UNIVERISTE D’ANTANANARIVO DEPARTEMENT DE FORMATION INITIAL LITERAIRE CENTRE D’ETUDE ET DE RECHERCHE EN

LANGUE ET LETTRES ANGLAISES

Using Snakes And Ladders Board Games With

Dice to Teach Wishes and Regrets to Malagasy

Students

C.A.P.E.N. Dissertation

Presented by

TOMARIELSON Christian Espérant

Advisor: RANDRIAMAMPIONONA Christiane

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2014-2015

12 January 2016

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to God for His guidance and everything He has done to me. First of all, we are extremely grateful to Mrs RANDRIAMAMPIONONA Christiane, our Dissertation Advisor for her invaluable kindness, patience, directives, encouragement, and keen editorial eye before the printing of the work.

Our warmest thanks must equally go to Mr MANORO Regis and Mrs RAMINOARIVONY Mirany whose helpful comments and suggestions have helped us in the completion and the official presentation of our work.

We would like to express our sincere acknowledgments to all teachers at the CER Langue et Lettres Anglaises, and we equally thank all those who contributed, in one way or another, to the elaboration of the present work.

Last but by no means least, we wish to express our sincere gratitude to my wife, my children, and our friends who have supported us through their prayers, care, and encouragements. I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

0.1. Rationale and objective of the study 0.2.Scope and limitations 0.3. Structure of the work

Part 1: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 1.1. On conditionals 1.1.1. Definitions of conditional construction………………………………………...... 1 1.1.2. Likely conditionals……………………………………………………………...... 2 1.1.3. Unlikely conditionals…………………………………………………………...... 2 1.1.4. Representation of the two main categories of conditionals forms…………...... 3 1.2. The four main conditional forms 1.2.1. Form 1: Type 0 [Zero conditional]……………………………………………...... 4 1.2.2. Form 2: Conditional Type one…………………………………………………...... 4 1.2.3. Form 3: Conditional Type two…………………………………………………...... 5 1.2.4. Form 4: Conditional Type three………………………………………………...... 6

1.3. Tenses in unlikely conditionals 1.3.1. The past subjunctive and unreal past………………………………………...... 7 1.3.2. The conditional present…………………………………………………...... 8 1.3.3. The condition perfect…………………………………………………………...... 9 1.3.4. Time versus tense in conditional type two and type three…………………...... 9

1.4. Wishes and regrets expressed in unlikely conditionals 1.4.1. The verb to ‘wish’ and wish-clause…………………………………………...... 10 1.4.2. Wish-clauses expressing wishes about the present situation…………………...10 1.4.3. Wish-clauses expressing regrets about the past situation…………………….....11 1.4.4. If-clauses expressing wishes and regrets……………………………………...... 11 1.5. On grammar 1.5.1. The Audio-lingual Method……………………………………………………...... 12 1.5.2. The Communicative approach……………………………………………...... 12 II

1.6. On games 1.6.1. Theories on games…………………………………………………………...... 13 1.6.2. Types of games………………………………………………………………...... 14 1.6.3 . Reasons for using games in language class …………………………………...... 16 1.6.4. The relevance of psychology in games………………………………………...... 16 1.7. On dice board games 1.7.1. Dice …………………………………………………………………………...... 17 1.7.2. Definition and reasons for the choice of board games…...………………….....17 1.7.3. Activities in board games………………………………………………………….18 1.7.4. The classic dice games ……………………………………………………………19 1.8. Snakes and ladders board games 1.8.1. Origin of snakes and ladders board games…………………………………...... 20 1.8.2. The original game Rules………………………………………………………...... 20 1.8.3. Pedagogical implications……………………………………………………….....21 1.8.4. The psycho-linguistics implication of the adapted board game……………...... 22 1.9. The stages in the teaching if-clauses to express wishes and regrets 1.9.1. Presentation stage when teaching wishes and regrets…………………………...... 23 1.9.2. Practice stage when dealing with wishes and regrets………………………...... 23 1.9.3. Production stage in the teaching of wishes and regrets ……………………...... 27 1.9.4. The teachers’ roles during the games………………………………………...... 28 1.10. Using board games to teach ‘WISHES and REGRETS’ 1.10.1. Suggested board games using dices to teach wishes and regrets ……………...... 26 1.10.2. Adaptation of the rules of the game………………………………………...... 26 1.10.3. The advantages of using board games to teach wishes and regrets. ………...... 27 1.10.4. Where to find board games ……………………………………………...... 29

