UNIVERSITE D’ANTANANARIVO ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE

DEPARTEMENT DE FORMATION INITIALE LITERAIRE

C.E.R LANGUE ET LETTRES ANGLAISES

THE INTEGRATION OF INTO THE AMERICAN SOCIETY AS SEEN THROUGH AMY TAN’S NOVEL The Joy Luck Club AND JHUMPA LAHIRI’S Interpreter of Maladies WITH SOME EXTRACTS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF READING SKILLS IN “CLASSES TERMINALES”

CAPEN Dissertation by RANDRIAMIARANA Fenitrarinofy

Dissertation Advisors

-Mrs RAZAIARIVELO Ascence Maître de Conférences -Mr MANORO Régis Maître de Conférences

Academic Year 2006-2007 The Glory is for the Lord God Almighty To Michael and Danielle

RAVALINIAINA Acknowledgements

This end-of-study dissertation would not have been completed and ready for public presentation without the help and support of very many people to whom we are deeply indebted.

 First of all, we would like to praise the name of Jesus for giving us all the opportunity to accomplish this present dissertation.

 We are extremely grateful to Mrs RAKOTOMENA Norosoa, not only for her useful comments and advice, which have greatly contributed in the improvement of the initial version of our dissertation, but also for having accepted to preside over this public presentation of our dissertation.

 Special thanks are also due and thereby tendered Mr RAZAFINDRATSIMBA Eugène whose helpful comments have helped us to improve the present work and who have kindly accepted to assess our work.

 Acknowledgements are offered to Mrs RAZAIARIVELO Ascence and Mr MANORO Régis, our dissertation advisors, for their constant encouragement and their generous, patient and most invaluable guidance and supervision of our work.

 We are deeply indebted to each and every teacher of whom we feel fortunate to have been a student at the English Department of the Ecole Normale Superieure of Antananarivo.

 Last but not no means least, we are extremely grateful to all friends and family members for their unfailing patience and encouragement, their constant moral support. TABLE OF CONTENTS

0. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………...0

0.1 GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE WORKS………………………….……..1

0.2 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION………………………………………..3

PART ONE: ASIAN AMERICAN IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY………………..5

0.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………....6

1.1 GENERALITIES ON IMMIGRATION TO AMERICA IN THE NINETEETH CENTURY………………………………………………………………………...6

1.2 ASIAN IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY…………………...…..... 8

1.2.1 Generalities…………………………………………………………………..8

1.2.2 Chinese and Indian immigration to America……………………………….14

1.2.2.1 Chinese immigration……………………………………………..…14

• The exploration of the West coast……………………………………14 • The Gold rush……………………………………………………….... 16

1.2.2.2 Indian immigration………………………………...……………….20

1-3 THE PROBLEMS OF ASIAN INTEGRATION IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY.

1-3-1 and the American Laws…………………………………21

• Naturalization…………………………………………………………22 • Discrimination………………………………………………………...22 • Immigration……………………………………………...……………23

1-3-2 The building of new societies …………………………………..…………27

1-4 ASIAN AMERICANS AND THE XX CENTURY…………………..…………29

CONCLUSION TO PART ONE…………………………………………………….…34 I

PART TWO: THE INTEGRATION OF ASIAN PEOPLE AS SEEN THROUGH AMY TAN’S The Joy Luck Club AND JHUMPA LAHIRI’S Interpreter of Maladies…………………………………………………………………………….……35

0.2 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..36

2.1 THE SITUATION OF THE IMMIGRANTS’ HOMELAND……………...……36

2-1-1 China……………………………………………………………………….36

2-1-2 ………………………………………………………………………..48

2.2 PATTERN OF CHIINESE AND INDIAN IMMIGRATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AS SEEN THROUGH THE TWO NOVELS………….56

2.3 INTEGRATION IN SPACE……………………………………………………..62

2.4 ECONOMIC INTEGRATION…………………………………………………..71

2.5 CULTURAL INTEGRATION…………………………………..………………83

CONCLUSION TO PART TWO…………………………………………………..…100

II PART THREE: USING EXTRACTS FROM AMY TAN’S The Joy Luck Club AND JHUMPA LAHIRI’S Interpreter of Maladies FOR THE TEACHING OF READING IN “CLASSES TERMINALES”……………………………………………..………..99

0.3 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………100

3.1 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE TEACHING OF READING.100 3.1.1 The Pre-reading stage………………………………………………….100 3.1.2 The While- reading stage……………………………………..……….102 3.1.3 The post-reading stage………………………………………..……….105

3.2 PRESENTATION OF THE EXTRACTS………………………………………108

3.2.1 Pedagogical interests of the novels…………………………...……….108 3.2.2 Selection of the texts……………………………………………….….108

3.3 SUGGESTED LESSON PLANS……………………..………………………… 110 3.3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………...…… 110 3.3.1 Complete lesson plan…………………………………………………110 3.3.2 Partial lesson plans……………………………………...…………….115

CONCLUSION TO PART THREE………………………………………………134

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………...…..135

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………..………………………………139

TABLE OF MAPS AND PICTURES………………………………………………..…….141 III

0. INTRODUCTION

0.1 GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE WORKS

The present dissertation is concerned with “The integration of Asian people into the American society as seen through The Joy Luck Club of AMY TAN and Interpreter of Maladies of JHUMPA LAHIRI”. The two novels relate the story of the immigration of Chinese and Indian people from their homelands to the in the twentieth century and describe the reasons of their move, how they get there, how they built life thereafter and what they became.

Amy TAN was born in Oakland, on February 19, 1952. Together with her family, they live in Santa Clara but before, they settled in several communities in Northern California. Her father John Tan came to America in order to escape the Chinese Civil War whereas her mother named Daisy escaped on the last boat to leave Shanghai before communist takeover in 1949. In the United States, John Tan and Daisy got married and had three children Amy and her two brothers. When Amy Tan left the Baptist College, she took up the study of English at San Jose State University and received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Later, she settled in San Francisco with her tax attorney husband Louis DeMattei and studied linguistics at the University of California at Santa Cruz and at Berkley. In 1976, she worked as a language development consultant at Aladma County Association for Retarded Citizens and directed training developmentally disable children. She became an administrator of programmes though her parents wished that she would become a neurosurgeon and a concert pianist. After that, she started a business writing firm and became a full-time freelance writer and published works under non-Chinese names among them were Telecommunication and you, a twenty six chapter booklet. Amy Tan prospered as a reporter and editor began to write fiction and then she was taken on as a client by Sandra Dijkstra after Endgame and Between the Trees who encouraged her to complete an entire volume of stories. In 1987, she visited China with her mother and this trip inspired Tan at last to complete the book of stories she promised her agent in only four months who found a publisher for the book called The Joy Luck Club. The Joy Luck Club was published in 1989 and contains 289 pages. It has been translated in seventeen languages, including Chinese and remained eight months on the best- seller list. This book is divided into four chapters: Feathers from a thousand Li away, the first chapter, includes “The Joy Luck Club”, “Scar”, “The Red Candle”, and “The Moon Lady”. The

11 second, The twenty six malignant gates has “The Rules of The Game”, “The Voice From The Wall”, “Half and Half”, “Two Kinds”, and “American Translation”. The third bears “Rice Husband”, “Four Directions”, “Without Wood” and “Best Quality”. And the last chapter, Queen mother of the western skies contains “Magpies”, “Waiting Between The Trees”, “Double Face”, and “A Pair of Tickets”. The Joy Luck Club is a story of four Chinese mothers who immigrated to the United States in order to flee their homeland’s war, political repression and poverty and their Chinese American daughters. These two generations of women were struggling to come to terms with their cultural identity. All through the story, Tan shows us China, Chinese American Women and their family’s experience when in China and in America, the relationship and mis relationship between Chinese-Americans (Chinese-born Americans, American-born Chinese) and Americans. Apart from The Joy Luck Club, Amy Tan wrote The Kitchen God’s Wife(1991),The Moon Lady and The Siamese Cat: children’s book, The Hundred Secret Senses(1995), The Bones Daughter(2001), The Opposite Fate(2003).

Jhumpa LAHIRI, who is an Indian, was born in 1967 in London, England, and raised in Rhode Island. She has travelled several times in India, where both her parents were born and raised. Lahiri received her B.A from Barnard College, and from University, she has received an M.A in Comparative Studies in Literature and Art, and a Ph. D. in Renaissance Studies. She has taught Creative Writing at Boston University and Rhode Island School of Design and has been a fellow at the Fine Arts Work Center in Provincetown, . With all these diplomas, she applied for many jobs, instead of being scholar, she preferred to become a writer. Interpreter Of Maladies is her first book.It is a collection of nine stories set in India and in the United States: “A Temporary Matter”, “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, “Interpreter Of Maladies”, “A Real Durwan”, “Sexy”, “Mrs Sen’s”, This Blessed House”, “The Treatment Of Bibi Haldar”, and “ The Third And Final Continent”. From this fiction book, she wins the 2000 Pulitzer Prize. In addition to that, she wins the PEN/ Hemingway award, the O. Henry Award, a Transatlantic Review Award from the Hen field Foundation in 1993, and a fiction prize from The Louisville Review in 1997. She was also a finalist of the Los Angeles Times Book Award and was named one of the “20 best young fiction writers in America” in The New Yorker’s summer 1999 fiction issue. Now, she lives in .

12 In these stories, acculturation, Asian experience, relationship, grief, love and marriage mourning, sexuality, women’s heritage and survival are the key words and all provide rich description of the details of cultural values and customs. The story focuses on Indians in exile, cut off from what they hold familiar and sent forth into a world of new experience and the places where old and new Indian cultures meet. It also focuses on the intercultural communication and conflict often experienced by Indian immigrants and second generation Indian-Americans. Some of the characters are homesick; many are misunderstood because in one way or another, they are culturally displaced. The book as well shows explicitly the immigrants’ challenges of exile, their loneliness, their constant sense of alienation and their knowledge of and longing for a lost world. So, it describes the lives of immigrants, expatriates, and first generation Americans. In all, Lahiri charts the emotional voyages of characters, speaks with compassion to everyone who has felt like an outsider imbued with the sensual details of both Indians and American cultures.

From its discovery, a given country is constituted with different people to form and to become a real society. From this point of view, it is clear that the society in the big American continent is composed with many people of different origin who are now known as Americans. First, these people leaved the place they lived before, then moved to one chosen place and finally tried to build and to adapt to another life there. That is the reason why we have chosen to study the theme given above and take interest about the drawbacks and advantages the Asian people have met all along their move.

0.2 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION

The present dissertation is divided into three main parts. The first part studies the different waves of the Chinese and Indian people in the exploration of the American west side of coast during the Gold rush and the lack of manual labour in California. It also deals with their problem of integration due to the internal discrimination and how they escaped this situation by building new society of their own inside a society. Finally, we will examine the sudden change in their life at the beginning of the twentieth century and after.

The second part focuses on the integration of Asian people into the American society. It analyses the real reasons of the Asians’ immigration to the United States and what to be

13 accepted. It also analyses the distribution of their settlement, their main professional activities and their inter-cultural relations with their American ethnic groups.

The third part of our study id didactic. It consists in practical suggestions for the teachers of reading based on extracts from the two works.

14 PART ONE

ASIAN AMERICANS IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY

15 16 From this European influx, the Native Americans suffered greatly as they were forced to transfer their lands to Europeans through treaties, territorial wars and coercion and they were isolated in specific plots of land of poor quality called reservations where they met joblessness, poverty and diseases. Some tribes then disappeared altogether, others lost their language and cultures. When Spain consolidated his position in the South of North America, France and Great Britain exploited and colonized regions from Canada to the South in the Mexico gulf. In 1689, these two rivals fought for colonial supremacy which gave birth to the “American Independence War” in 1776-1783 and ended up with the creation of the United

Apart from the Europeans, many Africans were brought over to North America unwillingly as slaves between 1616 and 1807, especially to the South, where many labourers were needed to work the fields and this continued until 1863 though slavery was already abolished. To complete these labour forces, a large number of Asian people joined, this time voluntary, the flood of immigrants through contracts beginning about in 1840.

Between 1840-1860, the United States received the first great wave of immigrants and the main causes of their coming were their homelands’ famine, poor harvests, rising population and political unrest.

Consequently, the population from English-Irish descendent constituted about 29% of the inhabitant of the United States. Blacks from Africa counted 12%, Germans 23% and the Hispanic population about 9%. Inhabitant originated from Asia constituted 2, 9% of the whole population and the autochthons and the Inuit were 1, 8%

In the nineteenth century, as so many people entered the United States, and also this latter admitted and welcomed immigrants, a special port of entry or a doorway to the U.S on Ellis Island in the harbour of New York City was operated by the government in 1892- 1954.The Statute of Liberty which was a gift from France to the people of America in 1886 on an Island in New York harbour, near Ellis Island became the immigrants’ first hope and it began lighting the way for new arrivals.

Later, native-born Americans began to become concerned about the number of immigrants because these new people threaten their culture and jobs for they will accept low wages. As a result, Congress passed laws to limit or even to exclude the admittance of people

17 in the country. In priority, the U.S laws excluded Asian immigrants. People in the American West feared that Chinese and other Asians would take away jobs and racial prejudice against people with Asian features was widespread. Then in 1924, Congress passed “The Johnson Reed Immigration Act” which set limits on how many people from each country the United States would receive, and the numbers of persons allowed to come from a given country each year depended on the number of people from that country already were living in the United States.

Following these laws, the United States began to grant “Immigrant Visas” and preference was given to relatives of U.S citizens and skilled workers as well as professionals in short supply in North America to contribute to the development of the country. Nevertheless, the United States continues to welcome more immigrants than other country of 675.000 persons each year. In 1986, people who were living in the United States without permission or illegal immigrants, also called illegal aliens, were granted legal residency by “The Immigration and Naturalization Service” that enable them to stay there permanently. Nowadays, there are strict legal measures intended to further illegal immigration.

In the past, there was the idea of the “melting pot”, an image which suggested that new comers would abandon their old customs and adopt American ways. Recently however, Americans have placed greater value on diversity. It is said that immigrants enrich American communities by bringing and celebrating aspects of their native cultures with them. As a result the United States is seen as “a pot of stew” because people keep their own characteristics like the meat and vegetables in a stew. But in one way or another, immigrants always have the feeling of being strangers.

1.2 ASIAN AMERICANS IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY

1.2.1 Generalities

An Asian American is a person of Asian origin who was born and lives in or is an immigrant to the United States. Asian Americans do not always share the same culture nor resemble one another as the term “Asian” could represent different Asian ethnic sub-groups. Thus, Asians could mean all people who were from the wide continent of Asia and even from the Indian sub-continents which are the Philippines, Indonesia, and Insular Malaysia. As a

18 whole Asian Americans can be described as such: East Asian Americans include , , , and ; Southeast Asians Americans include , , , and ; South Asians Americans include , Nepalese Americans, Sri Lankhan Americans and and . The term also includes Burmese, Cambodians, Tibetans and sometimes also Pacific Islanders such as Samoans, Tongans, Fijians, and Guamanians. Ethnically, native Hawaiians are also sometimes included. . Asian Americans are an urban population and mostly concentrated in the largest U.S cities. 80% of them live in the metropolitan areas of Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York City. Some also can be found in Hawaii, California, Washington DC and metropolitan areas. The total number of Asians in the United States reaches 22 million the largest ethnic being the Chinese (2.4 million) and the Indians (1.6 million).

• KOREAN AMERICANS

There were earlier Korean immigrants to the United States but their immigration is dated as having begun on January 13, 1903 when labourers arrived in Hawaii to work on sugar plantations. After the adoption of “The Immigration Act” in 1965, many Koreans began to arrive. Korean Americans are estimated at 1.1 million, with large concentration in California, New York and . In addition, about one-tenth of Korean Americans are adoptee who are or have been raised by mainly white families. These can found anywhere in the country and in most cases they do not have Korean names.

• JAPANESE AMERICANS

Japanese came from Japan or from Okinawa; a former independent nation which was annexed by Japan in the late 19th century. There had been Japanese presence at the Gold Hills, California, in 1869, but the first wave of Japanese immigrants began in 1890 when they reached the Honolulu Harbour as indentured labourers of many sugarcane plantation, pineapples and fruit plantations, especially in Hawaii. By 1882, Japanese were sought by industrialists to replace the Chinese. In whatsoever, as Asian Americans, they were segregated and faced the same restrictions.

19 When the “Gentlemen’s Agreement” between the governments of Japan and the United States was signed in 1907, Japan would stop giving passports for new labourers and there ended the immigration of Japanese men workers. Yet, the immigration of spouses and children of Japanese already in the United States were still permitted. However, the immigration from Japan was totally banned after the adoption of “Immigration Exclusion Act” in 1924.

In 1941, Japanese attacked Honolulu. Japanese community leaders were arrested by the federal government. A year after, President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the sending of Japanese Americans to concentration camps; the “internment camps”. This internment is the best known example of Japanese Americans in the U.S history but despite the situation, many Japanese Americans served in the WWII. Most of the internees stayed in the camps until the end of the war and rebuild their lives in the West Coast again.

The 40 years of bans ended with the enactment of the 1965“The Immigration Act” which caused Japanese immigration with an average five to ten thousand per year. In addition, in the younger generation, due to the intermarriage with whites and other Asians, mixed race Japanese are more common than pure Japanese, and it appears as if this physical assimilation will continue at a rapid rate. In the United States, the first generation tend to speak Japanese or Okinawan as first language but the later generations of Japanese Americans speak English as their first language and do learn Japanese later as a second language. Japanese American culture places great value on the education of its generation and parents tend to force their children to study and venture into advanced subjects. As a result, their children fill the gifted classrooms, dominate the science in colleges and in universities, are found in the academic disciplines in the arts and humanities in addition to sciences disciplines across the United States. Most of them enter the military and or obtain advanced college degrees. Consequently, almost all the Japanese American communities enjoy above average economic well being and are more than wealthy. As far as religion is concerned, like the Filipino Americans, Japanese Americans are typically Christians and only small minority are Buddhists.

• VIETNAMESE AMERICANS

20 The majority of Vietnamese is of Kinh ethnic group. The largest concentration of Vietnamese is found in Orange County and California. Like many other immigrant groups, almost Vietnamese Americans are small business owners. Throughout the United States, many ethnic Vietnamese, especially first or second generation immigrants open restaurants serving either Vietnamese cuisine, Chinese cuisine or both, beauty salon and barber shops, and auto repair businesses. Vietnamese Americans’ businesses are found in Little Saigon in Westminster and Garden Grove but also in Chinatowns through North America. In Louisiana and , some Vietnamese Americans are involved in the fish and shrimp industries.

The immigration of the Vietnamese to the United States is very recent. The first wave who were highly skilled and educated came in 1975 after the end of the Vietnam War marked by the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. Wives and children of American servicemen with many people who feared Communist reprisals were airlifted (helicopters) by the U.S government and were transferred to various refugee centres in the United States. To make their presence legal, the Ford administration passed “The Indochina Migration and Refugee Act” which allow their entrance in the United States under special status. Even so, their immigration was not very welcomed by Americans.

The second wave that in contrast to the first ones was less educated and skilled began arriving in 1978 until mid-1980s and was still Vietnamese refugees. About two million fled Vietnam because of the re-education camps which are forced labour concentration camps by boats called “boat people”. In 1980, Congress passed “The Refugee Act” that reduced the restrictions on entry and at the same time, the Vietnamese government made the “Orderly Departure Program (ODP) under the United Nation High Commissioner for refugees allowing people to leave Vietnam legally for family reunification and for humanitarian reasons. Furthermore, additional laws allowed children of American servicemen and former political prisoners and their family to enter the United States. As a result, 531,310 refugees and asylees were accepted to North America between 1981-2000. Apart from these law benefits, Vietnamese as refugees from a communist country, have the higher rates of naturalization.

To prevent these Vietnamese refugees from forming ethnic enclaves and to minimize their impact on local communities, they were distributed all over the country but many resettled in , California and Texas which became the places with the largest

21 Vietnamese American population. Within these communities, some Vietnamese, apart from English, speak Vietnamese at home, and as large fraction of Vietnamese Americans consisted of ethnic overseas Chinese who immigrated to Vietnam long ago, some speak Cantonese or Mandarin which serve as a bridge between Chinese and Vietnamese in business and interaction. Chinese Vietnamese Americans consider themselves more Chinese than Vietnamese and vice versa according to the circumstances.

• FILIPINO AMERICANS

The Philippines is an archipelagic nation in Southeast Asia south of Taiwan and east of the South China Sea where Filipino Americans came from. The first Filipinos landed in Morro Bay near San Luis Obispo, California and began to settle permanently in the United States. The Philippines is the most westernised country in East Asia because after the Spanish rule, it became a United States territory and later a Commonwealth from December 12, 1889 to July 4, 1946. Have been living in an American-moulded society, the recent Filipino immigrants found it easy to integrate with American society as they did not have much of a language barrier to overcome. In the Philippines, English is the official language of instruction and government, and is the second-largest secondary user of English after India. While an overwhelming majority of Filipino nationals and Filipino Americans do speak English fluently, most speak Tagalog, Visayan, Taglish and Ilokano apart from English at home. Tagalog, also known as Filipino, is the sixth most spoken language in the United States. Like most immigrant groups in the United States, fluency in Tagalog and various Filipino languages tends to be lost among second and third generation Filipino Americans as they become further acculturated into mainstream American society. As far as religion is concerned, Filipino Americans share mainstream American religious beliefs: they tend to be devout in Christianity and its traditions whether Catholic or Protestant.

When people speak of Asian Americans, they never include Filipino Americans due to the misconception that they are Pacific Islanders instead of Asians. But as one group of Asian Americans, Filipino Americans tend to be highly educated and especially skilled in the level of medical and healthcare. For that cause, with the lack of nurses in America, hospitals and clinics in the United States recruit Filipino Americans or hire directly from the Philippines and offering them substantial salaries. According to the U.S Census Bureau, 60.000 Filipino

22 nationals migrated to the United States every year to take advantage of such professional opportunities. In the United States, almost of Filipino Americans are college and university graduates in the fields of sciences, architecture, business administration, economics, education, engineering, medicine and nursing; it is not striking therefore to see Filipino Americans to enjoy middle class substantial economic well-being. Despite of this level of education, Filipino Americans face racial discrimination in the workforce. In other words, there exist discrepancies in salaries.

