Roma Tre Prof. M. Boyd

Roma Tre Prof. M. Boyd LM1 AA 2013/14 Handout #6

LANGUAGE OF POLITICS: Introduction

Political Discourse and Genres Political texts are the result of “politics” because they are defined by history and POLITICAL DISCOURSE is “concerned with formal/informal political contexts and culture. They perform different functions on the basis of different political actions political actors… with politicians, political institutions, governments, political and related to the political world (e.g., political activities, political ideas, political media, and political supporters operating in political environments to achieve relations, etc.). These texts are almost always meant for a wider public and are political goals” (Wilson 2001: 398). embedded in a wider political discourse (INTERTEXTUALITY), so that they can display different degrees of CULTURE-BOUNDEDNESS. For translation purposes, it More specifically, it refers to “the use of language to do the business of politics is important to remember that, on the one hand, texts can reflect in a specific way and includes persuasive rhetoric, the use of implied meaning, the use of the social context and the historic period of their production (e.g., policy euphemisms, the exclusion of references to undesirable realities, the use of statements of a particular government). On the other hand, there are multilingual language to rouse political emotions, and the like” (Chilton 2008: 226). but equally authoritative texts (such as documents from the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe [CSCE], UN, EU) which reflect specific POLITICAL TEXTS are any texts that fulfil political functions (see below) and they production conditions and internationalization process (Schäffner 1997). include a number of different GENRES (see text box below): such as bilateral and multilateral treaties, speeches made during an election campaign or at a political With its interest in ideology, power, dominance, social and institutional party congress, a contribution of a member an MP or congressman to a debate, practice Critical Discourse Analysis naturally lends itself to the study of editorial, reports or commentaries in newspapers, a press conference, a political discourse. politicians memoirs (Schäffner 1997) as well as slogans, advertisements, leaflets  “Political differences have been constituted as differences in language, [and] used in electoral campaigns, home pages and blogs, special TV and radio political struggles have always been partly struggles over the dominant programmes (Meet the Press, BBC Parliament), fictional films and TV shows language” (Fairclough 2000: 3) about politics or political actors (JFK, The West Wing), etc.  The way people talk about themselves and others, both positively and negatively, reflect deeply ingrained power relations, and the texts they GENRES are part of sociologically determined communicative produce can serve to sustain or change ideologies (Fairclough 2003: 9). activities. They are conventional or typical combinations of contextual Ideology “can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between (situational), communicative-functional, and structural (grammatical  and thematic features). In the analysis of political discourse (as in any … social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and discourse) it is important to understand “the role which particular minorities through the ways in which they represent things and position genres play in the exercise of power and influence, and in part their people” (Fairclough & Wodak 1997: 258). role in the very definition of politics and political institutions” (Chilton & Schäffner 2002: 20-21). Some Important Features of Political Language 1. use of euphemism or euphemizing strategies o to soften or change perception of reality; o to legitimise or delegitimize someone or something 8. prominent use of pronouns to reflect personal and ideological points of view 2. a particular ideology (or indexicality) can be expressed through lexical (creating closeness, distance, a sense of responsibility, group identity, choice, accent, forms of address, etc.) which always signal some political coalitions, parties, etc.) distinction d. pronouns can indicate (or obscure) collectivity and individuality, or 3. metaphorical reasoning is common in political discourse (as is the use of they can be used for (positive) ‘self’ or (negative) ‘other’ referencing other rhetorical tropes such as metonymy and synecdoche) or as a way to polarize representations of in-groups and out groups. a. for example, in the so-called war on terrorism “the meaning of e. Most important pronominal distinctions are I vs. we, inclusive vs. terrorism depends on who you are and what your political ideology exclusive-we, and us vs. them. The use of I/we is clearly marked is, and include the meaning that makes it possible to use “terrorist” depending on how much responsibility the speaker wants to claim: I to refer to states as well as to sub-state actors” [Chilton 2008: 237] is used “to gain the people’s allegiance”, while we is often used to 4. most political texts are highly culture-bound: “with references to a wide evade complete responsibility (Wilson 1990: 50). Third-person range of cultural patterns of the society in question, including aspects of its pronouns can be used for distance, a relation of contrast and other economic, political and legal life, require a lot of background knowledge for a referencing from the so-called ‘deictic centre’. coherent interpretation.” [Schäffner 1997: 133] 9. the naming of politicians or other social actors by linguistic means b. many political texts make use of intertextuality (nomination) c. in analyzing any speech event it is important to consider four 10. the framing of questions to stress the availability of alternative models (in a different levels of context [Wodak 2009: 586]: democracy) c.i. the immediate text-internal co-text; 11. repetition and other rhetorical means to reinforce a message c.ii. the intertextual and interdiscursive relationship between texts, genres and discourses; *REQUIRED READING: Wodak, R. 2009. “Language and Politics”. In Culpeper et al. c.iii. extralinguistic social/sociological variables and English Language: Description, Variation and Context. London: Palgrave. 576- institutional frames of a specific ‘context of situation’; 593. c.iv. the broader sociopolitical and historical contexts, which the discursive practices are embedded in and related to. SUPPLEMENTARY READING: 5. use of formulaic utterances or institutionalized procedures (e.g., I beg to *Chilton, Paul. 2008. “Political Terminology”. In: Wodak and Koller (eds.) Handbook of move…) in specific situations (Parliamentary discussions, speeches, question Communication in the Public Sphere”. New York/Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. & answer sessions, debates, etc.) *Chilton, Paul & Schäffner, C. 2002. “Introduction: Themes and principles in the analysis 6. modal forms are used strategically by politicians to remain vague, or frame of political discourse”. In: Chilton and Schäffner (eds.) Politics as Text and Talk claims for truth, confidence, trust, credibility and legitimization. Analytic approaches to political discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1-41. Fairclough, Norman. 2000. New Labour, New Language. London: Routledge. 7. use of informal language to change the tone or to stress the manner (such as *Fairclough, Norman. 2003. Analysing Discourse. Textual Analysis for Social Research. an apparent closer relation between speaker and public) Oxon & New York. Routledge. Fairclough, Norman and Ruth Wodak 1997: ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’. Teun van Dijk, Ed. Discourse as Social Interaction 2. London: Sage. 258-84. Roma Tre Prof. M. Boyd LM1 AA 2013/14 Handout #6