CONCLUSION TO PART ONE...... 29

III

PART 2: THE CURRENT TEACHING OF ‘WISHES AND REGRETS’ IN MADAGASCAR 2-1 Methods for data collection 2.1.1 Investigations through questionnaire……………………….……………...... 31 2.1.1.1Presentation of the a questionnaire……………………………………….31 2.1.1.2 Dispatching and collecting of the questionnaires……………………….31 2.1.1.3 Questionnaire dispatching table…………………………………………32 2.2. Analysis and comments of the official syllabus in the Malagasy lycées regarding the teaching of conditional types …………………………………………………...45 2.2.1 Contents and comments of the ‘Classe de Seconde’ syllabus: regarding the teaching of wishes and regrets…………………………46 2.2.2 Contents and comments on the ‘Classe de Première’ syllabus…...... 46 2.2.3 Contents and comments on the ‘Classe de Terminales’ syllabus……...46 2.2.4 General comments on the official syllabus concerning the stages of implementation of the conditional types, regarding the teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’……...... 46

2.3 Cases Study: Class Observations 2.3.1 Presentation of the class………………………………………………….47 2.3.1.1 Class observation N°1…………………………………………………..44 2.3.1.2. Class observation N°2……………………………………………...... 50 2.3.1.3. Class observation N°3…………………………………………….……51 2.3.1.4. Class observation N°4………………………………………….………53 2.3.1.5. Class observation N°5……………………………………………….…55 2.3.1.6. Class observation N°6………………………………………………….57 2.3.1.7. Class observation N°7……………………………………………….....58

CONCLUSION TO PART TWO……………………………………………...59 PART 3: EXPERIMENTATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Initial implemented lesson plans

3.1.1. Presentation of the initial implemented but non-corrected lesson plan………...... 62 IV

3.1.2. Overall view on the initial implemented lesson plan…………………….70 3.1.3. Comments and feedback on the experienced lesson plan……...………..70 3.2 The initial amended lesson plan 3.2.1. Overall view on the initial amended lesson plan………………;;……….80 3.2.2. Comments lesson plan 2…………………………………………………..81 3.2.3. Adaptation of the corrected initial implemented lesson plan to the use of a snakes and ladders board game……………………………………;;………….77

3.3 Experimentation of the initial amended lesson plan integrated with a board game 3.3.1. Experimentation 1………………………………………………...... 83 3.3.2. Experimentation 2………………………………………...……………....84 3.3.3. Experimentation 3……………………………………………………...... 85 3.3.4. Experimentation 4……………………………………………………...... 86 3.3.5. Experimentation 5…….………………………………………...... 86 3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 3.4.1. Difficulties and solutions in the teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’……………..87

3.4.1.1. Suggestions for teaching conditionals ………………………………….88

3.4.1.2. Suggested snakes and ladders board games……………………………..89 3.4.1.3. Sample board games ………………………………………………...... 86 CONCLUSION TO PART THREE…………………………………………..…...93 GENERAL CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………....95 Appendices Appendix 1: Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………..……I Appendix 2: Types of board games ……………………………...………………………..……..II Appendix 3: Questionnaire dispatching………………………………..…………………..…….IV Appendix 4: Observation 1 …………………………………………………………………...... V Appendix 5: Observation 2………………………………………………………………….…...VI Appendix 6: Observation 3……………………………………………….……………………...IX Appendix 7: Observation 4………………………………………………….…………..……….XI Appendix 8: Observation 5…………………………………………………………………….XIII Appendix 9: Some board games………………………………………………………...….…..XV LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Teacher’s degrees and qualification….………………………………………………………………….36