Filipinos were legally American nationals. In addition, Filipino are eligible for dual citizenship both in the United States and in the Philippines thanks to the passage of “Philippines Republic Act” or “The Citizenship Retention and Re-Acquisition Act” of 2003. During the World War II, Filipino fought in defence of the United States and served in the armed forces against the Japanese in the Pacific theatre of military operation. Of the 66 countries allies with the United States, during the wartime, only Filipinos were denied military benefits of who live in the United States. Since those bills were introduced in Congress in return the benefits taken away from the 30,000 Filipino veterans and the struggle continue until today.

Unlike the other Asians groups who have a tendency to form close knit neighbourhood communities, Filipino Americans find themselves in neighbourhood with high White population without a need for establishing ties with other Filipino Americans. Even though the distribution is visible, a few townships in California and Hawaii have formed “Little Manilas”, business districts tailored for the Filipino American community. Most Filipino Americans reside in California and few communities are found in Hawaii, Illinois, New Jersey, Washington and New York. According to the 2000 United States Census, Filipino Americans surpassed Chinese Americans to become the largest Asian group in the country. Upon that, Congress has established a celebration of Filipino Americans’ culture in the United States in October which is known as “Filipino American History Month”.

1.2.2 Chinese and Indian immigration to America

23 1.2.2.1 Chinese immigration

Chinese Americans make up 22.4% of Asian Americans that make them the largest Asian American subgroups but they constitute just over 1% of the United States as a whole. Chinese immigrants to the United States have come in several waves and some of them were adventures, merchants and craftsmen, but the majority was unskilled labourers and peasants from the rural areas of Kwangtung and Fukien.

According to records from the U.S government, the first Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States around 1820 and they were mainly men who came in small numbers. However, Chinese records show that Buddhist priests travelled from the present-day British Columbia down to California in 450 A.D, and according to Spanish records Chinese shipbuilders were found in Southern California between 1541 and 1746. After other trades in Acapulco, some of the adventurers formed a Chinese colony in Mexico City in 1635 and some had gone north to visit Los Angeles and Monterey during the 1780s.

• The exploration of the West coast

Historically, the West Coast of the United States was discovered by Chinese carpenters and smiths who were brought there by the Western nation ships engaged in China trade led by the English captain John Meares in 1788 and settled on Vancouver Island. It was also known to Chinese sailors who worked on American ships. After these merchant workers, the West Coast was also known by Chinese fishermen who at the beginning secretly fished off the coast of California using Chinese junks and fishing began before gold was discovered. They caught many kinds of fish such as squid, abalone, shrimp and shell.

Soon after their discovery, they began to immigrate little by little through the port of San Francisco and built first of all their own communities in Monterey, in San Diego, in San Luis Obispo County and later a fishing village in San Francisco Ricon Point. Chinese began fishing for shrimp in California and numerous villages or shrimp camps were established on the shores of both San Francisco and San Pablo bays. China Camp in Marin County was one of the largest and longest-lived of these camps.

24 Fishing was not done in any way; many Chinese immigrants came along with knowledge of fishing and various preservation techniques necessary to develop a shrimping enterprise in California. In those times, there was less demand of fresh shrimp in the United States so it was dried and sent back to China. But when this business tended to be successful, and as the demand for fresh shrimp grew in California, pressure from other fishing groups increased against them such as the discriminatory legislation that required the purchase of special licenses, the limited fishing season, the restricted size of the catch, the prohibited exploitation and exportation, and the interdiction of Chinese fishing techniques.

During the later half of the 19th century, apart from droughts, floods and famines that affected China, the Chinese empire was in decline. There were series of wars, rebellions, and civil disorders. The peasants have lost their lot as land ownership fell into the hands of the wealthy with harsh corruption and oppressive rule. When Chinese sought to cut off the British pressure to open up China to foreign trade and to export opium, the British waged “The Opium War” in 1839-1842 in which they defeated China and ended its closed-door policy. The pressure by the Western power led to a rapid breakdown in the economy and the politic of China. “The Taiping rebellion” of 1851-1864 that shook the foundation of the empire, and the Civil War which broke out in 1856-1867. As a consequence of the political chaos and the economic dislocation, Chinese people were forced to leave their native land and seek refuge where they were received.

From 1840, about 2.4 million labourers went abroad to Southeast Asia, Peru, the Caribbean Islands and to North America. At the same time, the United States required a numerous supply of cheap labourers to develop its industries and frontier regions. So the United States encouraged Chinese workers to come. During the first half of the 19th century, subsequent ships brought them to the country and some other ships brought seamen, merchants, servants and students.

• The Gold rush in California

25 As soon as news of the discovery of gold in California around the 1840s reached China, about 52.000 Chinese immigrants from Hong Kong and from the Chinese provinces of Kwangtung, Chungshan, and Canton had left their homes and moved to California. As a result, the numbers of Chinese immigrants increased dramatically again the population of the West Coast of the United States. San Francisco was the main port of entry of these new immigrants.

To be better prepared for whatever difficulties might lie ahead, the Chinese often emigrated in self-help groups from the same village. Because few of them knew the language and customs of California, they formed larger self-help groups consisting of people with the same surname or from the same region. Many of these immigrants were able to raise funds for their passage; most of them, in order to fulfil theirs borrowed money. Those who could not borrow to their family borrowed from agencies under the “credit-ticket” system on signed labour contract whereby they agreed to serve in a foreign land for a specific time. This procedure was made at the treaty ports by Chinese recruiters working for Western entrepreneurs. Contract labourers were called “Coolies” whose contract specified conditions approximating servitude, slavery, or peonage. This arrangement was profitable to some who achieved success but was hell for other labourers who were tricked into going abroad and upon their arrival were forced to work under very bad condition and known among the Chinese as “pig selling”. Later, passage was paid through automatic wage deduction thanks to public opposition. Chinese immigrants joined the ranks of gold seekers and once they arrived in California, they met difficulties. They figured out that the gold mountain was just an illusion as the gold fields were littered with disappointed prospectors and hostile locals. In 1850, the California Legislature passed a law that all foreign miners must pay 20 dollars per month. Although stated in its clear term, it was enforced severely against Chinese and Mexicans. They spread throughout the west in Nevada, Southwest Oregon, Montana, , and the Black Hills of South Dakota. They settled in these areas for many years and extracted gold from lean claims and tailings after the other miners had left. But work could be scare, there was not enough to eat, they were cut off from their families because they lacked the money to pay for the voyage from China for their wives and children or for the voyage back to China.

26 27 Lately, they realized how difficult their situation was so they had to find some way to earn a living wage. The vast majority of the immigrants was predominantly men, had little education and work experience, so they worked for companies which required little facility in English and skills that could be learn quickly. . Great numbers of Chinese then worked for The California Borax Company which supply the borax needs of the country and mined other minerals in the deserts of California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming and Washington. In addition, when quicksilver (mercury) was discovered in Lake County, they worked at the New Alma den mine in Santa Clara and San Obispo. All these mining activities though they caused terrible stench with mines that flowed and could brought miners to death, were willingly endured by Chinese who would work there year-around even under the extreme heat of summer time.

As far as those who have given up mining completely were concerned, they joined the field of construction. Many roads in California were built by Chinese. They built trails and roads through dense forests and rugged mountain in Del Norte County. They built flume to cross Conrad and to carry water in gravity low system to gold mining areas in Garrote, in Big Oak Flat and in Moccasin Creek. Some stonewalls which are usually made from uncut stones over rolling hills on the Quick Ranch in Mariposa County were also among their achievements.(see Map n°2)

But the most impressive construction feats of Chinese were the Transcontinental Railroad, the California Central Railroad and the Central Pacific Railroad which was praised by the Sacramento Union in1858.(see Map n°3) The Transcontinental Railroad began in 1863 but it only hired Chinese in 1865 at Auburn because the superintendent J.H Strobridge was reluctant at the beginning. The work was difficult and was in a very bad condition but for Chinese labourers, though, it represented a chance to enter the workforce, and they accepted lower wages than many native born U.S. The railroad could never have been completed as quickly as it was without Chinese railway-men, hundreds of whom lost their lives along its rout as E.B Crocker of Sacramento declared in this following quotation:

“I wish to call to your minds that the early completion of this railroad we have built has been in large measure due to that poor, despised class of labourers called the Chinese, to the fidelity and industry they have shown.”

28 29 Once the railroad construction was completed, Chinese immigrants found work in a variety of industries, from making shoes and sewing clothes to rolling cigars. Since language barriers and racial discrimination barred them from many established trades, however, they often created opportunities for themselves and launched new businesses. Many of the shops, restaurants and laundries in the growing mining towns of California were operated by Chinese immigrants. They also played an important role in developing much of the farm land of the Western U.S, including the plantations of Hawaii and the vineyards of California.

1.2.2.2 Indian immigration

Like to the Chinese people, the phenomenon of Indian migration was not new. Indians have migrated and they still continue to do so. The slight difference between Chinese and Indians is that their emigration in the United States dated only in 1904. Punjabis and Gujaratis, who came from North-western India, make up the Indian American population but they are divided between language groups. In the United States, Indian Americans account for about 0.6% of the total population. Hence, they are the largest sub-group of and the third largest sub-group of Asian Americans after the Chinese Americans and the Filipino Americans.

The first significant presence of Indians in United States can be traced when peasants from the provinces of Gujarat and Punjab appeared on the West Coast and settled heavily in Fresno Valley seeking work in the lumber mills of Washington and in the vast agricultural fields of California. This first wave of Indians were predominantly Sikhs, poor, highly illiterate and had poor knowledge of English. As a result, it was not striking that few years after their arrival, they were hated by all. They were victim of racial discrimination, racial riot and considered to have “immodest and filthy habits”, the “most undesirable of all Asiatic races”

These pioneers were followed into the United States around 1913 by Indian students who are the largest ethnic group among foreign students in the United States, people working for Indians and international agencies like the Indian embassy, the Indian consulate, Air India, and so on. Their ranks were fortified by the arrival of political dissenters who openly advocated Indian independence, and in 1913 the Ghadr or the Revolutionary Party was founded in San Francisco, with their weekly newspaper which was conceived as the vehicle

30 for expression of seditious ideas. Their goal was to liberate India by all means at their disposal, and from the United States. Some returned after the outbreak of war to India, as a British colonial might have put, to foment trouble, consort with the Germans, and lure the peasantry into rebellion. America’s entry into the war in 1917 sealed the fate of the Ghadr movement: acting under pressure from the British, the U.S Government launched an intensive and successful prosecution against the Ghadrites for conspiring with the Germans illegally to deprive the British monarch of his sovereignty over India.

In contrast to the former immigrants, these last had good English assimilation as they were almost from the more educated and prosperous classes in India. When in the United States, many Indians specialize in the fields of computers and medicine; while many others are engineers or other specialists. Instead of clustering in one area such as California and other areas near the Pacific coast and its surrounding like the East Asian Americans, Indian Americans are distributed throughout the country. The states with the largest Asian Indian populations are New York, New Jersey, and California. However, there are large Indian population in Texas, Illinois and Florida. The metropolitan areas with large Indian population are , New York, and Washington D.C. There are also many Asian Indians in Silicon Valley (San Francisco Bay area), Jackson Heights in , New York City, and Edison, New Jersey. There are many India markets and stores in the United States. Some biggest Indian, markets are found in Chicago, New York, and Houston. Apart from that, there are a number of Hindu Temples, as well as Sikh gurudwaras in America.

1.3 THE PROBLEM OF ASIAN INTEGRATION IN THE AMERICAN SOCIETY

1.3.1 Asian Americans and the American Laws

The experience of Asian Americans with American laws lies primarily in the areas of naturalization, discrimination, and immigration. Although all Asians were affected, the greatest impact of the related and judicial decisions was on the Chinese.

31 • Naturalization

Asian immigrants were called Asian Americans in the United States because they reside in the country not because they were American citizens. These early immigrants retained their Asian citizenship because they were “Aliens ineligible for citizenship”. “The Naturalization Act” of 1790 considered only two colours; White persons and Black persons (aliens of African nativity) can be naturalized. As Asians were neither white nor black, they were not capable of naturalization. As a result, they could not benefit from the opportunity and the right of citizens. In addition, in 1854, the California Supreme court passed a law which firstly categorized Chinese with blacks and Indians and denied their right to hold public office, to be employed by the state or by local government, and to testify against White men in court. Finally and above all, they could not vote nor build any political party even though they paid taxes and contributed to the economy of the country.

• Discrimination

In 1860, two discriminatory laws were passed. One forbade Chinese American children to attend public schools. The other required a special license to be purchased by Chinese American fishermen. It was called a license instead of tax because unequal taxation was forbidden by law; in other words, it was illegal to tax Chinese fishermen and not other fishermen like Portuguese or Italian. Also, they were refused service in barber shops, hotels, theatres, and restaurants and other places available for taxpayers. Since “The Anti- miscegenation Laws”, intermarriage between Chinese Americans and American white also was forbidden.

In San Francisco as well, a series of discriminatory local laws was passed in the early 1870s more exactly in 1876. The Cubic Air Ordinance regulated the size of living and working quarters for Chinese people. The Sidewalk Ordinance forbade the use of poles, such as Chinese traditionally used, to carry bundles. The Queue Ordinance required Chinese to cut their long braided hair even though they would not be able to return to China without them. A series of Laundry Ordinances also known as “Laundry- operation fees” required Chinese American laundries to pay higher taxes than other laundries, and regulated the types of buildings in which laundry businesses could be housed.

32 Although the fourteenth amendment, of 1868 in its wording says “All persons born… in the United States are citizens…nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person…the equal protection of the laws.”, Chinese persons were deprived of these rights though they had off springs born in the United States for the simple reason that they were born of Chinese parents who were not eligible for naturalization. Asian people who were mostly ignorant and no one would take their side stayed quiet or wanted to keep their former citizenship because after their hard working years they wished to return to their mother land. By exception in 1895, Wong Kim Ark went to the U.S District Court then to the Supreme Court because after his journey to China, he was denied entry to the United States. He was born in the U.S in 1873 but bon of Chinese parents who were ineligible for naturalization. At last he was given the favour as the Court stated that “the fourteenth amendment…, in clear words manifest intent, includes the children born within the territory of the United States of all persons, of whatever race and colour, domiciled within the United States…no act of omission of Congress, as to providing for the naturalization of parents or children of a particular race, can affect citizenship acquired as birthright, by virtue of the Constitution itself without any aid of legislation.” In the late 1913, the India Welfare League and the India League of America fought to obtain citizenship but failed.

Apart from these discriminatory laws, Chinese Americans endured an epidemic of violence, campaigns of persecution, injuries and even murder. Anti-Chinese riots and movements began to spread and usually with little hope of help from the law.

• Immigration

Before the Civil War, no uniform national policy governing immigration existed in the United States; states freely recruited labourers and oversaw their entry into the country.

Under traditional Chinese law, the Chinese were not allowed to leave China without special permission. However, Chinese did come to the United States between 1820 and 1840 and during the gold rush in California in 1848. From their arrival, the Chinese experienced discrimination and racism and finally exclusion. The first anti-Chinese legislation was enacted in 1850 by the Western states to discourage Chinese immigrants. It was the $ 20 monthly special tax imposed on Chinese labourers. In

33 1855, California enacted another law the entry tax of $55. Also every man who reached their eighteen years old must pay $2.50 monthly which was called “A police tax”. In 1862, The United States Congress passed the “Coolly Traffic Law” prohibiting the transportation and importation of coolies from China.

After the end of the Civil War in 1865, there was a great demand for Chinese labourers to work in other construction in the West. Thus, in 1868, the United States urged China to agree “The Reed Treaty” or “The Sino- American Treaty” of June 18, 1858 to the principle of free immigration so that Chinese would come legally to the United States. However, during the 1870s, an economic downturn resulted in serious unemployment problems, and led to more heightened outcries against Asian immigrants especially against Chinese immigrants who were more efficient and demanded less pay. Consequently, Racist Labour Union leaders directed their actions and the anger of unemployed works at the Chinese, blaming them for depressed wages and lack of jobs. Denis Kearney, head of the Workingmen’s Party in California, led this battle against Chinese manifested in several anti- Chinese riots in the West. Not surprisingly, the federal and local authorities took no effective actions to protect the Chinese during the riots. Their omissions were in disregard of the legal obligation under international law and various Sino-U.S Treaties. In other hand, local and state wide restriction continued to be enforced against the Chinese.

Eventually, The United States, Congress passed “The ” in 1882 which was signed by president Chester Arthur. As its name this law excluded Chinese labourers from entering the United States whether unskilled or skilled from ten years unless they had family or property in the country. In not violating the 1880 Treaty with China, only tourists, merchants, diplomats, officials, teachers and students were allowed to enter the United States. They were asked whether to leave for China or to remain and never join their family again. Unfortunately, China, as the hometown for these immigrants, was unable to exert any influence on American Policy. After the exclusion, discrimination, frequent riots, harassment continued and followed those who were already in the States.

In 1888, the Congress passed “The Scott Act” which barred re-entry of Chinese labourers to the United States even if they left the country only temporarily. More than 20.000 men have left the country to visit their family in China and left property and business venture in America but were prohibited to returning. Ironically, one of the results of the

34 Exclusion Law and Scott Act was the shortage of Chinese American workers; they were not enough of them to fulfil the demand so they were able to obtain a higher pay.

In 1892, the Congress passed “The ” which extended the previous Chinese exclusion law for another 10 years and required Chinese in the United States to obtain certificates of residence within a stated period so all Chinese labourers without such would be considered unlawful and would be deported. The regulation was sufficiently explained and publicized, and the act imposed strict requirements to acquire the certification; Consequently, Chinese could not meet such requirements; they were thus subject to deportation. In 1902, The Chinese exclusion laws were extended for another decade and were made permanent and indefinite under “The Extension Act” in 1904. Finally, for a good result of these acts, construction of an Immigration Station on Angel Island began in the area known as “China Cove” in 1905.

Despite the successive discrimination laws towards Chinese immigrants, they did try and continue to flock to America in knowing exactly what they will await them there. When in 1906 the earthquake fires destroyed all family records, Chinese immigrants profited by giving false names and fake identities and came to the United States as “paper sons” and “paper daughters”. In 1910, the Immigration Station on Angel Island also known as “Ellis Island of the West” was finally put into action, but aimed for this time at limiting the European immigrants from the Panama Canal to the United States. Surprisingly, the majority whom were detained was from Asia and 70% of them were Chinese who were subject to long interrogations by immigration officials seeking not to testify their right to entry, but to find evidence to deny entry. Eventually, this was because opportunities in the United States were still better than in China.

“Why did we have to depart from our parents and loved ones and come to stay in a place far away from our homes? It is for no reason but to make a living. In order to make a living, we have to endure all year around drudgery and all kind of hardship. We are in a State of seeking shelter under another person’s face, at the threat of being driven away at any moment. We have to swallow down the insults hurled at us.”1

1 KNOLL, T., Becoming Americans: Coast to Coast Book, Portland, 1982, p 28

35 As far as the Indians were concerned, because they did not cease to immigrate to the United States could not hide racial injustice. In 1907 for example, Asian Indians were victims of racial riot in Bellingham, Washington and henceforth concerted attempts would be made by Asiatic Exclusion League and other association to prevent further immigration from India into the United States and to restrict the capacity of those already in the country to own property.

With the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act as a precedent, however, by 1917 exclusionist lobbies pressured congress to pass an immigration act that severely reduced the immigration of labourers from an « Asiatic Barred Zone » including India, Indochina, Burma, Siam, the Malay States, and the Polynesian and East Indian Islands; in other words all Asians who were not banned by earlier legislation or executive agreement. Eventually, from the first Chinese exclusion law, immigration of certain nationalities and social classes of Asians was prohibited by “The Immigration Act” of 1917 passed by congress. This act barred all Asians from entering the United States. At this time, naturalized citizenship was reserved to “White” only which ought to be interpreted to mean “Caucasians”2.

Through the 1920s, shifts in immigration policy continued to suppress Asian immigration. Thus, “The Immigration Exclusion Act” was enacted in1924. In its Section 13(c), it contained a provision which excluded the immigration of “aliens ineligible for citizenship”. In fact, it denied the admission of all Asians in the United States. As an exception, Filipinos could immigrate to the United States during these periods because the Philippine Islands were ceded by Spain to the United States in 1898 and thus came under the U.S administration and made the Filipinos U.S nationals, they were eligible to enter the country and could not be excluded. But for another indirect issue, “The Repartition Act” of 1935 encouraged Filipinos to return to the Philippines by offering to pay their transportation fees. The same case for the Japanese whose right to emigrate was provided in the 1894 and 1907 U.S-Japanese Treaties which stated: “Citizens or subjects of each country should have

2. At the beginning, “Caucasians” really means “Whites” but later it was justified by Congress to mean “Europeans”.

36 liberty to enter, travel and reside in the territories of the other…and they should enjoy in this respect the same right and privileges which might be granted to native citizens or subjects.” Nevertheless, alien land laws and other discriminatory state laws applied to them as they did to all other Asians.

1.3.2 The building of a new society

Early Chinese immigrants settled throughout California and the first permanent Chinese settlement was made in Los Angeles in 1856. By 1860, they had settled in all but five counties of the state, and by 1870, they lived in every county, working in a wide variety of occupations. In all, they were 286 cities and towns with such large Chinese American populations in 1870 that names of these cities and towns were translated into Chinese characters phonetically such as San Francisco, in Chinese, was known as Dai Fou (“the big city”), Sacramento as Yi Fou (“the second city”) which many Chinese passed through on the way to the northern mines, and Marysville as Sam Fou (“the third city”) which was the supply center for the northern mines.

Segregation of Chinese Americans began in the mining districts, where Chinese Americans were forced to live in the undesirable section of towns. In Marysville, Yreka and elsewhere for example, they could only live along the river which was subject to flooding but in 1871, these Chinese communities were destroyed by a series of fire. In Mendocino, they could only live on the swampy headlands next to the ocean. In addition to that, if there was no undesirable section of town, so there was a natural boundary, a stream that run across the main street which used to divide Chinese Americans from the White section of town beyond which Chinese Americans dared not to pass without the risk of being insulted and even physically abused; while White were allowed to locate and do business in the Chinese section, no Chinese Americans homes or businesses were allowed in the White section.