*Wilson, John. 2001. “Political Discourse.” In: Schiffrin, Deborah, Deborah Tannen & *Schäffner, Christina. 1997. “Strategies of Translating Political Texts.” In Anna Trosborg Heidi E. Hamilton (eds.) The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Malden, MA: (Ed.) Text Typology and Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Blackwell. * sources available in the LUSPIO library. Comment on the use of the underlined items in the two examples (from GW Bush) Example 1*: GW Bush’s Address after 9/11 Attacks [from Cabinet Room following Cabinet Meeting, 12 September 2001]

I just completed a meeting with our national security team, that thinks its harbors are safe, but they won't be safe and we've received the latest intelligence updates. The forever. This enemy attacked not just our people but all deliberate and deadly attacks, which were carried out freedom-loving people everywhere in the world. yesterday against our country, were more than acts of terror. They were acts of war. This will require our country to unite The United States of America will use all our resources to in steadfast determination and resolve. Freedom and conquer this enemy. We will rally the world. We will be democracy are under attack. The American people need to patient. We'll be focused, and we will be steadfast in our know we're facing a different enemy than we have ever determination. This battle will take time and resolve, but make faced. This enemy hides in shadows and has no regard for no mistake about it, we will win. The federal government and human life. This is an enemy who preys on innocent and all our agencies are conducting business, but it is not unsuspecting people, then runs for cover, but it won't be business as usual. We are operating on heightened security able to run for cover forever. This is an enemy that tries to alert. America is going forward, and as we do so, we must hide, but it won't be able to hide forever. This is an enemy remain keenly aware of the threats to our country. *Example from Wodak 2009: 584 and http://www.americanrhetoric.com/ Roma Tre Prof. M. Boyd LM1 AA 2013/14 Handout #6

Example 2: GW Bush on Saddam Hussein’s Capture [delivered on 14 December 2003 from the Cabinet Room]

Good afternoon. Yesterday, December the 13th, at around 8:30 superb work of intelligence analysts who found the dictator's p.m. Baghdad time, United States military forces captured footprints in a vast country. The operation was carried out with Saddam Hussein alive. He was found near a farmhouse outside skill and precision by a brave fighting force. Our servicemen and the city of Tikrit, in a swift raid conducted without casualties. women and our coalition allies have faced many dangers in the And now the former dictator of Iraq will face the justice he hunt for members of the fallen regime, and in their effort to denied to millions. bring hope and freedom to the Iraqi people. Their work continues, and so do the risks. Today, on behalf of the nation, I The capture of this man was crucial to the rise of a free Iraq. It thank the members of our Armed Forces and I congratulate 'em. marks the end of the road for him, and for all who bullied and killed in his name. For the Baathist holdouts largely responsible I also have a message for all Americans: The capture of Saddam for the current violence, there will be no return to the corrupt Hussein does not mean the end of violence in Iraq. We still face power and privilege they once held. For the vast majority of Iraqi terrorists who would rather go on killing the innocent than accept citizens who wish to live as free men and women, this event the rise of liberty in the heart of the Middle East. Such men are brings further assurance that the torture chambers and the a direct threat to the American people, and they will be secret police are gone forever. defeated.

And this afternoon, I have a message for the Iraqi people: You We've come to this moment through patience and resolve and will not have to fear the rule of Saddam Hussein ever again. All focused action. And that is our strategy moving forward. The war Iraqis who take the side of freedom have taken the winning side. on terror is a different kind of war, waged capture by capture, The goals of our coalition are the same as your goals -- cell by cell, and victory by victory. Our security is assured by sovereignty for your country, dignity for your great culture, and our perseverance and by our sure belief in the success of for every Iraqi citizen, the opportunity for a better life. liberty. And the United States of America will not relent until this war is won. In the history of Iraq, a dark and painful era is over. A hopeful day has arrived. All Iraqis can now come together and reject May God bless the people of Iraq, and may God bless America. violence and build a new Iraq. Thank you. The success of yesterday's mission is a tribute to our men and women now serving in Iraq. The operation was based on the