Figure 2: Conditional types………………………………………………………………………………………………….37

Figure 3: Form, use, meaning………………………………………………………………………………………………38

Figure 4: Teaching of wishes and regrets……………………………………………………………………………..39

Figure 5: Statistics on which level wishes and regrets is taught…………………………………………...40

Figure 6: When to teach wishes and regrets…………………………………………………………………………41

Figure 7: Reasons for teaching wishes and regrets……………………………………………………………….42

Figure 8: Percentage of the teachers who use grammar games……………………………………………43

Figure 9: Reasons for not using games in classrooms…………………………………………………………… 44

Figure 10: Reasons for using games in classroom………………………………………………………………….45

Figure 11: Techniques used for teaching wishes and regrets…………………………………………………46

Figure 12: Students’ performance within teacher’s common techniques of teaching wishes and regrets…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46

Figure 13: Common mistakes among the students regarding the learning of wishes and regrets ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..47

Figure 14: Interest in board games in teaching wishes and regrets………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………..48

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 0.1.Rationale and objective of the study

Our study will include the teaching of conditionals, notably Type 2 and 3 and some aspects of its meaning. Conditionals are structures which are used in many contexts. They are more frequent in speech than in writing. Conditional sentences are syntactically more complex than many other structures. Based on the Communicative Approach, in this study, we aim at endowing students with the ability to express themselves orally in the target language. Therefore, our motive for undertaking this research is to help teachers of English in the teaching of Wishes and Regrets by the means of ‘snakes and ladders board games. This will also aim at motivating students and helping them develop their communicative skills.

When we were students in Lycée, we did not have much opportunity to familiarize ourself with if-clause Type 2 and Type 3 for us to express Wishes and Regrets appropriately. Our studies at ENS helped us learn various approaches to language teaching such as the Communicative Approach which proposes different communicative activities such as games, pair and group work, role play, and simulation. We think the Communicative Approach is the appropriate approach for this study because it offers more opportunities for the students to communicate and promote peer interaction in the target language. Nevertheless, when we observed classes in different Lycées, we noted that teachers face difficulties teaching Wishes and Regrets due to its syntactical and semantical complexity. Therefore, our second concern in this study is to suggest a communicative teaching technique which may help teachers of English in the teaching if-clauses to express Wishes and Regrets. Moreover, we have based our research on the use of Snakes and ladders board games with dices. All in all, we undertake this dissertation in order to help students succeed in learning English, and we aim at bringing practical improvement of English teaching in the Lycées.

0.2. Scope and limitations of the work

As the title of the dissertation indicates, we will limit our study to If-clauses expressing Wishes and Regrets which are mainly based on Type 2 and Type 3 conditionals. Additionally, because the current investigation specially has a didactic purpose, this work deals only with dice board games- Snakes and ladders. We do believe that board games have peculiarities and assets that can improve students’ ability to communicate like children and family who enjoy playing them in real life. Therefore, we are convinced that integrating Snakes and ladders in the teaching of such complex structures could be very relevant. This is actually on what we are going to root our current researches. Moreover, we have chosen to study the use of Snakes and ladders board games because these board games are easier to make, and generate stress-free classroom environment.

0.3. Structure of the work

This work will be divided into three main parts. The first part will deal with the theoretical considerations on unreal conditionals expressing Wishes and Regrets, on Snakes and ladders board games as well as the way to teach Wishes and Regrets through Snakes and ladders board games. In the second part, we will examine the current teaching of Wishes and Regrets to Malagasy students. A questionnaire is used so as to identify the reality and the challenges in the teaching of Wishes and Regrets. The final part of this work will be focused on an experienced lesson plan we had during our teaching training, followed by suggestions and recommendations on how board games can be used to improve the teaching of Wishes and Regrets based on the teaching approach being discussed in the first part, and on the teaching reality which will be reported in the second part.

PART I: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. THEORITICAL CONSIDERATION

When we talk about if-clauses to express Wishes and Regrets it is worth mentioning the different types of if-clauses for us to better understand their meanings, forms and uses. After that, we shall move on to an overview of the Communicative Approach which was particularly chosen for this study and the proposed technique to teach Wishes and Regrets -the S&L.