In each city, the Chinese American sections, also known as “Chinese Quarters” or “Chinese communities” were most of the time situated in the small and often overcrowded quarters of the urban areas; far from the residential areas of White sections. Thus, a law requiring the San Francisco Board of Supervisors to increase the size of the police force was passed in 1878. However, special police were still needed to supplement the regular force, and could be hired to protect businesses and property throughout the city except in the

37 Chinese section. The new law prohibited the employment of special police within the Chinese section, the boundaries of which were set by police commissioners which suggest that police may have had a role in enforcing segregation. Establishment of boundaries for the Chinese section shows that Chinese Americans who at first were able to live throughout the city had, by 1878, been segregated into one section of the city.

Later, in 1882, the enactment of the Exclusion Law was followed by expulsion of Chinese Americans from various localities. Around the time of expulsions, a series of fires occurred throughout the state, some of suspicious origin, and destroyed all Chinese American communities.

Forced by these social phenomenon combined with the anti-Chinese outrages and legal exclusions and expulsion, Chinese immigrants built a separate, independent cities within the city of their own: Chinatowns were formed in many American cities. New York City is home of the three largest : Honolulu, Manhattan, California , San Francisco which is the main port of entry and the most important centre of activity for Chinese people is the oldest one, and other urban communities.

A Chinatown served as a place where they could maintain their Chinese heritage, language, and practise their native customs and traditions: eat and wear their familiar food and dress, worship in traditional temples, observe their festivals, a good place to enjoy fellowship and to do business. They built public halls, opened restaurants and wash-houses, and established stores and businesses. The Chinese stores in Chinatown which were exclusively Chinese-owned and would hire Chinese workers, in one hand, sold homeland merchandise but also served in the other hand as a social and communications centre. In other word, a for the immigrants’ earnings, a postal service, a depository for remittances to China and a meeting place to exchange gossip. Apart from these buildings, they formed clan associations, regional associations, and secret societies for the control, protection, and general welfare of their kinsmen. Overall, Chinese people in Chinatowns lived peacefully and freely, and felt at home.

Unlike those Chinese immigrants, there has not been a permanent Indian community in the United States though they have faced the same hostile public and exclusions. The first Indian immigrants have settled on the West Coast and concentrated heavily in Fresno Valley

38 areas whereas the second vague tended to settle in Hoboken, New Jersey: in Union County, in Essex County, in Middlesex County and in Hudson County. Nevertheless, Little exist and can be found in Iselin, in Hudson, in Oak Tree Road, and in Edison Jersey City. Little India is referred to as “the big Indian shopping centres” where all the various Indian grocery needs and all about Indians’ native land things could be found: dresses, food, handcrafts, medicines and so on.

1.4 ASIAN AMERICANS AND THE XXth CENTURY

World War II was a turning point for the Chinese in America during which the Republic of China (Nationalist) became an ally of the United States. As soon as the United States entered the conflict and because of the lack of manpower during the wartime, Chinese community leaders urged Chinese young men to enlist the armed force as a sign of loyalty to the American cause. As a result, many Chinese found work in the navy, in the U.S army and in the air force and other war related industries. Hence, as military allies of the wartime, Congress repealed all Chinese exclusion laws under “The Public Law” on December 17, 1943 which was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In addition, foreign-born and permanent resident aliens were finally granted citizenship and permitted to become naturalized thanks to “The Mc Carran-Walter Act” which repealed the earlier legislation that hung on “The Naturalization Act” of 1970 and guaranteed all immigrants the right to citizenship (including the Japanese and Koreans residing in the United States some of whom for more than four decades could become citizens). Following these acts, Chinese people were also granted immigration quotas. To begin with, from the 1943, 105 Chinese were allowed to enter the United States annually: half of which went to professionals and half to wives or children of immigrants already in the country. Secondly, “The Displaced Person Act” of 1948 admitted refugees displaced by Communist takeovers and orphans from the Second World War. After that, “The War Brides Act” allowed spouses of American military men to immigrate and “The Refugee Relief Acts” in 1953, 1957, 1958, and 1959 permitted President John F. Kennedy to authorize 15,000 Chinese who fled China to Hong Kong to enter the United States.

In the post war years, Chinese benefited from a series of action. Firstly, many young Chinese veterans used the GI Bill to further their education. Secondly, many Chinese moved out Chinatowns into other neighbourhoods. The California ban on racially mixed marriage

39 was ruled unconstitutional by the States Supreme Court in 1948. In all, Chinese people began a pursuit of the American dream.

As far as Indians were concerned, The India Welfare League and The India League of America which have long fought to obtain citizenship for Indians with J.J Singh3 their leader resulted in congressional approval of The Act of July 2, 1946. This Act gave Indians the right to naturalization, 1,780 of whom had been American residents for two decades or more, and also allowed a small number Indians _exclusive of non quota immigrants4 _ to enter the United States every year such as spouse and minor children of citizens. From that time, Indians began to build a community of their own: now a Little India does exist in New Jersey. A school has been named after Mahatma Ghandi in Jersey City, and the same town recently renamed one of its streets after Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar5, a portion of Chicago’s Devon Avenue was also renamed after him. Gandhi and Statues of him are to be found in numerous American Cities: New York and Atlanta. Like Chinatown, Little India became at the same time a home of those who preferred to stay and is a place of enjoyment for tourists.

The “Immigration and Naturalization Act” of 1952 abolished the exclusion of non- White immigrants to the United States but the quotas based on National Origin remained strongly unfavourable to non-White especially Asians. When this Act was amended in 1965, the immigration quotas based on national origin system were abolished as well as the racial prejudices against non-White. Hence, the number of Asian immigrants to the United States has increased again thanks to “The Liberal Immigration Act” of 1965According to the 1980 census, there were at that time 806,027 Chinese and 400,000 Indians.

3. Dalip Singh Suand of California: Head of the Asian Indian Political Rights Leagues, Member of the House of Representative elected in 1956.

4. The National Origin System as defined under “The Immigration Act” of 1924: excluding the immigration of alien “ineligible to citizenship”- Asians – to the U.S and “The immigration and Naturalization Act” of 1952 intended to preserve the racial composition of the U.S; the quota was limited to 100 immigrants for most non-White Countries. 5. Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar was the chief framer of The Indian Constitution

40 Since the enactment of “The Civil Rights Act” of 1964, The Supreme Court has expanded the reach of the fourteenth Amendment in some situations to individuals discriminating on their own, discrimination based on race, colour, religion or national origin in public establishment that had a connection to interstate commerce or was supported by the State is prohibited, discrimination in public schools and colleges is prohibited, Title VII of the same Act prohibits employment discrimination where the employer is engaged in interstate commerce.

In addition to that, the enactment of “The Voting Right Act” of 1965 and 1970 enabled whoever citizen to vote and all discrimination against American people of different racial groups including Asians has been banned.

One by one, other discriminatory laws and practices were eliminated and despite virtual political problems and social prejudice which in some way or another still persisted; Asian Americans started to live normally and began to contribute in the prosperity of the United States.

Table1: Chinese population in the Continental United States 1850-1980

Year Population Make per100 Percentage US Total Chinese immigrants in a female born decade* 1850 4,018** ______1860 34,933 1,858 __ 41,397 1870 63,119 1,284 1 64,301 1880 105,465 2,107 1 123,201 1890 107,488 2,679 3 61,711 1900 89,863 1,887 10 14,799 1910 71,531 1,430 21 20,605 1920 61,639 696 30 29,907 1930 74,954 395 41 4,928

1940 77,504 285 52 16,709 1950 117,629 190 __ 9,657 1960 198,958 139 54 8,156

41 1965 ______97,987 1970 383,023 112 48 107,120 1975 ______1980 806,027 __ __

Source: US immigration and Naturalization Service, Annual Report, 1975(Washington, DC.., 1976); US Bureau of the Census, Population Reports, 1860 to 1980. Figures are for people classified as the Chinese “race”, including the third and later generation. *- including Chinese immigrants to Hawaii after 1898. Post- 1965 data are for immigrants born in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong **-Estimated.

By the end of the 1960s, the Asian American Community had changed. After long decades of slow growth under harsh discrimination, they exploded and brought a new and very different group of immigrants to America. Asians have migrated to the United States voluntary and tended to be self-selected. The first groups immigrated to America with little or nothing; the second ones came under the U.S immigration policy favouring immigrants from occupational and educational elite. Together, through hard work and further study became even more successful than European-Americans.

Asian Americans have higher levels of education and income: Chinese Americans held bachelors or higher degrees, high average test scores and marks in school, winning national spelling bees and high levels of University attendance. Many individuals particularly those in the fields of medicine and technology consider Indians to be the epitome of the model minority and have the highest median income of any ethnic group in the United States where nearly 200,000 Indians are millionaires. But the glass ceiling6 still exists. As far as social behaviour is concerned, Asian Americans have the lowest total arrest rates and high family stability7.

______6. The glass ceiling is the fact of receiving low pay with the same qualification

7. Social discrimination still persisted; Asian Americans receive low wages than the other Americans even with the same qualification.

42 In all, Asian Americans especially Chinese and Indians are the minority groups who succeed much economically and academically. In other words, Chinese Americans are most found in business whereas Indian Americans are most found in the field of technology. Fro these successes, Chinese Americans and Indian Americans are referred in the United States as the “model minority”. The term “Model Minority” refers to a minority, ethnic, racial, or religious group whose members are noted by the general public of the country in which they reside for typically achieving a degree of success in business, income-earning potential, education, and other factor, much higher than the average of the country. Moreover, poverty and inequality are visible; the presence of Asian criminal behaviour and gangs in several Cities would be seen as another attempt to a minority.

43 CONCLUSION TO PART ONE

To conclude the first part, we can say that many Asians have migrated to the United States to begin a new life, and the majority of them were Chinese and Indians. Actually, their immigration was encouraged by the States to fill the shortage of manpower. The invitation was such a great opportunity for the Asians The main port of entry of these early immigrants was the West Coast which is San Francisco. The number of Chinese people increased drastically in the times of the Gold rush in California and Indian people still emigrated to work as labourers. Once the Chinese realized that the mining gold was therefore impossible for them, they moved to other activities whereas in mining other minerals or in construction but some often launched new businesses for themselves. Even as they work hard, Asians in the United States have endured various forms of discrimination and deprivation. In the late nineteenth century, they were hated enough to be excluded completely by laws from being among the immigrants to the country. From that time on, the remaining Asians were forced to live apart and built a society of their own. In the middle of the twentieth century, the Second World War brought a great change in the lives of Asians in the United States especially for the Chinese. As one of the Allies, exclusion laws were replaced by laws which included and welcomed them into the mainstream of the U.S society. Eventually, the first, the second, the third and the coming generations of Asian immigrants achieved their dreams: to be successful. Nowadays, other Asians continue to immigrate in the United States.

44 PART TWO

THE INTEGRATION OF ASIAN PEOPLE INTO THE AMERICAN SOCIETY AS SEEN THROUGH THE WORKS OF AMY TAN’S TheJoyLuck Club, AND JHUMPA LAHIRI’S Interpreter of Maladies.

45 2.0 INTRODUCTION

The Joy Luck Club and Interpreter Of Maladies, the basis of the second part of our study focus especially on the immigration and the integration of Asian people in the United States in the twentieth century when laws and order began to lessen. Although they succeeded to adapt the American ways, they always experienced the feeling of being different.

2-1 THE SITUATION OF THE IMMIGRANTS’ HOMELAND

The immigration of the Asian people in the United States is viewed as voluntary. Apart from longing for a new life, many reasons have pushed them to emigrate. Among these were and above all the political problems in their homeland that caused insecurity and brought up with poverty. That situation may help the readers to understand and to focus on their considerable presence in the country. It is worth knowing that the United States has a tight relationship with Asian countries especially with China and India. It is then important to talk about the political atmosphere from which these people wanted to get away.

2-1-1 China

China is a vast area with four outlying regions including Manchuria, Mongolia, Sinkiang and Tibet. Geographic barriers surrounded China among which are the Himalayas in Tibet the coldest mountains, the dessert of Gobi, and the dense subtropical forest along China’s frontiers and the vast Pacific Ocean. Chinese called China “Chung Kuo” or “Middle Kingdom” because they believed that their country is the centre of the world, unique with a civilisation different from the other. Though China is geographically isolated, trade and travel across Western China developed and that did not prevent nomadic Manchuria and Mongolia invaders to enter Northern China. Foreign influence was limited and new comers must adopt Chinese customs and traditions as Chinese considered who did not speak their language as barbarians. In the late 1700s, Europeans powers were already advancing into Asia.

The relationship between the United States and China dates back to long ago from sixteenth century. After the voyage of the empress of China from the United States with cargoes with cotton and fur, then returned to Boston to impress Americans with tea, silk, porcelain and jade. This excitement gave birth to the open trade with China in 1784.

46 47 For security matter, cautious of trade with other nations, especially with the West, China firmly supported its closed-door policy; only the port of Canton was accessible for foreign ships. Later, Britain was interested in expanding trade with China and sent Lord George McCartney, as Ambassador of the King George III of Britain to an arrangement with the emperor. At that time, the emperor lived in Peking, a palace surrounded by high wall which Chinese officials called the “Forbidden City” (see picture n°1). Thus, McCartney had not been allowed into the Ch’ien-lung’s splendid tent, but soon he got a proud answer and a written reply from the emperor: “You, o King have yearned from afar our civilizing influence and have sent an Embassy across the sea bearing a diplomatic request. I have taken note of your respectful spirit of submission and have treated your mission with extreme favour and loaded it with gifts. Yesterday, your ambassador petitioned my Ministers regarding your trade with China, but his proposal is contrary to the customs of our dynasty and cannot be considered. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country’s barbarian merchants, have carried on trade with our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the practice for many centuries, although our Celestial Empire possesses all things in great abundance and lacks no products within its own borders. There is, therefore, no need to import any product manufactured by outside barbarians in exchange for our own goods”. In response to that, a British –Chinese war broke out in the 1840s and China was forced to open more ports to Britain. Owning more ports marked the beginning and the succession of the British presence in China. British people now began to live in the territory and began to impose their own laws. They enjoyed luxury lives, built businesses; and all these far from Chinese neighbourhoods even though they surely employed Chinese to run their factories and to amass more money. In The Joy Luck Club, the writer shows explicitly that situation, stressing where they live and how do the British exploited Chinese people who cannot do anything but to endure.

“This man owned many carpet factories and lived in a mansion located in the British concession of Tientsin…We lived not too far from Paima Di, Racehorse Street, where only Westerners could live”.8

8. TAN, A., The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, Great Britain, William Heinemann, 1989

48 49 After the British, Asia would all feel the effects of foreign expansion. Russians won a big part of China’s Northern border and built the port of Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast. Japanese took its turn and profited the Chinese weakness to enlarge its influence in Korea_ that China had dominated_ which resulted to the Sino- Japanese War in 1884-1895 and ended with the defeat of China. There began the threat of partitioning or dividing China into a series of colonies_ those are areas in which each nation had exclusive rights_ whose market could be closed to U.S trade as towards the end of the century, China lost still more power. Other nations made their own treaties to trade with China.

Therefore, Chinese ports were filled with foreign merchants and foreign navies and carved China into sphere of influence and divided China for trade and investment. For this, each nation won special economic privileges in its share such as the right to invest in mine, railways and factories. China was forced to give them land to build naval bases to protect their sphere of influence. Britain won the ports of Hong Kong, Shanghay, and the Yangtze (Jinsha Jiang) Valley; Kuangchou (Guanzhou) Bay in Southern China was France’s; the island of Formosa for Japan; Manchuria in Northern China for Russia; Shantung (Shandong) Peninsula on the Pacific Coast for Germany(see Map n°4). The United States did not have a sphere of influence in China but instead, the American government insisted that it receive the same commercial rights as the others. In this section, the writer uses metaphor to illustrate the passage to substitute Europeans_ amongst the British_ as “birds” whereas the Chinese were referred as “peasants” and their suffering and misery to “cry” or “tears” as she introduced in:

““This turtles feeds on our thoughts” said my mother. Then the turtle said, “I have eaten your tears, and this is why I know your misery”…Then the turtle open his beak and out poured five, six, seven pearly eggs. The eggs broke open and from them emerge seven birds, which immediately began to chatter and sing I knew from their snow-white bellies and pretty voices that they were magpies, birds of joy. These birds bent their beaks to the pond and began to drink greedily…And I also began to cry again, that this was our fate.”9

9. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 217

50 51 In reaction and in full recognition that the American people would not support the use of military force to defend U.S commercial interest, they sent diplomatic notes to the European powers and Japan calling upon them to respect the open- door policy (which means to prevent foreign powers from carving China up into colonies) in China but they disagreed. In the other hand, the Boxers with the Chinese people who suffered by foreign presence and domination declared war on the foreign imperialism in China The Boxers were a group of Chinese that founded a secret society called the “Fists of Righteous Harmony” in 1899. The Boxers and a growing Chinese rebelled and wanted to expel the Manchu Dynasty led by Tz’u-his and all foreigners from China.(see picture n°2) . But Tzu-his came into negotiation with the Boxers and aided them secretly against foreigners. In 1900, the Boxers attacked and killed more than 200 persons including missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians through North eastern China, besieged diplomats in their embassy in Peking.

“But one day, all these tired peasants from all over China_ they gathered in fields everywhere. They watched the birds eating and drinking. And they said, “Enough of this suffering and silence!” They began to clap their hands, and bang sticks on pots and pans and shout, “Sz! Sz! Sz! _ Die! Die! Die! _”10

In addition to this attitude, the U.S cautious of the possibility of colonization sent a second open-door note to the powers to respect China’s territorial administrative entity. Virtually, the Europeans and Japan agreed. In reality, Japan was determined to join the club of great powers by establishing an empire like the U.S which remained much involved in China. Furthermore, in 1919 to retain control over former German holdings in Shantung province. And so, the revolt from the Chinese continued to protest the hardships of their lives and to dismiss them out of their possession.

“And all these birds rose in the air, alarmed and confused by this anger, beating their black wings, flying just above, waiting for the noise to stop. But the people’s shouts only grew stronger, angrier. The birds became more exhausted, unable to land, unable

______10.The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 241

52 to eat. And this continued for many hours, for many days; until all those birds_ hundreds, thousands, and then millions_ fluttering to the ground, dead and still, not one bird remained in the sky.”11

Now the United States was caught in the economic crisis of the Great Depression and had no energy to invest in righting wrongs in China where the foreign powers responded by organizing an international army and kicked back the Boxers. The army defeated the Boxers and granted new concession. As a result, foreign troops were allowed to be stationed on Chinese soil with naval vessels to patrol Chinese rivers and coastal waters. The Manchu Dynasty was overthrown in the revolution of 1911. However, the revolution with Sun Yat-sen _ leader of the revolution and president of China for only a month _ did not bring peace. Gradually, in the 1920s, the country fell into chaos and was ruled by local warlords or rulers who fought each other for power: The Nationalist Party or the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. Sun Yat-sen formed up a base for the Kuomintang in Canton as his policy was to build a new China so he would need an army. The Kuomintang army was under a young officer Chiang Kai-Shek. When Sun died in 1925, Chiang took the lead and set up a government in Peking, proclaimed the Republic of China as the nation’s government in 1928. During that period, Chiang’s political organization rival was the Chinese Communist Party which was formed in 1929 with Mao Tse- Tung as the leader. Soon, the later built an army and began winning territory with the support of the poor landless peasants. Thus, the two Parties fought against one another. At the same time, while the Kuomintang and the Communist were fighting, another threat to peace in China was developing; the Japanese profited to continue their expansion, engulfing territories along the Northern border and was expanding onto the Asian Mainland. Yet, Japan had already gained some overseas empire; in 1907 for instance, it had established a protectorate over Korea. Furthermore, in 1931, Japan invaded China; more exactly in Manchuria and proclaimed it as an independent state and renamed it after Manchukuo. Consequently, full-scale war erupted once again in 1937. In The Joy Luck Club, Lindo Jong witnessed this Japanese presence:

11. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 241

53 “The Japanese were in every corner of China…the war would change people’s good manners. “The Japanese showed up as uninvited guests”, said Tyan-yu’s grandmother”…But the week before the moon arrived, the Japanese came. They invaded Shansi province, as well as the provinces bordering us…When the thunder and lighting began; people confused it with Japanese bombs and would not leave their houses.”12

Above the Nationalists and the Communists disagreement, the presence of the Japanese in China very much affected the lives of Chinese people as well as the lives of the other persons who had roots in China in those days. They spent their times worrying, fearing, fleeing and hiding from the attacks. Many people were starving and suffered from diseases as they lack almost everything but full of misery.

“Every day, every hour, thousands of people poured into the city, crowding the sidewalks, looking for places to live. They came from the East, West, North and South. They were rich and poor, Shanghainese, Cantonese, Northerners and not just Chinese, but foreigners and missionaries of every religion. And there was, of course, the Kuomintang and their army officers who thought they were top level to every one else.”13

During the war, Suyan Woo was a wife of an officer with the Kuomintang. Her husband brought her two babies to Kweilin _ a place in China where everybody in China dreamt of as it was beautiful, surrounded by hills with secret caves and rock gardens_ for them to be safe because at that time, officers’ family were to be searched and killed the first. She had then no choice but stayed in this city with all the amalgamated persons while the husband went off to the Northwest, to Chungking to war. When the Japanese fully invaded Kweilin, she ran away and joined her husband in Chungking. Unfortunately, this latter was dead and she was left all alone dispossessed of her luggage, her babies and her husband. In The Joy Luck Club, these following passages described her endurance:

______12. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candle”, p.57 13. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candle”, p. 22

54 ““We were a city of leftovers mixed together. If it hadn’t been for the Japanese, there would have been plenty of reason for fighting to break out among these different people”… “So you can see how quickly Kweilin lost its beauty for me. I no longer climbed the peaks to say, how lovely are these hills. I only wondered which hills the Japanese had reached. I sat in the dark corners of my house with a baby under each arm, waiting with nervous feet. When the sirens cried out to warm us of the bombers, my neighbours and I jumped to our feet and scurried to the deep caves to hide like wild animals”… “So when the bombing sounds grew farther away, we would come back out like new born kittens scratching our way back to the city.””14

“…I knew what happened to officers and their families when the Japanese arrived”15

To resist the Japanese, Mao had organized a highly disciplined guerrilla army to war against Japan and also provided the only alternative to cooperation with the Nationalist forces. However, it broke down and gave birth to the Civil War between them in 1945. During the Civil War, American leaders aided the Nationalists in the hope to see a unified China as a world power and an ally and enjoyed the support of the Chinese middle class. But the Communists were growing stronger which was aided by the Russians who had briefly occupied Manchuria in 1945 gave them captured Japanese weapons and supplies. Weakened, the Japanese surrounded in August 1945 but leaving considerable damages. The following sentence justifies this circumstance:

““We knew the Japanese were winning, even when the newspaper said they were not.””16

The Civil War still continued. The United States transported Nationalist troops to try to control territory but Communist forces rapidly demonstrated their more effective military tactics and political skills; also, the Communists defeated Chiang’s armies in many battles.

