On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 492

Primary Source Questions—Chapter 16

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres [492]:

1. What major new ideas did Copernicus discuss in this selection? 2. What was the source of these ideas? 3. Show how Copernicus’ heliocentric theory was at the same time so simple and so profound. Why might one say that European astronomers finally destroyed the Middle Ages?

Kepler and the Emerging Scientific Community [494]:

4. What does the correspondence between Kepler and Galileo reveal about the agents and diffusion of European scientific inquiry? 5. What other notable achievements must European society have reached even to make this exchange of letters possible? 6. Describe the “tone” of the famous correspondence between Kepler and Galileo. How can you explain why he was a successful scientist?

The Starry Messenger [495]:

7. What was the significance of Galileo’s invention? 8. Why would these irrefutable discoveries have been so threatening to organized religions? 9. What personality traits can you find in Galileo’s account of his astronomical observations that would explain why he was a successful scientist?

Newton’s Rules of Reasoning [498]:

10. What are Newton’s rules of reasoning?

The “Natural” Inferiority of Women [503]:

11. What arguments did Spinoza use to support the idea of female inferiority?

The Father of Modern Rationalism [505]:

12. Describe Descartes’ principles of inquiry and compare them to Newton’s rules of reasoning.

Pascal: “What is a Man in the Infinite?” [510]:

13. What was at the root of Pascal’s doubts about man’s ability to find scientific certainty?