1.1. Conditionals

We have chosen the if-clause conditionals expressing Wishes and Regrets to be the concern of our study because of the complexity these structures and the understanding of their meanings to the students. The complexity of conditional sentences lies on the fact that they contain two clauses to express complex meanings using complex structures. Moreover, students spend their time learning the main types of conditional sentences, i.e.; if she came, I would leave; if she had come, I would have left. Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2000) report that learners of English as a second language (ESL) have difficulties in acquiring English conditionals due to the syntactic and semantic complexities embedded in conditional constructions. Actually, theories over conditional types may vary from one grammarian to another.

1.1.1. Definitions of conditional constructions

Trask (1995) identifies the conditional clause as a kind of adverbial clause which expresses a condition upon whose fulfilment the proposition expressed in the main clause depends, as in ‘ If we do not water plants ,they will not grow .’

Leech (1975) state that a conditional clause is a subordinate clause in a complex sentence. It is an element in a ‘higher-up’ clause, such as ‘If you grow, you will reap.’ Semantically classified, it is a major type of adverbial clauses.

Miller (2002) views the adverbial clause of condition as a clause which modifies the main clause. For instance, in ‘If Ann had left London, Kipps would have been sad’, the adverbial clause of condition ‘If Ann had left London’ conveys the conditions under which a particular situation would have arisen . The situation is Kipps being sad, and this situation did not really come about but would have done; Ann’s leaving London would have brought it about. The fact is the relationship between the two situations; Kipps’s being sad is the

1 dependent conditional upon Ann’s leaving London. The clause of condition modifies the main clause Kipps would have been sad .

Celce–Murcia and Larsen – Freeman (1999) define a conditional construction as a complex sentence that consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause. The subordinate clause initiates with the adverbial subordinators “if”, “unless”, etc., as in ‘ If students study hard, they will succeed in the examinations.’

Teschner and Evans (2007) pinpoint that conditionality is a bi-clausal construction in which the if- clause (protasis) expresses the condition that must exist before something else can happen, while the result clause (apodosis) expresses the something else. For instance: ‘ We can come at seven if it is necessary .’

Conditional sentences are common syntactic configurations, which express causal relationships, potentialities, possibilities, and evidence relationships in discourse concerned with explanation and argumentation. In English, a conditional sentence is often expressed in the form: ‘If A, then C.’

The conclusion that can be drawn is that conditional constructions are complex structures including two clauses: the main clause involving the result and the subordinate clause introduced by “if”, “unless”... involving the condition. For example: If you go there, you will see her . Grammarians may define different theories around conditionals but according to many grammar books, if-clauses could be classified into two main subdivisions: likely conditionals and unlikely conditionals under which can be categorized into four major forms: Type Zero, Type One, Type Two, and Type Three.

1.1.2. Likely conditionals

Likely conditionals refer to the past, present and future. They include ‘Zero’ and ‘First’ conditionals. (Thomson and Martinet 1986)

Examples: If you were working last night, how come I didn’t see the light? (= past ) If you feel disappointed, that is natural. (= present ) If you do that, I’m going to sue you to the nearest police station. (= future )

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1.1.3 . Unlikely conditionals

In the same way, unlikely conditionals also refer to the past, p resent, and future but include ‘Second’ and ‘Third’ conditionals. This last category will be the focus of our work. Examples: It would be easier if Leeds were on the direct rail link to Oxford. (= present ) If you were going to travel to Tibet, when would be the best time to go? (= future ) If I’d listen more carefully to his directions, I wouldn’t have got lost. (= past )

1.1.4. Representation of the two main categories of conditional forms

Likely Unlikely conditionals conditionals

Type zero Type two

Type one Type three

(Side and Wellman, 1999)

Likely and unlikely conditionals take their differences in the degree of probabilities they convey. In the likely conditionals, the main clause states an action or situation that depends on whether the other situation or action happens first. The condition al part of the structure expresses that the activity is likely to occu r. (Type Zero and Type O ne). On the other hand, in the unlikely conditionals, the main clause states an imaginary situation or process based on unlikely condition or situation. The conditional part of the structure expresses that the activity is unlikely to occur. The past tenses verb form expresses that the condition and the secondary action are purely hypothetical or imaginary.