______14. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p.23 15. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p.25 16. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p. 21

55 56 By October, the Nationalists had been largely defeated on the Mainland where the Communists won control because of the dictature, official corruption and the inefficiency of Chiang’s regime. As a result, Chiang and his loyalists had fled to the offshore island of Formosa (an island about 100miles off the coast of China) which was later renamed Taiwan reconstructing the “Republic of China”. On October 1,1949, Mao Tse-tung in his side, proclaimed the establishment of the new government “The People’s Republic of China”(PRC) with a new constitution provided for a National People’s Congress and other The new government was controlled by the Chinese Communist Party. Though dictatorial, it won the support of the peasants. These later, who had traditionally exploited by landlords, bandits and the former government, beneficiated from the revolutionary changes introduced by Mao Tse-tung. Firstly, farmland was divided among rural families which was taken from “rich landlords”. Then, all private ownerships of land were ended and traditional ways of farming were changed. Finally, the tiny plots owned by individual families were converted into large agricultural cooperatives to a rise of level of food production. In other words, riches were divided to the poor for everyone to be the same.

In The Joy Luck Club, the four mother: Suyan Woo, An-Mei Hsu, Lindo Jong and Ying Ying St Claire who immigrated to the United States in 1949_ during the Communist government _ all came from rich families or the middle class in China. Certainly, they wanted to escape the new reforms_ disfavoured by rich people who were not willing to share their wealth to the poor _ and preferred to leave China with their riches and built a new life in the United States.

“…From the wealthy homes of Pre-Revolutionary China to downtown San Francisco…”17

For three decades, the United States considered the Nationalist Chinese in Taiwan as China’s rightful and legal government but late in 1978, finally recognized the PRC and would establish full diplomatic relations with them on January 1, 1979.

______

17. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p.290

2-1-2 India

57 As far as India is concerned, its history is totally different from that of China though in some way or another had the same characteristics. India is a large peninsula surrounded on three sides by water: the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal. It has a coastline border with Pakistan to the West; the PRC, and Bhutan to the Northeast; and Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma) on the East. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of Maldives on the Southeast, Sri Lanka on the South, and Indonesia on the Southeast.

From around 550 B.C onwards, many independent Kingdoms came into being. Two major religions helped shape the civilization of India; and the . Later, Hinduism had slowly absorbed Buddhism and when Turks and Afghans from Central Asia conquered the Indus Valley, Muslim religion expanded. Although India is encircled by geographic barriers, it was not totally isolated. India traders carried goods through the mountain passes the Middle East and China and the surrounding seas served as highways for commercial and cultural contact. In fact, India was often subject to invasions from outsiders and conquerors. In the beginning of the second millennium, much of the North and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mongol Dynasty whose government supported by both Hindus and Muslims became inefficient; then war broke out between Hindus and Muslims.

For that reason, several Europeans such as the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British who were initially interested in trade with India took profit of the fractured kingdoms and their internal struggles fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. When the Mongol Empire was collapsing, French and British trading companies battled for control of trade with India. The British East India Company increased its influence on the sub-continent and became increasingly involved in India’s political and military affairs and built forts with its own army of Indian soldiers known as “Sepoys”. Soon, the British ousted the French from their trading post in India. So, by 1840, the British managed to rule directly much of the country.

In 1857, the Sepoys rebelled to the rule of the British East India Company in India but this battled which was known as India First War of Independence failed. Again, most of India

58 59 (about two third of the country) came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire but local Indian princes stayed as rulers in the rest of the country. Another time, in the early part of the twentieth century, there was a prolonged and non-violent struggle for independence_ the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi regarded officially as the father of modern India _ .At the same time, deep divisions existed in India between Hindus and Muslims; Muslims feared that they would be outnumbered by Hindus. For that cause, their leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah fought to have a separate Muslim State. Eventually, The British Parliament passed the India Independence Act which ended British rule in India in 1947; India acquired definitely its independence from the United Kingdom on August 15, 1947.

Before 1947, U.S officials, sympathetic to India’s aspirations for independence agreed with the Indian National Congress that a single Indian state would bring greater stability. Hence, the law by the British government set up two independent nations: India for the Hindus; Pakistan for the Muslims. India was partitioned and this division affected India’s social and political life. It divided Indian people in their behaviour and thinking towards one another. Before the partition for example, in Interpreter of Maladies, Mr. Pirzada was a good friend of Lilia’s family and used to dine in their house every night but this had changed thought it was not cut definitely:

““What is it, Lilia?” “A glace for the Indian man”. “Mr. Pizarda won’t be coming today. More importantly Mr.Pirzada is no longer considered Indian”, my father announced, brushing salt from the cashews out of his trim black beard. “Not since Partition. Our country was divided. 1947.” When I said I thought that was the date of India’s independence from Britain, my father said, “That too. One moment we were free and then we were sliced up”, he explained, drawing an X with his finger on the countertop; “like a pie. Hindu here, Muslim there. Dacca no longer belongs to us.””18

______18. LAHIRI, J., Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. New York, 1999, p. 25

60 61 “… “As you see, Lilia, it is a different country, a different color”, my father said. Pakistan was yellow, not orange. I notice that there were two distinct parts of it, one much larger than the other, separated by an expanse of Indian territory; it was as if California and Connecticut constituted a nation apart from the U.S….”19

As a result, India and Pakistan clashed socially, military and diplomatically over several issues. Firstly; Hindus and Muslims were not yet completely separated because millions of Muslims lived in the villages scattered throughout the new country of India and about 10million Hindu lived in Pakistan.

““Mr. Pirzada is Bengali, but he is Muslim”, my father informed me. “Therefore he lives in East Pakistan, not India.””20

For that reason, bloody riots erupted when millions of Hindus live in Pakistan fled to safety in India and Muslims abandoned their homes in India to move in Pakistan. Then Gandhi who travelled across India preaching religious toleration was killed in 1948 by a Hindu. Finally, India and Pakistan have disputed a border altercation in the Northern State of Kashmir in 1999.

Later on January 26, 1950, India became a Republic which comprises the majority of the Indian subcontinent and during the past twenty year, the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military sphere, regionally as well as globally. In 1965, a territorial dispute over Rann of Kutch (along the western-most portion of Indo-Pakistan frontier, near Arabian Sea) led to a brie clash of Indian and Pakistan forces. In 1971, warfare erupted between India and Pakistan. Pakistan constituted of two areas: East Pakistan and West Pakistan which were separated 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistan was more densely populated and poorer demanded sovereignty because after independence, West Pakistan dominated the government. East Pakistan won a majority of seats in the national assembly in 1970. But West Pakistan set aside the election results by massacring thousands of people in East Pakistan that later gave birth to the Civil War This was visible in Interpreter Of Maladies:

19. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 26 20. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pizarda Came To Dine”; p.26

62 63 “In autumn of 1971…That year Pakistan was engaged in Civil War. The eastern frontier, where Dacca was located, was fighting for autonomy from the ruling regime

During the war, West Pakistan gained much international support, including wide sympathy in the United States whereas the Soviet Union plays a key role in aiding India. The following passage justifies this affirmation:

“The war was to be waged on East Pakistan soil. The United States was siding with West Pakistan, the Soviet Union with India and what was soon to be Bangladesh. War was declared officially on December 4”22

The Civil War in Pakistan lasted two weeks. The West Pakistan army was weakened and surrounded in Dacca. Late in 1971, East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh. Since then Bangladesh has struggled to survive and remains one of the poorest nations in the world. Farmers grow more food by foreign aid but crops are frequently destroyed by floods and caused famine. Industrialization is disappointing since the country lacks the capital to buy raw materials and build factories and caused unemployment.

“According to reports Dacca was repairing itself slowly, with a newly formed parliamentary government. The newly leader, Sheikh Mujib Rahman, recently released from prison, asked countries for building materials to replace more than one million houses that have been destroyed in the war. Countless refugees returned from India, greeted, we learned, by unemployment and the threat of famine.”23

From all of these matters, British rule very much affected Indian life in various ways. However, British policies opened the door to major economic and social changes. Firstly, the building of new canals, roads and railways led to better communication and open up India’s vast interior trade. Secondly, the opening of Suez Canal too in 1869 made trade faster and easier between Europe and India as well as between Europe and the rest of Asia. ______21. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 23 22. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 40 23. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 41

64 Then, telegraph lines also made communication easier between the world and India. These developments aimed to increase export from India. In Interpreter of Maladies, Mr. Pirzada used this line when he was abroad to communicate with his wife and daughters left in India:

“Each week Mr.Pizarda wrote letters to his wife and sent comic books to each of his seven daughters.”24

As far as social changes were concerned, the British sponsored programs to improve health and control epidemics. They built hospitals and trained doctors to work in the countryside and improved medical care and supplied food. Apart from these, young Indians, mainly from the upper-class or the higher caste families attended British run schools and colleges where they studied the same courses in science, mathematics, history, literature and philosophy as the students in Britain so they could further their study in Britain if they wanted to. These young students became very well educated and formed a new upper-class in India (doctors, lawyers, professors, civil servants and business people). In Interpreter of Maladies: “The third and final continent”, the writer came from a good family and left India (his first continent) to study and to better life in England (his second continent), then in the United States (his third and final continent).Before leaving India to further his study, he was already graduated which meant that he had attended schools and colleges formed during the British times.

“I left India with a certificate in commerce…I lived in north London, in Fins bury Park, in a house occupied entirely by Bengali bachelors like myself…all struggling to educate and establish ourselves abroad. I attended lectures at LSE and worked at the University library to get by.”25

______24. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr.Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 24 25. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 173

65 2-2 PATTERN OF CHINESE AND INDIAN IMMIGRATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AS SEEN THROUGH THE TWO NOVELS

We can draw from this historical background that both China and India have faced terrible and have suffered from political problems which caused also at the same time economic, social and even moral troubles. As far as Chinese people were concerned, unsafe future and a thirst for new life have pushed them to join their early fellow immigrants in the United States and abandoned completely their homeland. Certainly, some political problems occurred in India, but the immigration of Indian people and their presence in the United States after the World War II _ almost even before_ was not primarily based on their country’s situation. Most Indians have come to North America_ and in many other overseas countries_ for other reasons: to study, to work or simply to seek better economic opportunity.

“I know that my achievement is quite ordinary. I am not the only man to seek his

fortune far from home, and certainly I am not the first”26

During the time of the first immigration of Chinese people, their population in the United States was male. Most early immigrants considered themselves sojourners. They worked very hard and accumulated savings to take back to their native village. When men were busy in the United States, most wives had been left behind in the home to raise children, to serve families. The few women who came were apt to be wives of merchants or of other men with steady occupations, servants, or prostitutes. Later the immigration was limited, and then excluded. In the 1950s and early 1960s, the number of immigrants and refugees was small, still restricted by immigration laws and only a token immigration quota was given. But at the end of 1949, the Civil War and its outcome resulted in new immigration from China. Although the great majority were Cantonese, a significant number were from other region of China especially Shanghay and the surrounding region Fukien; Taiwan, and North China. Many of the émigrés were member of the intelligentsia, and many were wealthy, including numerous former officials and supporters of the Kuomintang; this time, numerous were the women who came to America. In the post war years, Chinese women were admitted ______26. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 198

66 as non quota immigrants under the provisions of the “War Brides” and “Fiancées Act”. For other people, however, immigrating to the United State was not that easy; there existed many barriers to overcome. Firstly, they must to be rich enough to pay the long voyage. Secondly, they must possess specific passports and the U.S immigration visas. Finally, they must pass the selection at Angel Island in the United States.

It was easy for Taiwanese, Singaporean, and Malaysian to apply for a U.S visa as citizens. But the other should pass through Transit countries _Transit countries arranged Charter in air borne and sea borne flights to the U.S_ in other part of the world before reaching the United States. Using Hong Kong or South Korean passports for example were profitable for some since the holders of such items do not need visa to enter Canada. Once in Canada, they entered the United States easily.

Many were those who did not receive their immigration visas and because they wanted to immigrate, they managed to have fraudulent entrance. Thanks to the advance technology of communication, they made fake passports of any country, fake visas to the United States and other documents that are needed (These operations were run mostly by Cantonese, people from Guangdong Province and Taiwan). These fake documents then, allowed them to land directly at airports in the United States and disappear upon arrival at the destination; no need to pass Angel Island. For all that, they were the illegal immigrants. Later, aware of this situation, the government encouraged confessions of fraud in return for the granting of proper immigration status. In The Joy luck Club, each individual who immigrate to the United States showed his or her strategies to manage to reach the country. Lindo Jong for instance was a sixteen years old girl who longed to get rid of her life in China which did not resemble at all of what she wished. After her long strategy escaping her family in law, now she was ready to leave her life in far away land.

“I got my clothes, a rail ticket to Peking and enough money to go to America”27

Suyan Woo was a war bride of a Kuomintang officer and naturally she beneficiated the non quota admittance in the United States. But before leaving China, she married another man and her previous right was not taken into account. Now she was like anybody else. ______27. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 66

67 68 For that circumstance, she and her husband did not go straight the United States but via different countries to facilitate their entrance.

“And then they travelled eventually to Canton and then to Hong Kong, then Haiphong and finally to San Francisco.”28

Their many destinations witnessed that they were among the well to do and were naturally able to pay the long trips they did as she stressed later to her daughter:

“Why do you always tell your friends that I arrived in the United States on a slow boat from China? This is not true. I was not that poor. I took a plane. I had saved money my first husband’s family gave me when they sent me away”29

Seeing the Statute of Liberty standing on a small island in New York harbour, the newly immigrants started to breath a new air of freedom and opportunity. About a mile from Liberty Island, there was another Island called Ellis Island where a green building is situated. This building was the last step for immigrants to pass through(see picture n° ). There, they were detained as little as a few days or as much as a month until immigration officials could rule on their admissibility. So after all of these, they became legal immigrants. That was the case of Suyan Woo:

“I have a photo of my mother with this same scared look. My father said the picture was taken when Ma was first released from Angel Island Immigration Station. She stayed there for three weeks, until they could process her papers and determine whether she was a War Bride, a Displaced Person, a Student, or the wife of a Chinese- American citizen. My father said they didn’t have rules for dealing with Chinese wife of a Caucasian citizen. Somehow, in the end, they declared her a Displaced Person, lost in a sea of immigration categories.”30

28. The Joy Luck Club: “A Pair Of Ticket”, p.279 29. The Joy Luck Club: “A Pair Of Ticket”, p. 25 30. The Joy Luck Club: “The Voice From The Wall” p. 104

69 Conclusion can be drawn from these studies that it was not easy for Chinese people to immigrate to the United States even from the very beginning in the seventeen century nowadays. For the Indians, their immigration to the country viewed three different reasons though their aims were quite the same.

Firstly, there were Indian immigrants who followed the same procedure as Chinese people. That means whatever might be the reason of their coming to the United States, they must possess the “Immigration Visa” and must complete documents once landing in the United States. For example, Shukumar and Shoba re an Indian couple who after their marriage, leaved behind their families and roots in search of better opportunity and immigrated to the United States. Shukumar has come with the aim to further and to finish his study and to work there afterwards,

“Since January, he’d been working at home, trying to complete the final chapter of his dissertation… Shukumar was in his year of graduate school”32 whereas Shoba works hard as she stays away, working late, burying herself in work even at home in order to succeed in the foreign land:

“When she sat for hours on the sofa with her colored pencils and her files, so that he feared that putting on a record in his own house might be rude.”33

The second case is that many Indians were and are reaching out to the far corners of the globe including the United States to bring their help and to add professional workforce in the welcoming countries. Newly Indian immigrants to North America formed a sizable part of the group of high-tech-professionals who were issued temporary “H-1B visas” to work in the United States. From 1949 until now, The Immigration and Naturalization Service issues about 50,00034such visas per year to Indian immigrants. When the H-1B visa was created, it was thought of as stopgap solution to fix the “temporary” shortage of IT professionals. Thus, a person with an H-1B visa can work in the United States

32. Interpreter Of Maladies: “A Temporary Matter” p. 2 33. Interpreter Of Maladies: “A Temporary Matter” p. 5 34. The United States census of immigrants

70 for six years, and then he must leave the country unless he applies for and receive a “Green Card”, which gives a foreign to work and live in the United States without restriction. Many Indians who come to the United States on H-1B visa always file for Green Cards as they want, like all the others, to make the United States their home, to build a new life there and do not want to return in their homeland anymore. And students apply for permanent residence. However, the process to get one is complex; an applicant must go through a number of stages that can also last four to six years before being approved by the Immigration and Naturalization Service. Like an H-1B, the Green Card application is almost impossible to transfer, and the employee has to withdraw it if he loses his job. But as they were helping the U.S economy and they were technologically competent and very much needed, U.S employers and companies eased their Indian workers in the Green Card application process or granted them simply in order to keep them; giving them the freedom to live and work without fearing the uncertainties of corporate America. In Interpreter of Maladies, “The Third and Final Continent” is a first person story of an Indian immigrant who looks back at his few weeks in America thirty years ago. In the late 1960s, at age thirty-six, he arrives to work as a librarian at the Massachusetts Institutes of Technology, after having studied for four years in London. As he is indispensable in the University, he was given a Green Card and can work there as long as he wants:

“Around the same time, I was offered a full time job in America in the processing department of a library at MIT. The salary was generous enough to support a wife, and I was honoured to be hired by a world-famous University, and so I obtained a sixth preference green card and prepared to travel farther still.”35

The third case is the temporary immigration. This case is sponsored and guaranteed by a given country and the immigrant himself is offered a “special visa” (an authorization to work and live in the United States in a limited time) like the case of Mr. Pizarda who went to America to work temporary. He came to the U.S not under the H-1B but was sponsored by the government of his motherland. Thus, he was given a special visa and had no problem at all until he returned home:

______35. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 174

71 Mr. Pizarda, meanwhile, was in America for a year, for he had been awarded a grant from the government of Pakistan to study the foliage of New England…In January, Mr. Pizarda flew back to his three-story home in Dacca”36

2.3 THE INTEGRATION IN SPACE

In the time of the first immigrants to the United States, life was not easy for them. Apart the different kind of discrimination and the difficulty of finding work, their main worry and problem was “where to live”. Some towns barred them entirely. So to begin with, they concentrated in various U.S towns and cities where they were more or less far from persecution especially in San Francisco and their living quartiers were often slums.

At those days, immigrants came to the new world in groups or in clan from the same village or region and fellow villagers barded together, helped each other find work. Once immigrants from a given village established themselves, others from the same place joined them, producing a chain migration. They also were likely to pursue the same occupation. People from Panyu district for example dominated the Chinatown of California and Hanford, and people from Kaiping occupied Phoenix and Arizona.

Little by little, associations and organizations emerged in order to welcome new immigrants, to maintain order of their population and to protect and to help each other. During the 19th century, district association or locality or simply called a “company” _ huiguan _ was established and was patterned upon similar organization that had existed in China since the Ming Dynasty. Membership was made up of immigrants from a given group of districts. This company was led by merchants and assured social and charitable services and mediated internal disputes. New arrivals from the company’s district were greeted, fed temporary, housed in the association’s bachelor dormitories and registered in the association’s rolls.

Any member returning to China had to have prior clearance from his district association saying that he had settled his debt. This requirement ensured collection of funds advanced by the company for passage to the U.S. A person refusing allegiance to his company would find ______36. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pizarda Came To Dine”, p. 24

72 himself stripped of protection and aid faced with social ostracism, a practice that guaranteed the loyalty of the company’s constituents. The first two huiguan were founded in San Francisco in 1851 and branches were established outside San Francisco as the need arouse. The huiguan usually included one or more subordinate organisations called “Shantang” and sometimes served essentially the same functions as the company but at a lower level. The Shantang maintained the cemetery for its members and sent the remains of the dead to China for burial. Soon, they were followed by other district associations. In the 1870s, there were six major huiguan in San Francisco as the Six Chinese Companies These huiguan acting in concert spoke for the community in its dealing with the non-Chinese society. In 1882 for example, when anti-Chinese agitation was at its height CCBA (Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association), an umbrella association established in San Francisco to deal more effectively with anti-Chinese activity and community problems. This organisation acted as community spokesman for its constituents, commonly referred to as the Chinese Companies. Today, the CCBA has seven constituent companies and spoke for all Chinese in the United States.

The clan or family association was based on the concept of the lineage community commonly found in Kwangtung clan villages, but its membership included everyone bearing the same surname, regardless of lineage. Other clubs, called “fang” included people from the same lineage or locality. The fang arose in the early days of immigration; the clan association was formed somewhat later, often of several constituents club. Both the fang and clan association served the same functions_ maintaining order, providing mutual aid_ as the huiguan but at a lower level. In The Joy Luck Club, a clan was once created in China during the Sino-Japanese War and was based on this concept and had the same aim. The clan was created and led by Suyan Woo. It was a gathering of four women who were all rich. Each week, one of them would host a party to raise money and to raise their spirits. After filling their stomachs, they would fill a bowl with money and put it where everyone could see for special need. Their clan was a centre of refuge for them; each week, they feasted where many people in the city were starving, they laughed when people were worrying, they played games and told best stories. Like the other people, they were afraid and had their miseries but each week, they could hope to be lucky; they hope was their only joy. That was how they came to call their clan “Joy Luck”. When Suyan immigrated to the United States, she started the San Francisco version of the joy luck club in 1949(the year they left China; she and her husband) with the same theme. Later she was succeeded by her daughter June after her death. As every

73 clan association has to provide help for the needy, the Joy Luck save money for June for her to go back to China finding her sisters who were lost during the war and were left behind.

