for items of Eastern luxury—carpets, pillows, divans, and the like. Included was a small, backless couch the French called an ottoman, after the empire. The name was later applied in England to the smaller footstool

I. Rise of the Ottoman Turks (pages 239–240) A. The Ottoman dynasty began in the late thirteenth century when Turks under their leader Osman were given land in the northwest corner of the Anatolian Peninsula by the Seljuk Turks in return for help fighting against the Mongols.

B. The Ottomans expanded westward to control the strategic Bosporus and the Dardanelles. These two straits, separated by the Sea of Marmara, connect the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea. The Byzantine Empire had controlled the area.

C. The Ottomans expanded into the Balkans in the fourteenth century. Ottoman rulers claimed the name of sultan and built a strong military, first by developing an elite guard called janissaries, local Christians who converted to Islam and served as foot soldiers or administrators to the sultan.

D. With the use of the new technology of firearms, the janissaries began to spread Ottoman control of the Balkans. Around 1400 they had advanced northward, defeated the Serbs (Battle of Kosovo, 1389), and annexed Bulgaria.

II. Expansion of the Empire (pages 240–242)

A. For the next three hundred years, Ottoman rule expanded into areas of Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe.

.B. Under Mehmet II, the Ottomans began to end the Byzantine Empire. Mehmet laid siege to Constantinople in 1453, using massive cannons and forces that vastly outnumbered the Byzantines. The Byzantines fought desperately for two months, but finally Ottoman soldiers breached the walls and sacked the city for three days.

C. With Constantinople (later renamed Istanbul) under their control, the Ottomans dominated the Balkans and the Anatolian Peninsula. From 1514 to 1517, Sultan Selim I took control of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia, including the Muslim holy cities of Jerusalem, Makkah, and Madinah. Selim declared himself the new caliph and Muhammad’s successor.

D. In keeping with Muslim practice, the Ottomans administered conquered regions through local rulers. The central government appointed officials, called pashas, who collected taxes, kept law and order, and were responsible to the sultan’s court.

E. The Ottomans tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans. The Hungarians stopped them at the Danube Valley. The reign of Süleyman I, beginning in 1520, led to more attacks on Europe. The Ottomans seized Belgrade and advanced as far as Vienna, where they finally were defeated (1529). They extended their power into the western Mediterranean until Spain defeated them at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (see Chapter 14).

F. Until the second half of the seventeenth century, the Ottomans were content with their conquests. In 1683, they laid siege to Vienna. They lost, were pushed out of Hungary, and never threatened central Europe again.

III. The Nature of Ottoman Rule (pages 242–243)

A. The Ottoman Empire is often called a “gunpowder empire.” These empires were formed by conquerors principally based on their mastering the technology of firearms.

B. The sultan was the head of the Ottoman system. The hereditary position passed on to a son. The sultan was the state’s political and military leader. Sons often battled for succession, causing conflict throughout the Ottoman Empire’s history.

C. The sultan’s position took on the trappings of imperial rule. The empire adopted a centralized administrative system, and the sultan increasingly became isolated in his palace.

D. Every few years, commissioners recruited a special class of slaves, usually from Christen boys. This collecting was known as the Devshirme—the “boy levy.” They converted to Islam and were made pages or put in special schools. At 25, some became janissaries, others cavalry, and others government officials.

E. The Topkapi (“iron gate”) Palace was the center of the sultan’s power. Built by Mehmet II, it had an administrative function and was the residence of the ruler and his family. The sultan’s private domain was called the harem (“sacred place”). A sultan often had several favorite wives. F. When a son became a sultan, his mother became known as the queen mother. Often she had great power. The sultan controlled his bureaucracy through a council that met four days a week. A chief minister—grand vizier—led the meeting. The sultan sat behind a screen and indicated his desire to the grand vizier.

G. The empire was divided into provinces and districts, each governed by officials who collected taxes and supplied armies from their areas. The sultan gave land to the senior officials.

IV. Religion in the Ottoman World (pages 243–244)

A. Ottomans were Sunni Muslims. Since Ottoman rulers claimed to be caliphs, they were responsible for guiding the flock and maintaining Islamic law.

B. The sultans gave their religious duties to a group of religious advisers called the ulema. The ulema administered the legal system and Muslim schools.

C. Islamic law and customs were applied to all Muslims in the empire. Ottoman rulers generally were tolerant of non-Muslims. Non-Muslims paid a special tax, but were free to practice their religion. Most Europeans remained Christian. Large numbers in present-day Bosnia converted to Islam, however.

V. Ottoman Society (page 244)

A. Subjects were divided into four occupational groups: peasants, artisans, merchants, and pastoral peoples.

B. The state leased land to the peasants. Artisans were organized into guilds that provided financial services, social security, and training to its members. Merchants were privileged. They were exempt from most taxes and many became quite wealthy. Their own regulations and laws separated pastoral people.

C. The Ottoman system gave more rights to women than most Islamic countries of the time, probably due to the Turkish view that women were almost equal to men. Women could own and inherit property, they could not be forced to marry, and sometimes could get divorced. They often had much power in the palace, and a few served as senior officials.

VI. Problems in the Ottoman Empire (pages 244–245)

A. The Ottoman Empire reached its high point under Süleyman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566. Problems also began during this time. They became visible in 1699, when the empire began to lose territory.

B. After Süleyman’s death sultans became less involved in the government, and ministers increasingly exercised more power. Senior positions were assigned to the children of elite groups, who soon formed a privileged group out for wealth and power. The bureaucracy lost touch with rural areas, causing local officials to become corrupt. Taxes rose as wars depleted the imperial treasury.

C. There was an exchange of ideas and customs between the West and the Ottoman Empire. Cafes began to appear in the major cities. To stop this trend, one sultan outlawed drinking coffee and smoking tobacco. If subjects were caught in these or other immoral or illegal acts, they were executed immediately.

VII. Ottoman Art (page 245)

A. Ottoman sultans enthusiastically supported the arts. The production of pottery, rugs, silk, other textiles, jewelry, arms, and armor all flourished. Artists came from all over the world to enjoy the sultan’s generous patronage.

B. The greatest Ottoman artistic accomplishment was in architecture, especially the mosques of the sixteenth century. They were modeled on the floor plan of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which created a prayer hall with an open central area under one large dome.

C. The greatest Ottoman architect was Sinan. He built 81 mosques. A dome topped each mosque, and often four towers (minarets) framed the building. His most famous building is the Suleimaniye Mosque in Istanbul.

D. The silk industry resurfaced under the Ottomans. Factories produced silk wall hangings, sofa covers, and court costumes. Peasants made woolen and cotton rugs. They boasted distinctive designs and colors from different regions.