1.2. The four main forms of the conditional

Various grammarians classify conditionals into different forms. Thomson and Martinet (1986), for instance, classify them into three types, whereas Celce–Murcia and L arsen– Freeman (1999) classify conditional constructions into five categories . Therefore, the classification of conditional structures by Hughes (2001) states there are four main types of “if” sentences in English: the Type zero conditional, the Type 1 conditional, the Type 2

3 conditional, and the Type 3 conditional. This is in accordance the classification seen in the Malagasy Syllabus.

1.2.1. Form 1: the zero conditional

As Johnson and Thornley (1948) put it, zero conditional is the easiest and simplest conditional sentence. It makes a general statement. No particular time is meant. The proposition is always true. “If” may be replaced by “when”. Both verbs are in the present tense. We can also use zero conditionals with the imperative. This is the most frequent conditional sentence type in English.

Structure 1: If + present + another present Examples: If you heat ice, it melts (= When you heat ice, it melts .) If it rains, you get wet. (= Water freezes when it snows .) Structure 2: If + present + imperative Examples: If you go out, buy some milk

Function: Zero conditionals are used to express general facts which are always true, natural facts; they express automatic and natural results; they can also be used for instructions. (Walker et al, 2000)

1.2.2. Form 2: type one conditional

The verb in if-clause is the present tense and the verb in the main clause is in the future.

Structure: If +present tense + future simple Examples: If he runs, he will get in time. The cat will scratch you if you pull her tail

We often use such sentences to give warnings: Examples: If you don't leave, I'll call the police. If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot. Possible variations

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• If + present + MAY: to express possibility or permission Examples: If the fog gets thicker, the plane may be diverted. ( Possibility ) If the documents are in order, you may leave. ( Permission )

• If + present + MUST/ SHOULD : to express obligation Examples: If you want to lose weight, you must eat less. Function: Hughes (2001) remarks that in these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result. They are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations.

1.2.3. Form 3: Type two conditional

The verb in if-clause is in the past tense and the verb in the main clause is in the conditional tense. As Thomson and Martinet (1986) puts it, Type one and Type two are not different in time. Both of them refer to the present or future. Structure: If + simple past + would + infinitive (-to) Example:

If I had a map I would lend it to you ( but I don’t have a map so I can’t lend you a map. The meaning here is the present )

Example: If the weather wasn’t so bad, we would go to the park ( but it is bad, so we can’t go. The meaning here is the present )

Example: I would visit her if I had time. (= I haven't got time but I might have some time ) If I were you, I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you) Functions: Conditional type two is used to express unreality and improbability. to make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible to make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real

Note: In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition. The use of

5 the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality . That is why we may often add a phrase starting with "but", that expresses the real situation; however, it is correct and very common, to say "If I were you" in example (11) instead of "If I was you . As Celce – Murcia and Larsen – Freeman (1999) state it, the past tense refers to the present time and not to the past time. Possible variations • If + past simple + MIGHT/COULD ( instead of would) Ex : If you tried again you might succeed Ex: If I knew her number, I could ring her up. • If + past simple + WOULD BE + gerund (continuous) Ex : If I were on holidays I’d be touring in Fianarantsoa. • If + past continuous + WOULD + infinitive (-to) Ex : If I going by boat I would feel much safer. • If + past perfect + WOULD + infinitive (-to) Ex : If he had taken my advice, he would be a rich man

1.2.4. Form 4: Type three conditional

In conditional Type three, the verb in if-clause is in the past perfect tense, whereas the verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional tense. The condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause didn’t happen and is already past.