“The aunties are all smiling at me, as though I had been a dying person who has now miraculously recovered. Auntie Ying is handing me another envelop. Inside is a check made out to June Woo for $1,200. I can’t believe it. “My sisters are sending me money?” I ask. “No, no” says Auntie Lin with her mock exasperated voice. “Every year we save our mah jong winnings for big banquet at fancy restaurant. Most time your mother win, so most is her money. We add a little, so you can go to Hong Kong, take a train to Shanghai see your sisters. Besides, we all getting too rich, too fat” she pats her stomach for proof.”37

In most cases, the newly immigrants to the United States could drop into some Chinese stores and expect a free meal or two and lodgings for the night and managed to find house the next day. In those day and still vivid nowadays, only one American Institution set about actively to influence, to welcome and to aid the Chinese Community; this was the Protestant Church. Missionaries considered the conversion of Chinese in the United States the first step toward converting the million in China to Christianity by distributing Christian tracts to Chinese in San Francisco. By 1853, the Reverend William Speer had established a Presbyterian mission in the city, and soon the Methodists, Baptists and Congregationalists joined the effort. Although the missionaries made few converts, for many years these Protestant missions were the only American Institutions with which the Chinese people had amicable relations. They provided Sunday schools and English classes. They were among the earliest to advocate raising the status of Chinese women. They defended the Chinese against anti-Chinese agitators. Missionaries were instrumental in introducing Chinese newspapers like the “Golden Hill’s News”, “Oriental” by the Reverend Speer, the “Sacramento Daily News” because they thought they would be useful tools for spreading the gospel. In fact, they were doing many things for the Chinese to live normally. But the few things many missionaries were intolerant was the Chinese tradition, their ancient customs and their idolatrous practices that many resented. ______37. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p. 40

74 In The Joy Luck Club, the writer showed the missionaries and their disciples’ works in welcoming the newly immigrants.

“When they arrived in San Francisco, my father made her hide those shiny clothes. She wore the same brown-checked Chinese dress until the Refugee Welcome Society gave her two hand-me-down dresses, all too large in sizes for American missionary ladies from the First Baptist Church. And because of their gifts, my parents could not refuse their invitation to join the church. Nor could they ignore the old ladies’ practical advice to improve their English through Bible study class on Wednesday night and, later, through choir practice on Saturday mornings.”38

Apart from these associations, the new comers breathed new life into the major Chinatowns especially in San Francisco, Los Angeles and New York. These communities were not equipped to absorb such large number of new arrivals, and housing facilities were inadequate; overcrowding and substandard conditions soon resulted. So, when immigrants began increasing in number, many smaller Chinatowns appeared in the U.S mainland, California, New York State, and in other areas. Before, some town barred them entirely and prohibited them from moving into some neighbourhoods; that was why they induced their withdrawal and isolation from the mainstream of American life.

In the contrary, Indian people were much involved in the middle of American neighbourhoods and tended to live separately far from their homeland fellows. In other words, they were independent from themselves; that is why Indian people are found everywhere in the United States but not concentrated in some precise places as Chinese. Once they landed in the United States, they looked directly for an apartment to lodge though finding an affordable one with a reasonable commute can be a very time consuming task. In all, the rent in the United States is paid whether weekly or monthly. One bedroom apartment can range from $500 to $10,000 and some places and newspapers are designed to help people in finding an apartment.

“I spent my first night at the YMCA in Central Square, Cambridge, an inexpensive accommodation recommended by my guidebook…from time to time I studied the ______38. The Joy Luck Club: “The Joy Luck Club”, p. 20

75 Classified section of newspaper or stopped in at the housing office at MIT during my lunch break to see what was available in my range. It was in this manner that I discovered a room for immediate occupancy”39

Some Indian immigrants did not find difficulty in the United States as they were housed. That is the case of many Indian students and many needed intellectuals. Mr. Sen was a representative of these Indians who beneficiated this privilege. He was a mathematics teacher in a University in New England town and lived with his wife in a well furnished and equipped apartment; pay nothing but their food.

“It was a University apartment located on the fringes of the campus”40

When the United States Court bared racially restrictive covenants in housing in 1948, gradually, many Chinese moved out the Chinatowns into other neighbourhoods though not always without incident. Many smaller Chinatowns then disappeared for the big cities where the new immigrants also tended to settle: the percentage of urban dwellers rose from time to time. Lena St Clair and her family for example used to live in Oakland Chinatown where they lived a old house and had only Chinese neighbourhoods. Later on, they moved to the urban area of San Francisco and finally settled in the North Beach area. The apartment they occupied was a building of three stories high with two apartments per floor and the persons living there were of different nationalities. As it is in the urban area, they are close to noise and everything unusual.

“And we did move up, across the bay to San Francisco and up a hill in North Beach, to an Italian neighbourhood, where the sidewalk was so steep I had to lean into the slant to get home from school each day. I was ten and I was hopeful that we might be able to leave all the old fears behind in Oakland…We lived on the middle floor, stuck between cooking sells that floated up and sounds that drifted down. My bedroom faced the street, at night, in the dark, I could see in my mind another life… And with all this soothing predictability, I would soon fall asleep.”41 ______39. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 176 40. Interpreter Of Maladies: “Mrs Sen’s”, p. 112 41. The Joy Luck Club: “The Voice From The Wall”, p. 107

76 Chinese people are predominantly city dwellers with 97 percent of them were living in the urban areas. That was why, in The Joy Luck Club, almost the Chinese living in the United States lived in the urban area. The San Francisco Bay area and New York have the largest concentration with around 10,000 each, but Los Angeles is close behind. Since 1960, some Chinese immigrants have settled in and around New York than in San Francisco Bay area. Those living in New York raised from 19 percent of the main land population in 1960 to 21 percent in 1970_ the census recorded 383,023 Chinese populations on the U.S mainland_, while those in California dropped from 48 percent to 44 percent. San Francisco, however, retains the highest percentage of the total U.S Chinese population.

In the United States, one given state has its urban and metropolitan areas. The urban areas are more populous and overcrowded. The noise is constantly distracting and even suffocating: from cars horns that shrill and prolonged, the buses doors opening and closing, the yelling in the market places, the stepping of people who look like always in a hurry. It is difficult or even rare to find houses in the urban areas as building form the scenery. The reason why Chinese people are very much seen in these areas is there, they are close to business, to schools, to markets and stores, close to everything.

“…where we lived and shopped”42

Few Indians live in the urban areas as they cannot stand the disorder and the kind of life there. They would rather live in the metropolitan areas.

“Only I did not sleep well. Each night I had to keep the window wide open; it was the only source of air in the stifling room, and the noise was intolerable.”43

In the United States, the formal definition of metropolitan areas was first issued in 1949 under the designation “Standard metropolitan areas” (MSA). The term was changed in1959 to “Standard metropolitan Statistical areas” (SMSA) and in 1983 to “metropolitan Statistical area”. ______42. The Joy Luck Club: “The Voice From The Wall”, p. 105 43. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 176

77 Lately, the term “metropolitan area” (MA) was adopted in 1990 and referred collectively to metropolitan Statistical areas (MSAs). In addition, the term “core based Statistical area” (CBSA) refers to metropolitan areas. The general concept of a metropolitan Statistical area is that of the core area containing a substantial population nucleus, together with adjacent communities having a high degree of economic and social integration with that core. Each metropolitan area must have at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more inhabitants and the largest city or county in each metropolitan area identified as a “central city” or “central county”. The title of each metropolitan area consists of the name of each state into which the metropolitan area extents. The metropolitan areas characterize the middle-class and upper-class areas. Besides, the areas are calm, spacious. In addition, these sections of areas do not know pollution and far from different noise. In other words, the environment is totally different from the urban areas.

“…, in a house on a quiet street …”44

Apartments and houses are available for rent in the metropolitan areas. These houses are modern, well furnished and provided with all kinds of amenities; pleasant enough to live in.

“The room contained a twin bed under a slopping ceiling, a brown oval rug, a basin with an exposed pipe, and a chest of drawers. One door, painted white, let to a closet, another to a toilet and a tub. The walls were covered with gray and ivory striped paper. The window was open; net curtains stirred in the breeze. I lifted them away and inspected the view: a small back yard, with a few fruit trees and an empty clothesline. I was satisfied.”45

That is the reason why, the proprietors choose their renters whether he or she is able to pay the rent properly or not as houses and apartment in the metropolitan areas are not for everybody. That was the case in Interpreter of Maladies when Mala’s husband looked for a proper apartment. Fortunately, he had good position and came from the well-educated background; these enable him to rent one:

______44. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 176 45. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p.180

78 ““Who is speaking?” a woman demanded. Her voice was bold and clamorous. “Yes, good afternoon, madame. I am calling about the room for rent” “Harvard or Tech” “I beg your pardon?” “Are you from Harvard or Tech?” Gathering that Tech referred to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, I replied, “work at Dewey Library”, adding tentatively, “at Tech”. “I only rent room to boys from Harvard or Tech” “Yes madame.””46

Though Chinese population was overwhelmingly urban, other cities showed high rates of population gain included Huston, Chicago, Boston, Dallas, Seattle San Jose, Detroit, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Washington D.C, Honolulu and Sacramento. There were also large concentration in the New York metropolitan area and in San Francisco Bay area each of which listed more than 100,000 Chinese residents, Stockton, Anaheim-Santa Ana-Garden Grove, and Fresno in California, Portland in Oregon, Minneapolis-St. Paul and Miami-Fort Lauderdale each of which had over 4,000Chinese whereas Indians are concentrated in Hoboken, New Jersey metropolitan areas, _ Hoboken is a densely populated city on the west bank of the Hudson River in Hudson County, New Jersey just across from Manhattan_, in Union, Essex, Hudson and Middlesex county. As most of them are going to commute to New York City, they live in a city that has direct train or bus service. For example Union County is probably one of the most underrated places to live; it is as close as two train stops away from New York City and one stop away from Newark, New Jersey. In Elizabeth and the surrounding cities, there are a large number of houses for rent and it is also near Edison and Jersey City for Indian grocery needs. In Essex County live a large Indian and Pakistan students and the rent can be quite low though in the metropolitan areas. In the other hand, Hudson County also boasts a large Indian population, and is very close to New York City.

______46. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p.177

79 There ample apartment, however, the rent is upward trend. Finally, Middlesex County though farther to New York City, it is the first choice to most Indians and the rent there is higher than the other counties. In all, the public transportation is frequent and reliable in these areas and it is worth knowing that in the United States, houses and apartments for rent both in the urban areas or the metropolitan areas are found on groceries door, at the University and in IT, or simply by a word of mouth. Instead of renting a house, many well-to-do Chinese and Indians in the metropolitan areas live in their own house. In The Joy Luck Club for example, Lena and her husband Harold own a house in Woodside metropolitan area which is only forty-minute drive from San Francisco:

“…because now she is visiting my husband and me in the house we just bought in Woodside…Harold and I were lucky to find this place, which is near the Summit of Highway 9.”47

The same with Sanjeev who was a single Indian man of 33 years old offered himself a big property in Connecticut with a beautiful house, a large garden and a spacious garage:

“Sanjeev had found the house on his own before leaving for the wedding, for a good price, in a neighbourhood with a fine school system. He was impressed by the elegant curved staircase with its wrought-iron banister, and the dark-wooden wainscoting, and the solarium overlooking rhododendron bushes and solid brass 22…There were two working fireplace, a two-car garage, and an attic suitable for converting into extra bedrooms if , the Realtor mentioned, the need should arise.”48

We can see from these studies that many Chinese and Indian people are now considered among the “rich” in the United States even with their historical racial discrimination. These minority groups are able to become more successful than the majority racial group. So, what did they do then to reach such level and what was the mystery behind their achievements.

______47. The Joy Luck Club: “Rice Husband”, p. 150 48. Interpreter of Maladies: “This Blessed House”, p. 145

80 2.4. ECONOMIC INTEGRATION

Before the World War II, the more tolerant social environment along with better political conditions opened new educational and career opportunities to Asian Americans already in the United States, greatly improving their economic position. The 1950s saw a significant portion of Asians_ Chinese and Indians_ easing into previously restricted areas of employment, and growing numbers were hired in every field. In the half of the twentieth century, they were added by other immigrants. These newly immigrants represented a small self-selected elite of Asians because the difficulty of emigrating filtered out many of those not possessing more resources, motivation, or ability. Also, emigration to the United States has always been strictly limited by factors such as the high cost of trans-Pacific transportation, language and cultural barriers. In other words, not surprisingly, these new immigrants tended to belong to their homeland’s middle and upper- classes. Immigrants continued arriving in the United States; self-selection then could be continuing even today, as the current quota of about 25,000 per year is still small compared to the millions of Asians who would like to come to North America. For all these features, they could improve their social positions once in the United States as Dr. Stephen Klineberg confirmed:

“The survey makes it clear that Asians have been relatively successful due to the educations and middle-class backgrounds they brought with them from their countries of origin…the fact that a high proportion of Asian immigrants come from an occupational and educational elite.”49

Cultural factors are thought to be part of the reason why Asian Americans are successful in the United States. In general, Asians will often place enormous resources and emphasis on education and parents will push their children to study very hard to achieve successful positions. The Chinese culture for example places great value on work ethic and the pursuit of knowledge. Above all thing are possible in the United States. In The Joy Luck Club, Suyan wanted deeply her daughter June to be perfect and even to become a prodigy. ______49. KLINEBERG.S, “First Houston Area Asian Survey”, Press Release Rice University, Office of Development, 1996

81 She wanted her to become artist; a famous pianist. One day, she had talked to Mr. Chong who was a retired piano teacher and had traded house cleaning services for weekly lessons. She forced then her daughter, bought her a piano for her to practise on, she even went to physical treatment in order to reach the goal.

“You could be anything you wanted to be in America. You could open restaurant. You could work for the government and get good retirement. You could buy a house. You could become rich. You could be instantly famous. Of course you can be prodigy, too. You can be anything.”50

In fact, Asian Americans mottos of success are more study and work hard. Good positions are their satisfaction and they are proud of their achievements, but this does not mean that all of them have high standard of living; there are also numerous ones who live under the minimal standard, have low wages and bad working conditions.

“Why do you have to use me to show off?”51

Until World War II, the early immigrants had suffered not only from racial prejudice but also from job discrimination. They were excluded from many occupations and had to seek employments in jobs where white persons labour did not compete such as domestic service, laundries and restaurants. In the other hand, some others created businesses for themselves with the earning they have received from their previous works such as shops, restaurants, barber shops and small businessmen had met success to begin investing in more ambitious ventures such as oil wells, mines and automotive plants. Surely, these businessmen could not get through by themselves alone in establishing their enterprises; the main capital for these projects was supplied by the first-Chinese bank, the Canton Bank of San Francisco which was incorporated in 1907. There was also the Chinese-American Chambers of Commerce in New York and in San Francisco in 1908 which promoted Chinese businesses. Thus, improved circumstances have enable many to accumulate saving and make business, real estate, and other investments. ______50. The Joy Luck Club: “Two Kinds”, p.132 51. The Joy Luck Club: “Rules Of The Game”, p.99

82 By 1949 Chinese in the United States owned 10,232 laundries, 4,304 restaurants, and 2,047 grocery stores. A number of Chinese enterprises were founded and prospered; the National Dollar Stores in San Francisco, which operates about 40 branches in five states exemplified that cause and these two major enterprises which sell men’s and women’s wear continued to prosper even nowadays. Increasingly, capital from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia has also been invested in U.S. enterprises in Chinatowns and elsewhere. Most Chinese businesses, however, can be classified as small or medium in size. Retail trade, especially in food store and restaurants, is still the most common business venture. Chinese-run supermarkets dot Central California’s Central Valley and the south eastern and south western states. More numerous are the small “mom and pop” groceries, although by the 1970s the retail food business had been less attractive because of competition from the large supermarket chains. Restaurants far outnumbered other Chinese enterprises; one source in 1970 estimated them at about 9,400. Many outside the Chinatowns serve both Chinese and American dishes. Since the 1950sAmerican tastes in Chinese cooking have become more sophisticated, so that in addition to establishments offering the familiar Cantonese fare, an increasing number of restaurants specialize in the cuisine of other regions in China, especially Peking, Shanghai, Hunan, and Szechwan. Other Chinese businesses are the gift shops that sell Asian art goods and souvenirs to tourists, the importers and processors of Chinese food products, and the retailers of carry-out Chinese foods. Increased entrepreneurial activity has stimulated growth of Chinese-American financial institutions with capital from both Chinese and non-Chinese sources. Besides the Bank of Canton of California (incorporated in 1937, the only Chinese-owned bank on the mainland remaining from the pre-war period) there are the United Savings and Loan Association of Seattle1952, the Bank of Trade of San Francisco (1961), of Los Angeles (1962), and the Chinese-American Bank of New York (1967). Additional and savings-and-loan associations have been established in the 1970s.

In the post-war period, Asian people already in the United States plus the new intellectual immigrants continued to share in the prosperity and their shift was extraordinary. From the 1950s, Chinese advanced spectacularly in professional and technical occupation._ the U.S census informed that from 3 percent in 1940 to 7 percent in 1950 to 26 percent in 1970_ In addition, many chose careers in science, technology, and engineering. As far as Indians were concerned, they are most famous in the field of medicine (herbal/ traditional or scientific medicine) and technology. In Interpreter of Maladies for instance, when Bibi

83 Haldar suffered from an ailment, the doctors gave prescribed herbal remedies (traditional medicine) for her treatment:

“They massaged eucalyptus balm into her temples, steamed her face with herbal infusions…Treatments offered by doctors only made matters: Allopaths, homeopaths, ayurvedics_over time, all branches of the medical arts had been consulted.”52

Indian Americans must love greatly medicine profession as 91 percent of them are doctors and many Indian students are still numerous in this branch.

“I do have a basic faith that survival of our civilisation is soon not going to be possible without the proper use of science.”53

As a result, a number of the professionals became outstanding in their chosen fields. C.N Yang and T.D Lee for example won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957 and Samuel Ting in 1976, Dr; Har Gobind Khorana, an Indian American who won a Nobel Prize in Philosophy and medicine in 1968. And a handful of Asian American made their name in literature and art, sociology, music, astrophysics and many other fields.

“Harold and I work at the same architectural firm, Livotny and Associates. Only Harold Livotny is a partner and I am an associates”54

Industries in the United States absorbed important number of Chinese workers. Before and nowadays, Chinese-Americans remained the single proprietor of the best industry which produced cigar, shoes, garments, brooms, slippers, clothing, food_ the chop suey and chow mein (American adaptation of Chinese dishes) and the fortune cookie almost as familiar a apple pie_ and other products. In addition, numerous Chinese-American industries manufactured soap, candles, watches, brushes, glues, bricks, powder, whips, and paper bags. These industries absorbed a large percentage of non-English speaking immigrants_ as there are still many Chinese in unskilled manual occupations_ who like their predecessors were ______52. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Treatment Of Bibi Haldar”, p. 158 53. Ibid 54. The Joy Luck Club: “Rice Husband”, p. 155

84 exploited by rich Chinese and were forced to endure long hours of operation, low pay, low profit margins and poor working conditions. Garment factories for example employed about 10,000 Chinese women in the United States. In The Joy Luck Club, Lindo was a wife of a rich man in China but she immigrated to the United States by the money her former family in order to flee her past life, and arrived there with nothing. Thus, though she came in the twentieth century, she was among the poor. To survive, she must find any work, so she ended in a cookie factory where she worked hard and miserably; the one which was equivalent of her knowledge:

“I found a terrible job paying me seventy-five cents an hour…This job in the cookie factory was one of the worst. Big black machines worked all day and night pouring little pancakes onto moving round griddles. The other women and I sat on high stools and as the little pancakes went by, we had to grab them off the hot griddle just as it turned golden. We would put a strip of paper in the center, then fold the cookie in half and bent its arms back just as it turned hard. If you grabbed the pancakes too soon, you would burn your fingers on the hot, wet dough. But if you grabbed too late, the cookie would harden before you could even complete the first bend. And then you had to throw these mistakes in a barrel, which counted against you because the owner could sell those only as scraps.”55

More educated Indians and Chinese, however, accumulate savings in more advanced industries. During the 1950s, rapid progress in the U.S technology created demands for new products which provided opportunities for more of them. Big industries in which they worked with manufactured mini computers and word-processing equipment, cars and many working machines. One of these industries which prospered is Wang Laboratories, Inc of Tewksbury, Massachusetts.

Though Asian people were distributed in various occupations, still many of them were found and chose to work in the administration fields, civil service positions were favoured by Asians including more Chinese and Indians. In the post-war period, many sought jobs in the federal state and municipal government and also in state administrations like other Americans_ before they could not be employed by the state_. ______55. The Joy Luck Club: “Double Face”, p. 261

85 “It’s not as Rich is the scum of the earth. He’s a tax attorney like you, for Chris sake.”56

Some Chinese Americans served as bridges between their ethnic group and departments of banks, and agents for American firms. Numerous Asians also worked at clerical jobs, and handful of teachers, professors, lawyers had positions in the larger society.

“Mr.Sen teaches mathematics at the University”57

Some have become active and make headway in U.S politics. In addition of them, many (Democratic and Republican clubs) began to use politics to advance their interests. Wing Fong of Arizona for example, was the first Chinese American on the mainland to be elected to a state legislature, March Fong Eu became a local school-board member in 1956; went to the state assembly in 1966 and was elected secretary of state in 1974. In 1977, Thomas Tang was confirmed as judge for the ninth circuit court of appeals. One example of Indian origin was Bobby Jindal, a Republican Congressman from Louisiana (still nowadays), Parag Patel who was a tax attorney has been handpicked by the Democratic Mayor of Edison, New Jersey to run for the township’s City Council.

Since most of the early Chinese immigrants were from farming areas in Kuangtung Province, it was natural for them and their descendants to become involved in agriculture in the United States. Before, few of them were able to become independent farmers because most were not citizens and were prevented from owning land by local law and restrictive covenants. Many had truck gardens in which they raised vegetables and fruit they sold door to door. Others were sharecroppers or tenant farmers, who leased land and paid the landlord part of their crop. When they could own land and become citizens, they began to be prosperous and excelled in farming activities; also, they faced little competition. Indians for example were not very much involved in such occupation when in the United States though farming is part of their homeland practice. Chinese-Americans had special skills and care in various crops; they were the only ones. ______56. The Joy Luck Club: “Four Directions”, p. 167 57. Interpreter of Maladies: “Mrs Sen’s”, p. 112

86 Chinese-Americans farmers grew strawberry, peanuts, rice and other fruits and vegetables. They harvested wheat, other grains, hops, apples and pears and filled American markets. From the 1970s, the farmer’s markets began in Sacramento County in California with already 40 branches. Developments of many industries depend on Chinese-American farmers like the Earl Fruit Company in Orange County and the Citrus Industry in Riverside County. Wine industries also need the contribution of the viticulture by Chinese-American farmers as a great number of them owned hectares of miraculous vineyards. Apart the big farmers who live by their harvests, many Chinese and Indian origins grow for habit and pleasure. In The Joy Luck Club, Rose’s husband raised vegetables and flowers for pleasure. Surely, he was born by farmer parents and has the mania to grow in their house garden

“The herb and flower garden Ted had planted. He used to work in the garden every weekend, kneeling on a green rubber pad, obsessively inspecting every leaf as if he were manicuring fingernails. He assigned plants to certain planter boxes. Tulips could not be mixed with perennials.”58

The same case in Interpreter of Maladies:

“Mala and I live in a town about twenty miles from Boston, on a tree-lined street much like Mrs; Croft’s, in a house we own, with garden that saves us from buying tomatoes in summer,”59

In the United States as well, Chinese-Americans were famous in seaweed farming. It consisted in gathering edible seaweed from the rocks where it grows, then drying it in the sun in Obispo County. Gradually, it must be noted that as much as men, women of Chinese or Indian ancestry in the United States emerged from the home to find jobs and add their wages to the family income.

______58. The Joy Luck Club: “Without Wood”, p.192 59. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 197

87 Chinese behaviour was based on Confucius’s code of conduct. Confucius was the most influential Chinese teacher and philosopher during the Chou Dynasty. He was interested in ways to organize a good society of peace and harmony and emphasized family relationship. Confucius did not write books but his teachings were collected into the Analects which formed four books. Confucius set out five basic relationships that called each individual to fill his duty and responsibility. These were the relationship between ruler and subject, friend and friend, parents and children, and husband and wife. In observance of those Confucian beliefs, the society in China was male-dominated and considered women inferior to men and that was dated 3000 years ago when China was a feudal society. Women were to remain ignorant as they were not given the chance to be educated. By contrast, Indian women in early Aryan society enjoyed relatively high status. Indian women at that period composed hymns in the Vedas, they were educated, and they were active in village life, and joined public meetings where they could express their ideas and opinions. But as Aryan civilization developed, change in Indian society affected and declined this status of women. Under Hindu laws, women were given a certain amount of money, jewellery like Mala with her arms with “gold bracelets”60, and clothing but their life and place became the same as Chinese women.

Both in the Indian and Chinese society, the oldest male, in the most case the father, ruled the family and sons were valued more highly than daughters. If the father died, the elder son succeeded his role and only a son could perform the sacrifices at his father’s funeral for his man’s soul to pass into the next life. In other words, a son carried on the family line whereas daughter on her marriage became part of her husband’s family.

“After my father’s death my brother abandoned his schooling and began to work in the jute mill he would eventually manage, in order to keep the household running.”61

______60. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 191 61. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 187

88 As a child, a girl obeyed her father and already trained to become a good wife. In her very early teen, she married the man chosen by her family and moved to her husband’s household where she owed the same obedience to her husband and his family that she had owed to her own family which was her duty, then to bear children.

“Although I would be leaving the country in a few days, the custom dictated that she was now a part of my household, and for the next six weeks she was to live with my brother and his wife, cooking, cleaning, serving tea and sweets to guests.”62

““My son says he’s planted enough seeds for thousands of grandchildren. Where are they? It must be you are doing something wrong.”…She said I must concentrate and think of nothing else but having babies.”63

Symbolic of women subservience was the practice of feet binding for her to be eligible for a husband. This custom was applied during the Sung Dynasty and lasted nearly 1000 years. From her birth, girls’ feet were bind so they would remain small and delicate. In their adulthoods, their feet were still bind. For that cause, they had to take tiny steps that symbolised their beauty and their feminity. Although feet bending caused suffering, pain and limited a woman’s freedom and movement, poor and rich parents adopted the custom because a woman without unbound feet was unlikely to marry which was a shame for Asian family.

“She was twenty-seven, an age when her parents had begun to fear she would never marry, and so they were willing to ship their only child halfway across the world to save her from spinsterhood.”64

Women’s responsibility whether Chinese or Indians, was to remain married with only one man whereas men were allowed to practise polygamy with a chief wife who dominated, especially if she has sons, and concubines living under one roof; the practice was more common in rich families than in the poor ones. As in The Joy Luck Club, Wu Tsing was a very rich man who lived in a big property with his first wife and four concubines. ______62. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 181 63 The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 62 64. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 181

89 “First Wife was the head wife, by law and by custom.” 65

But First Wife had given birth to a girl whereas Fourth Wife gave birth to a boy. For that reason, Wu Tsing recognized her as his First Wife

“He promised that he would raise Syaudi and me as his honoured children. He promised to revere her as if she had been First Wife, his only wife.” 66

Whatever may happen, divorce or remarriage was not allowed for women. If the man died, the wife must devote herself to his memory and stayed with his family although this later isolated and ignored her completely as she was considered as unlucky.

“Even in her white widow’s clothes she was beautiful! But because she was a widow, she was worthless in many respects. She could not remarry.” 67

In order to ovoid this next suffering, widows in some part of India practise the “suttee” which consisted in throwing themselves in their husband funeral fire. In China, “Chastity archways” were built for Chinese women who killed themselves when their husbands died. In Interpreter of Maladies; in “The Third And Final Continent”, the writer’s mother did not kill herself but she did not support the lost of her husband though, so she fell in a deep deception and died with her mental disease:

“My mother refused to adjust to life without him; instead she sank deeper into a world of darkness from which neither I, nor my brother, nor concerned relatives, nor psychiatric clinics on Rashbihari Avenue could save her.”68

Whereas in The Joy Luck Club, in “Magpies”, An-Mei Hsu’s mother did not accept her widowhood so instead of staying within her family, she preferred to flee, left behind everything, forgot the ancestral customs and married another man though she could not do so: ______65. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 232 66. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 240 67. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 236 68. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 187

90 “”Do not look at that woman,” warned my aunt. “She has thrown her face into the eastward-flowing stream. Her ancestral spirit is lost forever. The person you see is just decayed flesh, evil, rotted to the bone.”…She prepared herself to return to Tientsin, where she had dishonoured her widowhood by becoming the third concubine to a rich man.”69

Later, with the establishment of the PRC, the status of women in China changed drastically. The Chinese Communist Party and the people’s government recognized that the liberation of women who constituted half of the population was necessary for the country to realize complete emancipation. And there came a series of laws, policies and regulations that protected women. Firstly, “China’s Marriage Law” eliminated arranged marriage saying that both women and men were free to choose their marriage partners, thereby, widows were allowed to remarry. Secondly, “The Inheritance Law” recognized the equal right of women to inherit family property? Thirdly, “The Labour Insurance Regulation Law” gave women 56 days of maternity leave with full pay. Finally, “The Land Reform Law” provided women an equal share of land under their own name, thereby protecting their economic independence. If before only rich girls attended school and achieved high education, now all girls enjoyed the same opportunity and shared equal rights with men in family, social, cultural, economic and political life. They beneficiated also equal pay for equal work, equal opportunity in training and promotion. To sum up, the government’s protective policy toward women enable Chinese women to maintain jobs while becoming mothers and raising families.

As women in China gained opportunities to develop their talents capabilities, soon after the reforms, they emerged as entrepreneurs, scientists, engineers, doctors, and government leaders and other occupations. That was the reason why all the women in The Joy Luck Club had higher position and even most of the time above men; but in general Chinese women have not been able to compete equally with Chinese men.

“And even though I am very good what I do, I have never been formally trained in this area. I love my work when I don’t think about it too much. And when I do think about it, how much I get paid, how hard I work, how fair Harold is to everybody except me, ______69. The Joy Luck Club: “Magpies”, p. 216

91 I get upset.”70

A number of factors blocked them to achieve their full emancipation. First of all, there was the difficulty of finding jobs as many factories and other business enterprises prefer to recruit men than women. Secondly, country people of China are too poor to justify sending their daughters at schools; fewer girls than boys are enrolled in basic education, because some Universities openly discriminate against female students. Then, society is less tolerant of women who work as their primary responsibility is to bear and rear children and to do housework.

Another problem is that today Chinese women continue to look for husbands who are more capable and hold higher position that they do whereas men continue to choose wives on the basis of beauty, gentleness, femininity and their potential as a good mother and domestic capability. The result is that they have trouble finding a spouse. All of these situations were still the result of the early mentality and the fulfilment of full Chinese women emancipation demands arduous work.

In the United States, Chinese women could enjoy much their freedom than in their homeland. There, they could farther their study, exercise work they want to, go out and married with whom they wish without any constraint. As far as Indian women were concerned, during the British rule in India, they were already allowed to be educated like men but wherever they may go, their status remains the same as before and is unlikely to be changed or modified.

Asian Americans have to live normally in the United States as earlier immigrants began to consider the country their permanent home. Students already there applied for permanent- resident status and new immigrants continue to come. It is clear then that most would probably not to return to live in the homeland anymore. So, it was time to adapt and to adopt to American life. In Interpreter of Maladies, the writer justified that fact:

______70. The Joy Luck Club: “Rice Husband”, p. 159

92 “We are American citizens now, so that we can collect social security when it is time. Though we visit Calcutta every few year, and bring back more drawstring pyjamas and Darjeeling tea, we have decided to grow old here.”71

2.5 CULTURAL INTEGRATION

Through the years, many Asian Americans adapted to American culture; they abandoned many of their traditional customs and lived as Americans.

“Only her skin and her hair are Chinese. Inside—she is all American-made.”72

As discrimination eased, Asian Americans moved to other areas and began to amalgamate with Americans. For example, Chinatowns became a place chiefly for week-end shopping or occasional social gathering or merely places worth visiting for tourists.

“I followed the water glasses, and the plate of lemon wedges, and the chilli peppers, purchased on monthly trips to Chinatown”73

Thus, many of them have extended their social circle beyond the ethnic group as they join lodges, clubs, schools and societies in the larger society. In many families, English is the primary, often the only language_ those of the first generation who did not know a word of English learned it in special schools; the second ones (American-born) acquired and spoke it automatically_. Boys and girls wore American clothes, ate their food and were now treated as equal family members. Hence, the relationship between parents and children tended to be warmer and intimate than it was in traditional family. They found work outside the ethnic communities. They married Americans especially the younger generation, often not without some strain within the family circle. In The Joy Luck Club, almost all the women met their American husbands in their work: Waverly Jong married Marvin first then Rich, Lena with Mr; St Clair Clifford, and Rose Hsu Jordan with Ted. In one word, Asian Americans became modernized and totally westernized than before. ______71. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 197 72. The Joy Luck Club: “Double Face”, p. 254 73. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr; Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 30

93 Many people have accepted American ideals and customs while most had resisted the pressures of assimilation and maintained their heritage. They brought with them many attitudes of their nineteenth century and the society they established in the United States mirrored their mainland society in many ways.

First of all, Asian languages are numerous. Indians for example speak Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, Tamil, Kashmiri, Bengali, Telugu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, or any other plethora of languages in their home state. Chinese people speak Cantonese, Mandarin and other numerous languages. Moreover, in both countries_ India and China_, English language which was introduced by the colonial-administrators is the official language and is the second language spoken. It is used a medium of instruction at school, language of the administration and of the government.

As the United States is an English-speaking country, it is the first passport and the knowledge of it is obligatory for each person whatever nationality he may belongs. However, Chinese and Indian immigrants and residents in the United States use their mother tongue to communicate with them at home or in the street, and a great number of them do not know English but few words. That was the case of Ying- Ying. She was from China and married with an American though she had little knowledge of English and seemingly not willing to learn it As a consequence, in her family, there existed a big misunderstanding of language: she spoke Chinese when her husband and her daughter spoke English and grasped little Chinese

“Saint took me to America, where I lived in houses smaller than the one in the country. I wore large American clothes. I did servant’s tasks. I learned the Western ways. I tried to speak with a thick tongue. I raised a daughter, watching her from another shore. I accepted her American ways.”74

______74. The Joy Luck Club: “Waiting Between The Trees”, p. 251

94 “Where we lived, everyone spoke Cantonese or English. My mother was from Wushi, Shanghai. So, she spoke Mandarin and a little bit of English. My father, who spoke only a few canned Chinese expressions, insisted my mother learn English. So with him, she spoke in moods and gestures, looks and silences, and sometimes a combination of English punctuated by hesitations and Chinese frustration: “shwo buchulai”—Words cannot come out. So my father would put words in her mouth.”75

Apart from keeping their language, Chinese and Indian people still maintain their habits. Indians for example, though in the United States, eat with their hands and how nice and elegant their costumes are, they go bare foot especially when they are at home.

“…we eat with our hands on a table covered with newspapers.”76

“…She looked at me noticing my bare feet.”77

“So we drive to Cambridge to visit him, or bring him home for weekend, so that he can eat rice with us with his hands, and speak Bengali, things we sometimes worry he will no longer do after we die.”78

Chinese people in their side observe all the major festivals of their homeland: the New Year which is not the same as the universal date and celebrated in their own ways, the Dragon Boat, Mid Autumn and Winter Solstice, the ceremony in summer which is a Chinese version of All Souls’ Day; graves of families, relatives and friends are visited during the fall and spring. Religious believe also require that any dead buried in foreign lands must eventually be exhumed and returned to the native village for internment. In The Joy Luck Club for instance, Chinese in the United States celebrated the New Year the same date as in China.

______75. The Joy Luck Club: “The Voice From The Wall”, p. 106 76. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 173 77. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 185 78. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 197

95 “That year, Chinese New Year fell on a Thursday, so I got off work early to help my mother shop.”79

Also, on the fifteen day of the eight moon, Chinese people with their family wear their finest clothes to celebrate the “Moon Lady Festival”: it consists in burning the Five Evils (a snake, a scorpion, a centipede, a spider, and a lizard), then to make a wish for the coming future.

“That day, instead of dressing me in a light cotton jacket and loose trousers, Amah brought out a heavy yellow silk jacket and skirt outlined with black bands. “No time to play today”, said Amah, opening the lined jacket. “Your mother has made you new tiger clothes for the Moon Festival…”She lifted me into the pants. “Very important day, and now you are a big girl, so you can go to the ceremony.” “What is a ceremony?” I asked as Amah slipped the jacket over my cotton undergarments. “It is a proper way to behave. You do this and that, so the gods do not punish you,” said Amah as she fastened my frog claps.”80

Clothes are the most vivid difference of Asian people of the others. In every country in Asia, there are several variation of clothes, several ways and manners of wearing them as well as their colour and texture which are indicative of the status, wealth, age, occupation, region, and religion. And wherever they go or immigrate, their clothes identify them visibly. Both novels talk about this part of culture and tradition and describe explicitly Chinese and Indian wears in their country and again when they are in the United States.

Both Chinese women and men wear trousers with long tunics over them down to the waist or to their knees. For women, these costumes are coloured and decorated and sometimes they wear belt. Apart from that, women may wear dress but not any kinds but Chinese dress whether large or tight; they keep their tiny steps. Women also wear jewellery, their hairs are braid or made in a beautiful bun, they may be sometimes skilfully made up. In The Joy Luck Club, the writer’s mother described each woman and knew their country through their dress though they were in the United States: ______79. The Joy Luck Club: “Best Quality”, p. 198 80. The Joy Luck Club: “The Moon Lady”, p. 69

96 97 “Every time I went with her to Chinatowns, she pointed out other Chinese women her age. “Hong Kong ladies,” she said, eyeing two finely dressed women in long, dark mink coats and perfect black hairdos. “Cantonese, village people,” she whispered as we passed women in knitted caps, bent over in layers of padded tops and men’s vest. And my mother—wearing light-blue polyester pants, a red sweater, and a child’s

In the other hand, Indian clothes are richer and are also different. Indian women as well as men wear traditional costumes but not the same. Indian men can be found in more conventional western clothing especially wealthy men. Shirts and trousers are worn by men from all regions in India but “Kurtas”, “lungis”, “dhotis” and “pyjamas” are still more comfortable in traditional attire. The lungi originated in the south is worn by men or sometimes by women. It is simply a short length of material worn around the thighs rather like a sarong. A dhoti is a longer lungi which was generally white but with an additional length of material pulled up between the legs to make a sort of pants. Men also often wore long cotton cloths wrapped around their heads as turbans. By the Aryan period, women wore one very long “sari”. The word “sari” comes from a Sanskrit word that just means cloth (see picture n°5). Yet, it has somehow become the national dress of Indian women. A sari is a rectangular piece of cloth which is five to six yard in length. The style, colour, and texture of this cloth vary and it might be made from cotton, silk or one of the several man-made materials. Wealthy women wore saris made of silk, but most wore cotton ones:

“…she had put on a clean silk sari and extra bracelets, and coiled her hair with a flattering side part of her head…as if for a party, or at the very least for the cinema”82

Younger women generally wore brightly coloured saris, but widows and other women in mourning wore only white ones and poor ones rugged and dull saris. Thus, there were many different ways of draping saris: to dress up, women wore them like skirt:

______81. The Joy Luck Club: “Best Quality”, p. 198 82. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 193

98 “I saw an Indian woman on the other side of Massachusetts Avenue, wearing a sari with its free end nearly dragging on the foot path”83

worn over their head as a veil,

“At the airport I recognized Mala immediately. The free end of her sari did not drag on the floor, but was draped in a sign of bridal modesty over her head.”84

or pulled it up between the legs to make a sort of pants for working women. In addition to the sari, there is the “choli” which is worn under a sari and only front covering; the back was always bare. Apart from the choli, women in the state of Rajasthan wear a skirt called the “ghagra” or “lehanga”. This skirt is secured at the waist and leaves the back and midriff bare. The heads are however covered by a length of fine cotton known as “orhni” or “dupatta”. Another attire of women in India is the “salwar kameez”. It is a dress for women in Kashmir and Punjab but is now popular in all regions of India. Salwars are pyjama-like trousers drawn tightly in at the waist and the ankles. Over the salwars, women wear a “churidar” instead of a salwar._ it is tighter fitting at the hips, tights and ankles_

Generally, Indian women who could afford it wore a lot of silver or jewellery, especially earrings and nose-rings. Sometimes they also put a spot on their foreheads called a bindi as a decoration. With all that, a woman looks very elegant. That was the case of Mala in Interpreter of Maladies in this following:

“Her thin brown arms were stacked with gold bracelets, a small red circle was painted on her forehead, and the edges of her feet were tined with a decorative red dye.”85

______83. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 190 84. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 191 85. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 191

99 100 A bindi is also called the “Holy dot”. It is an auspicious make up worn by young Hindu girls and women on their forehead (see picture n°6 ). It is usually a red dot made of vermilion (finely powdered bright red mercuric sulphide). It is traditionally a symbol of marriage and is

“And yet we were bound together; for six weeks she had worn an iron bangle on her wrist, and applied vermilion powder to the part of her hair, to signify to the world that she was a bride.”86

Nowadays, it has become a decorative item and is worn by unmarried girls and women of other religions as well. Also, bindis today are seen in many colours and are manufactured with self-adhesives and felt.

For Chinese and Indians, food is culture. It serves as an important social as well as national role. Out of all the significant aspects of community life, food is for them perhaps the only one ting that binds while all others separate one community from other. First of all, food and culinary items define social hierarchies, and serve as a driving force behind people’s action. Also, food delineates privilege, economic class, and social position. Food means different things and each has its signification and mystery:

“Good dinner, Ma, I said politely. “Not so good”, she said, jabbing at her mouth with a tooth-pick. “What happened to your crab? Why’d you throw it away?” “Not so good,” she said again. “That crab die. Even a beggar don’t want it.” “How could you tell? I didn’t smell anything wrong.” “Can tell even before cook!” She was standing now, looking out the kitchen window into the night. “I shake that crab before cook. His legs—droopy. His mouth—wide open, already like a dead person.” “Why’d you cook it if you knew it was already dead?” “I thought…maybe only just die. May be taste not too bad. But I can smell, dead taste, ______86. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 189

not firm.”87

101 For Chinese people, crab is one of the very special dishes and eaten in each big occasion; this affirmation is justified in The Joy Luck Club. First, when Jing-Mei Woo’s family celebrated the Chinese New Year. Then, when her mother, one day invited friends to dine in their home. And finally her mother prepared crab when she wanted to retell her affection to her children. In other world, food is a means of communication and builds up atmosphere:

“I was not too found of crab, every since I saw my birthday crab boiled alive, but I knew I could not refuse. That’s the way Chinese mothers show they love their children, not through hugs and kisses but with stern offerings of steamed dumplings, duck’s, gizzards, and crab”88

Certainly, for Chinese and Indian immigrants and non-residents, food serves as an important part of their identity; it provides a link it induces a sense of belonging in an otherwise alien world. In other words, in a strange land, food for them serves as a key to binding and serves as a medium of link. In Interpreter of Maladies, food becomes a motivating force in the stories. In the story “When Mr. Pizarda Came To Dine” for instance, food comes as a fistful soil from the mother land. Not only does food serve as a slice of native life for Mr. Pizarda but also it serves as a strong bond between the protagonist (Mr. Pizarda and Lilia’s family) Mr. Pirzada was from Dacca whereas Lilia’s parents were from India. But the food that they relish as also their eating habits established a bond of affinity (the conflict between them was forgotten because of food)

“They eat pickled mangoes with their meals, ate rice every night for supper with their hands. Like my parents Mr.Pirzada chewed fennel seeds after meals as a digestive, drank alcohol, for dessert dipped austere biscuits into successive cups of tea”89

The last story in the collection, “The Third And Final Continent”, presents the alienation and gradual initiation of a Bengali gentleman. He pursued his higher education in Britain and then ______87. The Joy Luck Club: “Best Quality”, p. 207 88. The Joy Luck Club: “Best Quality”, p. 202 89. Interpreter of Maladies: “When Mr. Pirzada Came To Dine”, p. 25

102 his job took him to America. Adapting to the ways of the three continents, the man and his wife succeed in retaining his original cultural identity.

Even in America the smell of “steamed rice” 90 marks a home as different from an apartment. A dish of chicken made with “fresh garlic and ginger on the stove”91 makes a sumptuous meal. Not only food but eating habits also becomes dear as it induces a sense of belonging. Eating with hands gives pleasure as no spoon or fork does. Their son who attended Harvard University will also inherit this habit of eating steamed rice with his hands. This habit, which is becoming considered contemptible and uncivilized in India itself, is in great favour with Indians settled abroad. In all, though in the United States, they eat their own food as the writer concluded:

“I preferred it to hamburgers or hot dogs”92

It can be seen then that even most Chinese and Indians speak English; American food is not an intrinsic part of their cuisine. They retain their identity.