Structure: If + past perfect tense + perfect conditional tense Example: If I had known that you were coming, I would have met you at the airport. ( But I didn’t know you were coming and I didn’t meet you at the airport ) Example: If I had had money I would have bought a car. ( But I didn’t have money and didn’t buy a car ) If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. ( But I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass the exam )

Function: Thomson and Martinet (1986) confirm that the conditional type three is used to express impossible conditions, actions which were impossible to take place.

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Note: In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed, and they refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. Wu (1994) defined conditional Type 3 as a contrary-to- fact statement. Grammatically, the tenses of the verbs together with modals form the particular construction traditionally called the ‘subjunctive mood’. There is always an unspoken "but..." phrase implied.

1.3. Tenses related to unlikely conditionals

When dealing with unreal conditionals, many tenses are involved such as the conditional tenses, the subjunctive, and simple past, past continuous.

1.3.1. Unreal past tenses

The unreal Past is similar to the past subjunctive. It involves using Past tenses (past simple, past continuous, past perfect ) to propose impossible, unlikely or hypothetical conditions, to discuss imaginary situations, and to express wishes. Ex: I wish he wasn’t so shy. (= but he is so shy ) I wish I didn’t have to go to work (= but I do ) If only I hadn’t listened to you (= but I did ) If the Minister were here, he would no doubt refuse the allegation. ( but the minister is not here )

If the sun were shining , I would have gone to Marolaka.

Thomson and Martinet (1986) state that subjunctive has limited use in English. The present subjunctive consists of the infinitive without ‘to ’ in all persons. Ex : I suggest he stop as soon as he becomes tired The past subjunctive, on the other hand, exists only in were in all persons: I were, he were, we were, they were, etc. It is more often used in WISH clauses with ‘if’. Ex : I wish she weren’t so shy. (= but she is ) • We generally use it in formal English Example: If the Minister were here, he would no doubt refuse the allegation

Were is common in the phrase “if I were you”:

Example:

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I wouldn’t argue with her if I were you.

To conclude, when considering Type two and Type three conditionals, it is worth talking of unreal past (including Past Perfect) to discuss imaginary situations, to express impossible wishes. Let us consider the following situations. We can also use Past Subjunctive. (Side and Wellman 1999) • After if when we think it is unlikely or impossible that the condition will be fulfilled.

Example: If she were to eat/ate fish more, she might get to like it like.

• To replace an if-clause when we imagine the past, present or future event being different.

Example: Had he agreed , he would have become the team captain.( If he had agreed, he would have been the team captain )

Example: Were he to agree , he would have become the next coach.( If he had agreed, he would have become the next coach )

• After “wish” when wishing for virtual impossible.

Example: I wish I wasn’t having/ weren’t having the injection.

1.3.2. The conditional present

Swan (1984) claims that the present conditional tense with I is formed with would/should followed by the infinitive for the first person and would followed by infinitive for the other persons. Structure 1: would/should + infinitive (-to) Example: I would like a drink You would not believe it. Structure 2: would/should + be + -ing (progressive conditional) Example: If I was at home, I would be watching TV. Functions: The present conditional is used in conditional sentences. We can use would or should with I and we. They mean the same in conditional structures. After you, he, she, it, and they, and nouns, we only you would.

Example: I would/should buy it if I had enough money. 8

John would buy it if he had enough money. Note: the conditional present is used in conditional Type 2 as we can notice in the 2 previous sentences. 1.3.3. The perfect conditional

The perfect Conditional is composed of two elements: the perfect conditional of the ‘to be’ and the present participle (base + ing). Structure: would have been + base + ing Example: I would have been sitting on a better chair, if I had known it in advance (but I didn’t know that in advance and I din’t sit in a better chair )

Example: I would have been studying hard, if I had had a scholarship. (I didn’t have a scholarship and I didn’t study hard ) Function: This tense can be used in type 3 conditional sentences. It refers to the unfulfilled result of the action in the if-clause, and expresses this result as an unfinished or continuous action. Again, there is always an unspoken ‘but…’phrase.

1.3.4. Time versus tense in conditional Type two and Type three

Before tackling if-clauses expressing W&R, it is worth going through the time and tense contrast regarding conditional Type two and Type three. Let us consider each of the types knowing that the conditional type two expresses unlikely conditions in the present and in the future, whereas the conditional type three refers to unreal conditionals. Example: If I didn’t know you so well, I would say you were lying. (= but I do know you well ) Note: The past tense (Past simple) in the if-clause is definitely not a reference to the past tense that is why we can continue the sentence with but including the present tense.

To refer to the future time, we use the Unreal Past in the if-clause to indicate that we are talking about hypothetical situations, but also when we think that the condition is unlikely to be fulfilled. Example: If you told him, he would never believe you. (= but I don’t think you will tell him )

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Note : The past tense in the if-clause in the above sentence does not refer to past time because the process of telling is not yet folded. We use Unreal Past Perfect in the if-clause to indicate that we know what happened but are speculating about what would have happened if the opposite was true. (Side and Wellman 1999)

Example: If she had known my number, she would have called. (=but she didn’t know it) If I hadn’t been standing outside, we might never have met. If I weren’t/wasn’t such an idiot, I wouldn’t have done that.

Note : The Past Perfect tense is not a reference to a process occurring before another one but a modal past to refer to what happened and cannot be changed. Occasionally, it is used to express that something is generally true but we wish it wasn’t.

1.4. Wishes and Regrets expressed in unlikely conditionals

The complexity of the structures as well as the meanings of unlikely conditionals needs special attention; that is the reason why we have chosen W&R to be the object of our study.

1.4.1. The verb to ‘wish’ and ‘wish-clauses’

The verb “ wish” is similar to counterfactual conditionals in that the same clauses that follow “wish” can also function either as the if – clause or the result clause of a counterfactual conditional.

Thomson and Martinet (1986) pioneer that ‘wish-clauses’ can be used to express W&R for the present, past, and future situations. Folse et al (2013) state that the verb after ‘wish’ is one tense before the actual time. In other words, if you want to wish for the present, you use past tense. If you want to wish for the past time, you use the past perfect tense. If you want to wish for the future, you use ‘would’. The situation is imaginary, does not exist, or did not happen. (Folse et al 2013). In the next sections, we will focus mainly on “wish-clauses” expressing wishes and regrets for the present and in the past.

1.4.2. Wish-clauses expressing wishes about the present situation

Form: wish(es) + subject + past simple

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Function: We form wish-clause using the past simple to express dissatisfaction with present situations. Example: I wish I knew his address. (= I’ m sorry I don’t know his ) I wish you could drive. (= I’m sorry you can’t drive a car ) I wish he was coming with us. (= I’m sorry he is not coming with us)

Note: The verb form in the wish-clause is the same as the one in conditional Type two. Moreover, the time reference in the equivalent sentences is the present using ‘I’m sorry’. If- clause can be used to express wishes in the present by using the following structure: If only + past simple.

Example: If only I knew the truth about him.

1.4.3. Wish-clauses expressing regrets about the past

Form: wish(es) + subject + past perfect

Function: We form wish-clause using Past Perfect to dissatisfaction about past situations

Examples: I wish I hadn’t treated John like that (= I regret I treated John like that ) Funny wishes she had studied Physics at the University (= She regrets she did not study Physics at the University ) He wishes he had bought a bigger car (= He regrets he did not buy a bigger car )

1.4.4. If-clauses expressing wishes and regrets

If-clause expressing Wish: Form: If only / I wish + simple past Example: If only I had a million dollars. = I wish I had one million dollars ( I don’t have a million dollar and I am not a millionaire ) Functions: • To express a wish in the present or in the future. • The simple past here is an unreal past. • When you use the verb to be the form is “were”.

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If-clauses expressing regrets: Form: If only / I wish + past perfect Example: If only I had passed the exam. = I wish I had passed my exam. (I didn't work hard, so I didn’t pass the exam.) Functions: • To express a regret. • The action is past.

Wishes and regrets can be used in communicative games but before integrating it in a game, we are going to define what games are and what type of games we want the teaching of wishes and regrets to be associated with.