Approximately 95 percent of marriages in Asia are arranged and there is no greater event in a family than wedding, evoking every possible social obligation, traditional value and economic resource. In India, marriages are arranged in different kinds. In central India, marriages between caste-fellows in neighbouring villages are frequent. In south India, marriages are preferred between cousins and even between uncles and niece. Increasingly, urban dwellers u classified matrimonial advertisements in newspapers, photo exchange, interview and background check. Whatever, Asian children are raised with the expectation that their parents se will arrange their marriages. Arranged marriages are then the contrary of love marriages. For one thing, the emphasis on the family is much stronger so in a practical sense the mate of an adult child must be a fit for the whole family, not just the individual. ______90. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 192 91. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p.193 92. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p.175

103 ““She will grow up to be a hard worker who serves you well in your old age””93

Additionally, there is the common cultural idea that love follows a marriage. Thus, they choose a marriage partner based on a variety of compatibility factors (family, job, education level, caste) and that with time love then grow.

Some parents, both Chinese and Indians begin marriage arrangement and sometimes by the help of a matchmaker on the birth of the child and most wait until late. That was the case of Lindo Jong in The Joy Luck Club; at the age of two, she was already reserved by a rich family (the Huangs) to be the future wife of their son who was one year younger than her with the help of a matchmaker:

“Instead, the village matchmaker came to my family when I was just two years old. No, nobody told me this, I remember it all…Of course, now I know the tree-trunk lady was the old village matchmaker, and the other was Huang Taitai, the mother of the boy I would be forced to marry.”94

From that, the future bride then may be carried away to her in-laws’ home or, if she is very young, she may remain with her parents until they deem her old enough to depart. A prepubescent bride usually stays in her natal home until puberty, after which a separate consummation ceremony is held to mark her departure for her conjugal home and married life. From that time, even though she still live with her parents, she was regarded as not theirs anymore and at the same time was trained to be obedient and worth to her future family.

“Because I was promised to the Huangs’ son for marriage, my own family began treating me as if I belonged to somebody else…so she wouldn’t wish for something that was no longer hers.”95

One day, as they lived near a river, their house was damaged by a terrible rain and the whole ______93. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 175 94. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 50 95. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 50

104 family would leave immediately expect her. She was twelve, old enough to separate from her family and live with the Huangs. The Huangs lived in a big house with all the families (four generation). Right away, she was driven by her mother in law to the kitchen to be trained to become a good wife who was to serve the family and her husband before marring Tyan-Yu when sixteen.

“Huang Taitai hurried me upstairs to the second floor and into the kitchen, which was a place where family children didn’t usually go. This was a place for cooks and servants… “Teach her to wash rice properly so that the water runs clear. Her husband cannot eat muddy rice” … That was how I learned to be an obedient wife.”96

In the arranged marriage, bride-givers are considered inferior to bride takers and are expected to give gifts to the bride-takers which are usually called the “dowries”, host most of the ceremonies which are often extremely expensive whereas the groom brings only gifts for the bride such as jewellery and clothing. The dowry was considered a woman’s wealth and typically included portable valuables such as jewellery, and household goods that a bride could control throughout her life. However, over the time, the larger proportion of the dowry has come to consist of goods and cash payments that go straight into the hands of the groom’s family. In India for example, in the late twentieth century, dowry payments have escalated, and a groom’s parents sometimes insist on compensation for their son’s higher education and even for his future earnings, to which the bride will presumably have access. Some of the dowries demanded are quite oppressive, amounting to several years’ salary in cash as well as items. Before leaving Lindo Jong completely to the Huangs and because of the tradition, her parents accompanied her with the dowries:

“All the heavy furniture and bedding had to be left behind, and these were promised to the Huangs as my dowry. In this way, my family was quite practical. The dowry was enough, more than enough, said my father. But he could not stop my mother from giving me her chang, a necklace made of tablet of red jade.”97 ______96. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 51 97. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 56

105 It can be found that numbers of young people, especially among college educated are finding their own spouses. So-called love marriages are deemed a slightly scandalous alternative to properly arranged marriages. Some young people convince their parents to arrange their marriages to people with whom they have fallen in love. But frequently, the soon-to-be married could not choose their spouses but the father or the big brother and would not see one another until the wedding day _Hindu society did not allow dating or free mixing of the sexes_ and wherever they may be, they must return to their homeland to wed the due spouse and to fulfil all the traditional rites of wedding. That was the case of the Bengali man in Interpreter Of Maladies who studied in London and just before coming to America; he took a trip to Calcutta to “attend” his arranged marriage, staying there only a week, barely getting acquaintance with his bride:

“My wife’s name was Mala. The marriage had been arranged by my older brother and his wife. I regarded the proposition with neither objection nor enthusiasm. It was a duty expected of me, as it was expected to every man. She was a daughter of a schoolteacher in Beleghata. I was told that she could cook, knit, embroider, sketch landscapes, and recite poems by Tagore, but these talents could not make up for the fact that she did not possess a fair complexion, and so a string of men had rejected her to her face.”98

Once married, there is no more chance to divorce as it is socially taboo even when the marriage is not working;( like when the man is abusive, or they could not love each other) for some it was a success ,but for most it is a failure: At the beginning, he did not like his wife as he declared:

“I did not embrace her, or kiss her, or take her hand…I waited to get used to her, to her presence at my side, at my table and in my bed, but a week later we were still stranger.”99 but with the time they get on well:

“Now it was I who laughed. I did so quietly, and Mrs. Croft did not hear me. But Mala ______98. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 53 99. Interpreter of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 181

106 had heard, and for the first time, we looked at each other and smiled. I like to think of that moment when the distance between Mala and me began to lessen. Although we were not yet fully in love, I like to think of the months that followed as a honeymoon of sorts.”100

Whereas Lindo Jong’s was a nightmare:

“That candle was a marriage bond that was worth more than a Catholic promise not to divorce. It meant I couldn’t divorce and couldn’t remarry, even if Tyan- yu died. That red candle was supposed to seal me forever with my husband and his family, no excuses afterwards…I learned to love Tyan-yu, but it is not how you think. From the beginning, I would always become sick thinking he would someday climb on top of me and do his business. Every time I went into our bedroom, my hair would already be standing up. But during the first months, he never touched me. He slept in his bed, I slept on my sofa.”101

Yet, nowadays, arranged marriages are more and more practised and much favoured than love marriages. They believed that passionate love is an immature, romantic frivolity and is a poor foundation on which to base a life-long partnership.

It is obvious through all that the question of identity is always a difficult one, but especially so for those who are culturally displaced, as immigrants are, those who grow up into two worlds simultaneously, as is the case for their children. In fact, it is still very hard to think of themselves as Americans and to believe that they are Asians; there is no single place to which they fully belong.

In most cases, due to the cultural assimilation and cultural resilience, conflict is inevitable between the traditional social and moral values of the first or the second generation and the attitudes of the American-born second generation. As an instance, those who married and had children in the United States were willing to see their offspring forsake tradition and ______100. Interpreter Of Maladies: “The Third And Final Continent”, p. 196 101. The Joy Luck Club: “The Red Candles”, p. 61

107 even took steps to have them educated in the Asian language_ private classes were common in the early years_ whereas the second generation were so ambitious and fought not to be else but Americans.

But the matter is that both were frustrated because in one hand, no matter how far ones keep their homeland ways and life, and in the other hand, no matter how many American habits the others might adopt, they were never fully accepted in both society._ In America and in Asia_ They always remain “foreigners”. In the United States, they are still rejected; in Asia they are not fully accepted as theirs anymore. In The Joy Luck Club, Waverly was an American citizen but Chinese by face. She felt neither one thing nor other; she has the feeling that there was no single place to which she fully belongs

“My daughter wanted to go to China for her second honeymoon but now she is afraid. “What if I blend in so well they think I’m not one of them?” Waverly asked me. “What if they don’t let me come back to the United States?” “When you go to China,” I told her “you don’t even need to open your mouth. They already know you are an outsider.” “What are you talking about?” she asked. My daughter likes to speak back. She likes to question what I say. “Aii-ya, I said. “Even if you put on their clothes, even if you take off your makeup and hide your fancy jewellery, they know. They know just watching the way you walk, the way you carry your face. They know you do not belong.” My daughter did not look pleased when I told her this, that she didn’t look Chinese. She had sour American look on her face.”102

The big question that needs to be answered is then Asians or Americans?

“I think about our two faces. I think about my intentions. Which one is American? Which one is Chinese? Which one is better? If you show one, you must always sacrifice the other.”103 ______102. The Joy Luck Club: “Double Face”, p. 253 103. The Joy Luck Club: “Double Face”, p. 266

108 In addition, Lahiri’s collection of stories also is the experience of being “foreigner”. Her characters long for meaningful connection, but what they find is rarely what they expected. Those trying to adapt to an unfamiliar world do not always succeed. Some are homesick, many are misunderstood.

109 CONCLUSION TO PART TWO

To conclude the second part, we can say that both novels explained why and how Chinese and Indian people immigrated again and built life in the United States of America in the twentieth century. In the same way, they proved themselves as successful immigrants in the areas they lived in achieving higher standards than other ethnic groups women and men alike. Later, LAHIRI and TAN stressed separately the existence of two different cultures the latter day immigrants tended to pursue. In one hand, a great number accepted to be absorbed by Western culture and ways of life, therefore forgot the rest. But many others favoured their native customs and culture in languages and manners, or the culinary art and social rites for they are viewed as sacred thus must be observed anywhere. However, the full integration of Asian people into the American society is nowadays still a goal to be reached, and yet they have no identity at all. That is the reason why they still keep on fighting to be totally accepted in the place they want to belong to.

110 PART THREE

USING EXTRACTS FROM AMY TAN’S The Joy Luck Club AND JHUMPA LAHIRI’S Interpreter Of Maladies FOR THE TEACHING OF READING IN “ CLASSES TERMINALES”

111 3.0 INTRODUCTION

This third and last part of our dissertation aims at being practical and pedagogical. It consists in an exploitation of a few extracts from the two novels concerned by this study for the teaching of reading in Malagasy Lycees “Classes Terminales”. For this purpose, we shall start by providing some general and theoretical background to the teaching of reading. Then, we shall continue a short presentation of the extracts. Finally, we shall propose a few lesson plans based on these extracts and intended for the teaching of reading.

3.1 THEORITICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE TEACHING OF READING

While the teaching of language element (grammar, vocabulary, language function and so on) is usually carried out following the framework presentation, practice and production (3Ps), the teaching of reading follows three stages known as the pre-reading stage, the while reading stage and the post reading stage. The following sections will try to describe these three stages briefly and present some type of activities that can be used at each of them.

3.1.1 The Pre-reading stage

(This section has used information from NUTTALL, C., Teaching Reading Skills In A Foreign Language, Macmillan Heinemann, Hong Kong, 1982 and Mr JONAH’s lectures in English Language Teaching (2004))

We usually read for information, for communication or simply for pleasure and enjoyment. In other words, we read for a purpose that influences the way we read. In class, students do not choose their own texts but read a text that the teacher has chosen. For this reason, teachers should give learners the motivation to read the text; to motivate them.

One way of doing this is to point students to the right mood, the right direction and make them feel interested in reading the text by means of an introduction. This introduction should be short, close to the content of the text, relevant and involve the students actively (it should not include anything the students can find out from the text because motivation to read is stronger when there are clues to find out). Class discussion can be used by to get the class into a receptive frame of mind by asking questions like:

112 • “Have you ever…?” • “How often…?” • “What is your opinion about…?” • “What would you do if…?”

Another possibility is for the teacher to start by asking the students to predict something about the text through the title or an illustration. Here the teacher writes the title in the blackboard then asks and let the students improve their prediction skills through it.

Otherwise, before reading, the teacher can give the students general questions called signpost questions to focus on and to skim when reading the text afterward: Examples of such questions are:

• Where did the story take place? • How many people are there in the text? • How did the story end? And so on.

Questions like these give the learners special reason for reading as they do it purposefully in order to find the answers. In this activity, the teacher writes the signpost questions on the blackboard before reading, and asks the students to read silently and find the answers. If possible, the teacher must ovoid giving the answers directly but leaves the class to discuss about.

All in all, many activities can be carried out in the pre-reading stage but the final goal must concentrate in preparing or building up the students' curiosity, to enlight them in what the text is going to be about (to give them the purpose to read the present text) and to prepare them with some background context or background knowledge.

113 3.1.2 The while-reading stage

(This section has used information from Mrs ANDRIAMAHANINA’s lectures in Testing (2004))

At this stage, all the tasks and activities are under the control of the teacher. His/her role consists in teaching the pupils reading strategies according their reading purposes. In other words, the teacher trains the students to concentrate on the suitable information in the text and to assess that learning has taking place by asking them this time specific questions to guide them. Before everything though, the teacher should explain some new vocabulary to help them to better understand more the text in order to continue the following tasks. However, this should not take too much time.

To ask and to arrange questions, teachers should be aware of the existing reading strategies. These are:

. Skim ming:

Students are asked to find the general idea and trying to find the gist in the text. Example: Find a title to the text.

. Scanning :

Students read fast to locate one piece of information and reject all the irrelevant ones. Example: Find in the text the synonym of “…” in the second paragraph.

114 . Inferencing :

Using the context between the lines in what is behind (a piece of information that you may not have in black and white but written with purpose). In other words, anticipating new problems and help them to solve them by using strategies.

. Using Background knowledge:

Here the students have to use their knowledge about history, feelings or social background and knowledge of the world, reflex and experiences in order to guess the meaning out of the context. Example: Betty is found of Hot dogs. Where does she come from?  She is from the United States

. Integrating :

Students integrate new information and make new hypothesis; recope what is understood. Example: The text talks about Robin Smith  Personal hypothesis: He is a man

. Decoding :

Students look at the detail and make a morphological analysis. Example: -The teacher wants to check the pupils’ level in grammar .The teacher prepares a text with some mistakes especially the use of gerund and participles. Then students

115 will locate them and explain what mistakes have been made and correct them together; so review of the spelling rules is here necessary to help the students.

. Translation :

While facing a difficult word, the students use the knowledge of the word to understand the unfamiliar word. In other words, they link the difficult word with a familiar one (they know the meaning in French and take that as its meaning; they translate it into L1)

We can see that at this stage, the work and the comprehension of the text is very detailed. Various kinds of activities can be used and the teacher can resort to questions such as:

• Wh-Questions • How/Why Questions • Alternative Questions • Yes/No Questions • True or False • Multiple choice • Completion • Ticking • Matching • Deletion

and so on. Such activities can be done individually, in pairs or in groups but always under the supervision of the teacher. Yet, the students must be given enough time to answer and have the opportunity to discuss with friends before doing the correction together.

116 3.1.3 The Post-reading stage

At this stage, the reading activities are over. Now, the teacher could use the information detained by the students; use the comprehension to do something else (the text is then a staring point and a culmination for work on the other skills:

. Speaking skill

Here, the students are now given the opportunity to communicate orally in English as the goal of language learning is the learners’ communicative competence. Indeed, to teach language means to equip the students with communicative competence, that is, to teach them how to interact with other people in a normal social context. For this, the teacher should organize in class some communicative activities for the students to act as in real-life situation of communication. Such activities can be:

• Debate and discussion:

Here students are free to put forwards their opinions about the aim of the writer, about the main message of the text and so on. The role of the teacher when the students are working is to be present for consultation, listen to what is going on without disturbing the work. Then, each group reports to the class their ideas and discussion follows.

• Open ended situation:

Students are to continue and imagine what happen next or give the end of the story. (Open discussion)

• Role play:

Again, students work in pair or in group and improvise or play the part or the role of someone else in the text (though they may not share his point of view) between themselves. This activity prepares students for the real world by giving

117 them fluency practice. At the end, volunteers may perform their role play in front of the class.

• Drama :

Students learn to act out and interpret the text.

• Simu lation:

Students represent the people involved in the text and act out the role of the character assigned to them but here, they always retain their own personalities; they have the freedom to produce the appropriate language to the contexts and their assigned roles (contrary to what in a role play) and then make discussion and proposals which again involve discussion.

. Listening skill:

After the class has worked on the interpretation of the text, the teacher can use the reading aloud technique where we do not necessary need to understand what the text is about. The aim is here to improve and to teach pronunciation.

For this purpose, the teacher reads the text first for a good input while the students follow while listening, or the teacher can use another material like a cassette for the text to be read by a native speaker, which can be more motivating and saves time and energy. Then, some students read in their turn and the teacher can correct and introduce the teaching of pronunciation (sound, stresses, intonation, linking and blending), the teaching of vocabulary. Through the text, the teacher can also teach topics, language functions and introduce or present a new grammar lessons.

118 . Writing skill:

As a post reading activity, the teacher can make the students do some writing individually, in pairs or in groups. There are three kinds of writing:

• Controlled writing which consists in producing accurate language in context as in: - Dictation - Copying - Restoring jumble sentences - Reordering sentences

• Guided writing which is concerned with the organization of material given by the teacher to students by using:

- Pronouns - Link words - A model text

Apart from these the teacher can make also them produce summary is which can be:

- Gapped summary:

The teacher blacks out words or just leave the beginning and the end of the words every seventh or ninth (example: however = h…..r) He should make sure that they do not focus on grammar or vocabulary only. Students supply themselves in deciding what words fit each gap.

- Scrambled summary:

The teacher prepares scrambled sentences or paragraphs and the students put them in the right order to form the summary.

119 - Completion:

The teacher just leaves blanks and gives a list of words for the students to fill in them.

• Free writing which is concerned with the production of the content by the learners. Here the students do an essay writing in which they make criticism, to show their opinion and so on.

3.2 PRESENTATION OF THE EXTRACTS

3.2.1 Pedagogical interest of the novels

Texts from the two novels are good materials to teach reading comprehension for they are interesting and suitable for secondary school students because world history is part of their curricula. Both novels raise Malagasy learners’ curiosity about the presence of Asian people in the United State.

The Joy Luck Club and Interpreter of Maladies present a variety of themes which are included and treated in Malagasy Lycee syllabus such as Love and Marriages, Job or Professions, Customs and Traditions and so on. For all these reasons, extracts from the two novels can be used not only to teach reading but also topics and other language skills.

3.2.2 Selection of the texts

It is important for a language teacher needs to assess a text that is to use several criteria that need to be considered when choosing a text.

Firstly, text must develop students’ competence as readers. A text must be exploitable because a reading lesson consists in how language is used for conveying content for a purpose for students to be able to treat any kind of texts (language and content) and use the language for real-life purpose.

120 Secondly, a text must suit the students’ level and should not contain too many vocabulary items and too many complicated structures.

Thirdly, the presentation of the texts should look authentic (that reflect the purposes of real-life reading and exhibit the characteristics of true discourse) and attractive like those found in newspapers with diagrammes as an instance for a better understanding because they are coherent and organized. As a result, for a better success and to motivate, teachers can have these characteristics by using materials such as magazines, newspapers, travel brochure, instruction leaflets, and pictures and so on.

All in all, a good text should be suitable (modern), exploitable (facilitate the learning) and readable (combination of structure and lexicon) and supported with materials. Trying to follow the above principles, we have chosen nine texts for use in “classes terminales”: six from Amy TAN’s The Joy Luck Club and three from Jhumpa LAHIRI’s Interpreter of Maladies.

After completing these procedures, turn to the text you are actually going to use in class and think of what do you want your students to get from it; for reading. Of course, you are now going to prepare sorts of questions for them to answer in order to understand it. Questions help the teacher as getting students to answer questions is one way to know what is going on in their mind and how do they interpret when reading the text.. Wrong answers show where the misunderstanding arises and right answers may be right by accident so they need to be proved. There are many types and many forms of question; classify them according to the skills they require from the reader and focus on a particular aspect of the text.

In reading lesson, teachers play a very important role. They must guide the students and show to the learners that reading tasks are opportunity for learning the language. So as a teacher, make sure that every student tries hard to answer, encourage them to say what they think, and remember that they should refer to the text (look at the text when answering) when they reply. Questions can be answered individually or in pairs or in groups but teacher should make sure that every one is involved.

121 3.3 SUGGESTED LESSON PLANS

3.3.0 Introduction

The following pages of our dissertation are devoted to the lesson plans that we have devised using the extracts that some of our suggestions are full and integrated or complete lesson plan whereas others consist of only parts of lesson plans or activities based on the extracts and are for use at one stage or another of the process of teaching of reading.

3.3.1 Complete lesson plan

PASSAGE n°1: The Joy Luck Club, p. 97

I attended more tournaments, each one farther away from home. I won all games, in all divisions. The Chinese bakery downstairs from our flat displayed my growing collection of trophies in its window, amidst the dust-covered cakes that were never picked up. The day after I won an important regional tournament, the window encased a fresh sheet cake with whipped-cream frosting and red script saying, “congratulations, Waverly Jong, Chinatown Chess Champion.” Soon after that, a flower shop, headstone engraver, and funeral parlour offered to sponsor me in national tournaments. By my ninth birthday, I was a national chess champion. I was still some 429 points away from grand-master status, but I was touted as Great American Hope, a child prodigy and a girl to boot. They ran photo of me in Life magazine next to a quote in which Bobby Fischer said, “There will never a woman grand master. “Your move, Bobby,” said the caption

Topic: Sports and Games Level: Terminale Duration: 1h 30mn Aim: Students will be able understand the text (pre- reading, while- reading and post- reading) Material: A text without title (hand outs)

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

122 5mn Step 1: The teacher asks questions around the topic she/he is going to present.

T: Do you practise sports and games? SS: Yes, No T: Have you ever won a game? SS: Yes, No T: What kind of sports/ games do you like? SS:……… T: Have you ever attended a tournament? SS: Yes, No T: So, what will be our lesson today? SS: Sports and Games T: Yes, but before that, do you want to read a text about sports and games? SS: Yes

15mn Step 2: Before the teacher hands the text out, she/ he writes some general questions on the black board to focus on, to have information, then asks students to skim.

True or False technique Questions (to skim) 1- The story has a good ending 2- Waverly was an international chess champion 3- Waverly won some Chess tournaments. 4- The story happened long time ago.

123 Expected answers 1- True( she won the tournament) 2- False( she was a national not an international chess champion) 3- False( she won all games) 4- True( the story happened when she was nine years old)

Step 3: Work in pairs or in groups The teacher shares the hand outs( first reading)

T: read the text and try to answer these questions Remark: Give students time SS: ……read the text….. to discuss the answers because this is not a test but learning.

15mn Step 4:

Vocabularies

Definition Flat: An apartment one floor of a building

Definition Chess: A game played on a chessboard between two players. The object is to put the opponent’s king out of action

Explanation Amidst: In the middle of something

Explanation Trophies: Prizes or mementos received as symbols

124 of victory

5mn Step 5:

Collective correction( chained or designate)

15mn Step 6: Before the second reading, the teacher gives some specific questions. She/he dictates and asks them to write down.

Questions WH questions technique 1-What the story tells us about? (to skim) 2-What title do you suggest to the text? 3-Why do you choose this title?

Step 7:

Second reading

T: read again the text and try to answer these questions SS: …….read the text……

5mn Step 8:

Correction

15mn Pair work Step 9:

Presentation of the topic

T: Now, I’d like you to work in pairs and try to fill the chart bellow as much us you can.

125 SS: …….do the task…. Sport and Games Collective sports/games Individual sports/games

Step 10:

15mn Competition work Correction

T: Go to the blackboard in turn and fill the chart. SS : Fill the chart one after the others

Collective sports/games Individual sports/games Base-ball Swimming Basket-ball Running Hand-ball Skiing Tennis Surfing Chess Aerobic Dominos Bowling Badminton……. Golf ….

3.3.2 Partial lesson plans

PASSAGE n° 2: The Joy Luck Club, p.51

But even if I had known I was getting such a bad husband, I had no choice, now or later. That was how backward families in the country were. We were always the last to give

126 up stupid old- fashioned customs. In other cities already, a man could choose his own wife, with his parents’ permission of course. But we were cut off from this type of new thought. You never heard if ideas were better in other city, only if they ware worse. We were told stories of sons who were so influenced by bad wives that they threw their old, crying parents out into the street.

Level: Terminale Duration: 10 mn Aim: To check the students’ level in vocabulary (while- reading) Material : The passage written in the blackboard

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents 5mn To scan Step 1

T: Read the text quickly and find the synonym of “Bad” and the antonym of “Husband”

5mn Step 2

Correction Expected answers 1) worse 2) wife

PASSAGE n° 3: The Joy Luck Club, p.50

Of course, now I know the tree-trunk lady was the old village matchmaker, and the other were Huang Taitai, the mother of the boy I would be forced to marry. No, it’s not true what some Chinese say about girl babies being worthless. It depend on what kind of girl baby you are. In my case, people could see my value. I lookked and smelled like a precious

127 buncake, sweet with a good clean color. The matchmaker braged about me: “An earth horse for an earth shep. This is the best marriage combination.” She pated my arm and I pushed his hand away. Huang Taitai whispered in her shrrhh-shrrhh voice that perhaps I had an unusually bad pichi, a bad temper. But the matchmaker laugh and said, “Not so, not so. She is a strong horse. She will grow up to be a hard worker that serves you well in your old age.”

Level: Terminale Duration: 1h30 Aim: To check the students’ level in grammar (while- reading) Material : A text copied with mistakes (hand-outs)

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

5mn Step 1: Share the text to the students

10mn Step 2:

The teacher read the text aloud and asks some students to read after.

10mn Step 3:

The teacher asks whether there are words students do not understand.

Vocabulary

Simple explanation and - Tree-trunk: here a person who has the shape of drawing. tree-trunk.

128 Explanation /definition - A matchmaker: A person who choose the suitable person for another person and match them to become husband and wife

Doing the action (the - To pat: teacher does the action by patting his hand and shows to the students.

Contextualisation - To brag : e.g.: This man always brags to have everything.

20mn To decode Step 2:

T: Read the text and underline all the mistakes you can find and correct them.

Step 3:

(Review of grammar)

Remark: The teacher explains the spelling rules and other grammatical rules to help the students to find the mistakes.

30mn Pair work Step 4: Student read the text and discuss.

129 15mn Step 5 : Collective correction

Expected answers:

Mistakes Correction Explanation

Were Was Singular

Depend Depends Verb in the 3rd person of present simple always takes an “s”

Lookked Looked Two syllables; no need to be doubled

Braged Bragged One syllable, end in vowel, Pated Patted consonant

Shep Sheep The animal

His Her The woman (Huang Taitai)

Laugh Laughed Verb in the simple past

That Who A person ( relative pronoun)

PASSAGE n° 4: The Joy Luck Club, p.164

Harold puts his magazine down, now wearing his open-mouthed exasperated look. What is this Why don’t you say what’s really the matter I don’t know I don’t know Everything the way we account for everything What we don’t share I’m tired of it adding things up subtracting making it come out even I’m sick of it You were the one who wanted the cat What are you talking about

130 All right If you think I’m being unfair about the exterminators we’ll both pay for it That’s not the point Then tell me please what is the point I start to cry which I know Harold hates It always makes him uncomfortable angry He thinks it’s manipulative But I can’t help it because I realize now that I don’t know what’s the point of this argument is Am I asking Harold to support me Am I asking to pay less than half Do I really think we should stop accounting for everything Wouldn’t Harold wind up paying more And then wouldn’t I feel worse less than equal Or may be we shouldn’t have gotten married in the first place May be Harold is a bad man

Level: Terminale Duration: 1hour Aim: Students will be able to use each punctuation mark correctly (while- reading) Material : A text (hand-out) bare of punctuation marks

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

20mn Step 1:

Use

The teacher explains the use punctuation marks

A comma (,): It separates parts of sentences. A full stop (.): It is used to end sentence. A colon (:) It is used to introduce a list of items. A semi-colon (;): It is used to join two independent sentences. A question mark (?): It is used in a direct question. An exclamation mark(!): It is used in exclamations or in short commands. An apostrophe (‘): It is used in possessive case. A quotation mark (“”): It indicates someone’s

131 words or speech.

2mn Step 2:

The teacher hands the text out.

Step 3: 3mn The teacher reads the text to the class in the correct manner.

Step 4:

25mn To decode T: I’d like you to work in pairs, read the text, Pair work discuss about it and put the right punctuation marks where they should be.

10mn Step 5: Collective correction.

PASSAGE n° 5: Interpreter of Maladies, p. 177

A- “Who is speaking?” B- “Yes, good afternoon, madame. I am calling about the room for rent.” A- “Harvard or Tech?” B- “I beg your pardon?” A- “Are you from Harvard or Tech?” B- “I work at Dewey Library, at Tech” A- “I only rent rooms to boys from Harvard or Tech!”

132 B- “Yes, madame.” A- “One minute please!” … A- “Lock up! Fasten the chain and firmly press that button on the knob! This is the first thing you shall do when you enter, is that clear?” B- “It is very well.” A- “You check the lock?” B- “Yes, madame

Level: Terminale Duration: 30mn Activity: reading/listening/speaking (post-reading) Aim: Students will be able to articulate correctly. Material : A dialogue

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

5mn Listening Step 1:

The teacher reads the text to the class with the right articulation, intonation, pause…

The students listen

5mn Reading Step 2:

The teacher asks the class to read the dialogue with her/him. T SS

Then she/he asks volunteer to read with her/him T S

133 Finally, she asks volunteers to read. S S Remark: In any case, the teacher must be ready to correct the mistakes.

10mn Speaking Step 3: Pair work The teacher circulates T: Now, work in pairs; one student plays the role of A and the one takes the place of B.

10mn Step 4:

The teacher asks volunteers to act the dialogue out in front of the class.

PASSAGE n° 6: The Joy Luck Club, p. 155

Harold and I work at the same architectural firm, Livotny & Associates. Only Harold Livotny is a partner and I am an associate. We met eight tears ago, before he started Livotny & Associates. I was twenty- eight, a project assistant, and he was thirty-four. We both worked in the restaurant design and development division of Harned Kelley & Davis. When we were still working at Harned Kelley & Davis, I said, “Harold, this firm knows just what a good deal it has with you. You’re the goose who lays the golden egg. If you started your own business today, you’d walk away with more than half of the restaurant clients.”

134 Harold actually listened to me. He took those ideas and he applied them in an educated, methodical way. He made it happen. But still, I remember, it was my idea. And today, Livotny & Associates is a growing firm of twelve full-time people, which specializes in thematic restaurant design, what I still like to call “theme eating”. Harold is the concept man, the chief architect, the designer, the person who makes the final sales presentation to new client. I work under the interior designer, because, as Harold explains, it would not seem fair to the other employees if he promoted me just because we are now married. And even though I am very good at what I do, I have never been formally trained in this area. I love my work when I don’t think about it too much. And when I do think about it, how much I get paid, how hard I work, how fair Harold is to everybody except me, I get upset. So really, we’re equals, except that Harold makes about seven times more than I make. He knows this, too, because he signs my monthly check, and then I deposit it into my separate checking account.

Level: Terminale Topic: Job Duration: 1:30hour Activity: listening/speaking Aim: Students will be able to talk about job and employment. Material : - One hand out for each pair - Questions proper - A petal rose ( an example)

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

5mn Step 1:

The teacher plays the cassette or reads the text once.

5mn Step 2:

The teacher asks the general idea of the text.

135 T: What the text is about? SS: Job, Employment

5mn Step 3:

The teacher shares the text, then asks volunteers to read it aloud and corrects the pronunciation.

Step 4: 5mn The teacher asks whether there are words students do not understand.

10mn Step 5:

The teacher asks the students to underline all the words and expressions about job and employment.

5mn Step 6:

The teacher asks students about job they would like to do later.

10mn Step 7:

The teacher asks students to make a list of job.

10mn Running competition Step 8:

The teacher asks to write the founded list on the blackboard.

136 -Doctor -Engineer -Secretary -Operator -Policeman -Nurse -Taxi driver -Teacher -Flight attendant -Cook -Seller -Mechanic -Reporter -Assistant -Farmer -Lawyer ……

Step 9:

T: I’d like you to form a group of four and discuss 20mn Discussion about job situation in Madagascar by answering these questions:

Questions proper:

1-How do people usually do to get a job? 2- How should you do to prepare for an interview? 3- What are things to be introduced in a new job? 4- What are the consequences for an employment in a family?

5- Why are men fired? 6- Why do children work? 7- Why do people strike, what might be the reason?

137 15mn Step 10:

Introduction of the lesson “Job and Employment”

T: What comes in mind when talking about Job?

A petal rose

PASSAGE n° 7: The Joy Luck Club, p.51

So Taiyuanese mothers continued to choose their daughters-in-law, ones who would raise proper sons, care for the old people, and faithfully sweep the family burial grounds long after the old ladies had gone to their graves.

Level: Terminale Topic: Agree/Disagree/Expressing opinion Duration: 1hour Activity: Problem solving Aim: Students will be able to express their opinion and give arguments

138 Material : -The passage bellow - Useful expressions

Timing Methods and Techniques Contents

10mn Step 1:

The teacher writes the passage on the blackboard then reads it.

T: Before, as Taiyuanese, Malagasy parents used to choose their in-laws. Do you agree with that?

SS: No, Yes T: Why? SS: ….give arguments…..

30mn Step 2:

The teacher introduces the useful expressions.

T: What do you say when you agree with something? SS: I agree….. T: What do you say when you disagree? SS: I disagree….. T: Now, what do you say when you express your opinion? SS: In my opinion…. T: Can you find another possibility? SS… Remark: If the students cannot find anymore, you (the teacher) give them in a

139 formal and in an informal way. Expressions

AGREEING: • I agree with … • I think so • I accept I • Fine with me • Yes of course • Certainly • So do I

DISAGREEING: • I don’t agree • I don’t think so • I disagree • I’m not sure • I refuse • No • Neither do I

EXPRESSING OPINION: • I think that … • In my opinion … • As I see it … • As far as I’m concerned … • Personally I think … • As for me … • From my point of view … • According to me …

20mn Class discussion Step 3: The teacher reads the passage to the class and asks

140 the students to work in a group of four (to have different opinion) and discuss whether they agree or disagree with the situation and give their Remark: The teacher reasons and what do they suggest. circulates, listens the groups’ discussion and always ready to help in their vocabulary problems

PASSAGE n° 8: Interpreter of Maladies, p. 89

Sexy

Dev was the first to tell her that. (1) the boys she dated in college, who were simply taller, heavier versions of the ones she (2) in high school. Dev was the first always to (3) for things, and hold doors open, and reach across a table in a restaurant to kiss her hand. He was the first to bring her a bouquet of (4) so immense she’d had to slip it up into all six of her drinking glasses, and the first to whisper her name again and (5) when they made (6) . Within days of meeting him, when she was at work, Miranda began to wish that there were a (7) of her and Dev tacked to the inside of her cubicle, like the one of Laxmi and (8) husband in front of the Taj Mahal. She didn’t tell Laxmi about Dev. She

141 didn’t tell anyone. Part of her wanted to tell Laxmi, if only (9) Laxmi was Indian, too. But Laxmi was always on the phone with her cousin these days, who was still in bed, (10) husband was still in London, and whose son still wasn’t going to school.

Level: Terminale Duration: 1hour Aim: Students will be able to improve their listening comprehension Material: - A text with missing words - A list of words Procedures :

Teacher’s tasks:

- Sticks the text in the blackboard. -Reads the text as a whole once, twice, third. -Gives a list of words in disorder.

The list of words: because, pay, picture, unlike, her, love, flowers, whose, again, dated

Students’ tasks: - Students try to catch the words - Work in pairs and discuss about the suitable word to complete the blank to obtain the meaningful sentence. - Then, students one after the other comes to the blackboard to fill in the blanks. - Finally, when the correction is over, they copy the text.

PASSAGE n°9: Interpreter of Maladies, p.174

142 The third and final Continent

a) In 1969, (w….n) I was thirty-six years (o…d), my own marriage was arranged. Around the (s….e) time I was offered a full-time job in America, in the processing department of a library at MIT. The salary was generous enough to support a wife, and I (w… s) honoured to be hired by a world-famous university, and so I obtained a sixth-preference green card, and prepared to travel farther still.

b) By now I had enough money to go by plane. I flew first to Calcutta, to attend my wedding, and a (w….k) later I flew to Boston, to begin my new job. During the flight I read The Student Guide too North America, a paperback volume (t….t) I’d bought before (l…..g) London, for seven shillings six pence on Tottenham Court Road, for although I was no longer a student I was on a budget all the same.

c) I left India in 1964 with a certificate in commerce and the equivalent, in those (d…. s), of ten dollars to my name. For three weeks I sailed on the SS Roma, an Italian cargo vessel, in a third-class cabin next to the ship’s engine, across the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, and (f….y) to England. I attended lectures at LSE and (w….d) at the University library to get by.

Level: Terminale Duration: 1hour Aim: Students will be able to make a text in order. Material: - scrambled, gapped summaries

Procedures :

Teacher’s tasks:

- Shares the class in a group of three and gives one summary the every. - Asks the students to complete the gap first, then order the summary to make sense.

143 Expected answers:

- when, old, same, was, week, that, leaving, days, finally, work - c) , a) , b)

Students’ tasks:

- Try to complete the gap of the word - Reorder the summaries to obtain the whole

Remark: The title may help the students to do their task.

144 CONCLUSION TO PART THREE

There are some more techniques and activities apart from those suggested above but it must be noted that not all techniques can be used with all texts. In this case, it is the teacher’s duty to study and to collect which is appropriate for his/ her aim, and which best suits for the students to reach the final goal. It is frequent nowadays that language teachers neglect and even do not use at all classroom activities because of many reasons (time constraint, the routine, laziness…). To provide good result in language teaching then, to create lively atmosphere within the classroom and to motivate as much the students so that whatever message will be sent and taken easily, teachers must use and to vary classroom activities. Hence, the use of literary texts as teaching material in Lycées could be applied in the three existing class level.

145 CONCLUSION

146 The history of the United States is a story of immigration and diversity. The United States has welcomed more immigrants than any other country and still admits numbers of people nowadays. It is said as a place of refuge for some and a place of hope and new opportunity for others. That is why people of different nationalities from all over the world including Asians do come to fulfil their dreams. A person is said to be Asian when he is from Asia or from the Indian sub-continent.

As far as history is concerned, the Chinese people were the first Asian who immigrated to the United States and lighted the way to other Asians. To begin with, they explored by trade the coast of North America and fished its seas then cost gone back home. But when the Gold mountain dreams were famous, Chinese immigrants, notably and overwhelmingly men, set sail across the Pacific Ocean to strike it rich.

On the American frontier, Chinese immigrants mined gold, laid tracks for the western leg of the transcontinental railroad, sweated on farms and in small factories, and took jobs white men found undesirable. Meanwhile, many parts of the main agricultural area in the West Coasts of California needed more labour forces to work the fields. So landowners recruited and encouraged Asians people to come and to work for them under contract. As a result, the number of Chinese immigrant increased and they were added by illiterate Indian immigrants and other Asians to seize the opportunity though the promised pay was low. Some rich enough Indians in the other hand immigrated to the United States just to further their study.

In the late nineteenth century, an anti-Chinese movement rose unexpectedly. They were, together with all Asian features including Indians, discriminated by the society, deprived, injured in work, expulsed from their communities and even killed and massacred. In addition to that, Chinese labours and their families were prohibited from entering the United States for about three decades, also Chinese immigrants, Indian immigrants and all Asian immigrants they were legally categorized as aliens ineligible for citizenship nor by naturalization or by birth.

For this circumstance they struggled to survive during these periods of exclusion though racial campaign against them was overwhelming, laws against them was harsh. They responded discrimination by utilizing the U.S juridical system to challenge discriminatory

147 laws and exploited loopholes in the laws to circumvent exclusion but found little success. Finally, they isolated themselves in special places from the mainstream and lived life for their own. (http:// en.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/AsianAmerican)

In the twentieth century, unfortunately, World War II was a turning point in Asian American history. When Chinese Americans joined the armed forces and defence industries, their public images began to change. Exclusion acts were repealed, all the citizens’ rights were open to them, and the War Brides Acts made family members of Chinese American veterans eligible for entry into the United States. From this Chinese contribution, now all Asian Americans profited the same opportunities and considered among Americans. From that time on, they began to live normally, eventually succeed and continued to be seen by the mainstream as a “model minority”. As a new Immigration Act and civil rights movement removed legal restrictions on Asian immigration, the Asian population, Chinese, Indians, Koreans, Japanese, Vietnamese, Filipinos, increased dramatically.

The second great wave of Asian immigration to the United States occurred in the middle of the twentieth century. This fact was especially due to the political atmosphere in Asia which caused the thirst of change; the influence of the foreign powers and the rise of the Communist government in China, and the bloody Civil War in India. This time, contrary than before, the immigrants must first complete certain strict forms to be accepted to reside in the United States.

When in the country, the place where Chinese and Indians live is totally distinct. Chinese people tend to settle in the urban areas, populous but profitable whereas Indian people prefer the calm life in the metropolitan areas. Concerning the every day life, these Asian Americans achieved social mobility and succeed in the professional fields: in business, in industry, in administration and even in farming which all help and contribute to the economic development both the people and the country itself. Asian women in the United States also begin to participate in social, political, cultural and familial life and blossom than frustrated as they endured from their out of date culture in their homeland. Now they prove themselves as able as men, even more, in everything.

148 Currently, many of Asians begin to think and act as Americans but most do not abandon their traditional values and cultural heritage which appear in their manners, attitude and behaviour. Nevertheless, it is still difficult for both of them to identify who they really are; wherever they go, in Asia or in the United States, they are different.

Using literary works in class are good and helpful materials to teach the language but not necessarily or especially literature as many may think. For this reason, passages in The Joy Luck Club and Interpreter of Maladies are very interesting and can be used by teachers as written materials to teach reading comprehension and reading lesson in exploiting through them the pre- reading, while reading and post or after reading stages techniques and activities. Because of their readability as well, they make the communicative approach be practised in the classroom and surely can be used by the teacher as a starting point to deal with other brand new lessons.

149 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A- PR IMARY SOURCES

1- LAHIRI, J., Interpreter of Maladies, Boston. New York, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999

2- TAN, A., The Joy Luck Club, Great Britain, William Heinemann Ltd, 1989

B-CIVILISATION BOOKS

3- ANTIN, M., The Promised Land, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1912.

4- BRADBURY and H. TEMPERLEY, Introduction to American Studies, London and New York, Longman, 1981

5-CHAN KIM, H., Dictionary of Asian American History, New York, Greenwood Press, 1986

6-COOLIDGE, M., Chinese Immigration, New York, Henry Holt, 1909

7- Harvard Encyclopaedia of American Ethnic, Cambridge and Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1980

7-CURRENT, R., WILLIAMS H, and F. FREIDEL, American History: A Survey, New York, Alfred A. Knoff. INC, 1965

8-GRANT,B., Concise Encyclopaedia of American Indian, New York,Random House

9- GREELEY, A., Ethnicity in the United States: A Preliminary Renaissance, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1974

150 10- JENTLSON, B and T. PATERSON, Encyclopaedia of U.S Foreign Relations, New York, Oxford University Press, 1997

11- KING, D.C, MARVIN, M and T. DWIGGINS, United States History, United States, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1986

C- L ANGUAGE TEACHING BOOKS

12- GRAVES, K., Teachers as Course Developers, United States, Cambridge University Press, 1996

14- NUTTALL, C., Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language, Hong Kong, Macmillan Heinemann, 1982

15- KNIGHT, J., Strategic Planning For School Managers, Great Britain, 1997

D -D ISSERTATION

16- RASOLOZAKA, M., A view of the Nigerian society and culture as seen through The Bride Price and The Joys Of Mother wood by Buchi Emecheta, and Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, Antananarivo: ENS Ampefiloha, 2005

E- INTERNET SOURCES http:// en.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/Asian American http:// en.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/Civil Rights.html http:// en.Wikipedia.Org/wiki/Asian Nation/Demographic.html http://memory.log.gov/learn/features/immgr/Chinese2.htm http://memory.log.gov/learn/features/immgr/Indian2.htm

151 TABLE OF MAPS

1- The discovery of America ………………………………………………………………….6 2- The mining towns………………………………………………………………………….17 3- The railroad construction……………………………………………………………..……19 4- The partition of China………………………………………………………………….….39 5- British expansion in India………………………………………………………………….49 6- The independence of India ………………………………………………………….…….51 7- The partition of India……………………………………………………………………....53

TABLE OF PICTURES

1-The “Forbidden City”……………………………………………………………………....37 2-The revolt of the Boxers……………………………………………………………………41 3- Mao Tse-tung……………………………………………………………………………...46 4- The Immigration Station at Angel Island………………………………………………….58 5- Indians’ clothing……………………………………………………………………..…….87 6- The Holy Dot………………………………………………………………………… .....90

152