1.5 On grammar

Grammar is defined by Ur (1991) as ‘the way language manipulates and combines words in order to form longer units of meaning.’ The main difference is that it tells us how the rules of language actually work – they arrange and shape words. Nevertheless, knowing these rules is not a motivating factor on its own. Cristal (2004) says, ‘Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how that structural foundation works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language

Maugham (1938) mentioned that, ‘It is necessary to know grammar, and it is better to write grammatically than not, but it is well to remember that grammar is common speech formulated. Usage is the only test.’

Consequently, grammar remains an important set of rules that cannot be separated from the language even though students may find it difficult to master.

Grammar is taught in various approaches which have their own positive and negative aspects—Audio-lingual Method, Community Language Learning (CLL ), Total Physical Response (TPR) which led to the birth of the Communicative approach as main focus. 1.5.1. Communicative Approach (CLT) to teach wishes and regrets

In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), grammar is taught as a means to help learners convey their intended meaning appropriately. The teaching of grammar can be managed either

12 deductively or inductively but focuses on meanings and functions of forms in situational context and the roles of the interlocutors. People pay less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules. (Brown, 2000) Some students learn better by being given the context and then are presented with the grammar, while others need the rule in order to understand the rationale for the new grammatical structure. Besides, the method used in teaching depends on the grammatical points, which helps teachers decide the ways of presenting grammar effectively. To conclude, we can deduce that through the history of grammar teaching, the ways teachers taught foreign languages have gone through enormous changes over the past centuries. However, each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, we have chosen the Communicative Approach for the teaching of conditional Type 2 and Type 3 expressing wishes and regrets . In the next section, we will deal with the conditionals and how different grammarians define them.

1.6. Games

Games have always had an important place in language teaching and learning. They facilitate the acquisition of L2. Moreover, games are not restricted as they can be used under whatever the level: elementary, intermediate and advanced. In this section, we deal with the definitions of games, the possible types of game, the implication of games in language teaching, and the reasons to include game in teaching. The following deals only with games as a language teaching technique.

1.6.1. Theories on games

Hadfield (1999) quotes that “games can be used at all stages of the progression from controlled to free practice, serving at one end of the range as a memory aid and repetition drill, at the other as a chance to use the language freely and as a means to an end rather than an end in itself. They can also serve as a diagnostic tool for teacher, who can note areas of difficulty and take appropriate remedial action.” In other words: Hadfield emphasizes he is convinced of the effective use of games if the latter are used suitably in the way in which learners are led to participate, and practice or use the new language items they have just learnt. It is more effective in a way that students can play and learn at the same time.

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In the same way, Hadfield (1990) defines games as "an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun." Games must always be governed by rules, and for it is necessary for players to understand rules before the start for them to smoothly play the games without problems. Greenall (1990) claims that the term ‘game’ is used whenever there is an element of competition between individual students or teams in a language activity. Similarly to Hadfield, Greenall (1990) underlines the importance and the respect of rules. Besides, games are, in this case, used to encourage students’ solidarity in teamwork as they have to try their best to do the tasks.

1.6.2. Types of games Generally, games can be classified into two main categories: Individual games and Collective games.

• Individual games

Individual games are played by one person or one player as the instance of crossword or puzzle. They develop some aspects of languages. These, in fact, do not involve communication or interaction. The objective of crossword games is for example to encourage students find many possible words. The game is mainly used to review vocabulary ( Hubbard et al , 1983 ) • Collective games Collective games are played by more than one player. The players work in group, team or class. According to Hadfield (1990 ), collective games are classified into two other categories: Competitive games and cooperative games.

‹ In competitive games, groups, or teams race to be first to reach the goal. Carrier (1980 ) notes that some games have a competitive or a point scoring element in them. For classes with younger students, competitions often reveal to be an important motivating factor. Therefore, it is important to assess the students’ interest in any given games before deciding to use the games in a competitive way. Edge (1993 ) adds that competition creates relaxation and enjoyment and even the most serious adult can become completely absorbed in cooperating with colleagues in order to win a game. Quizzes, as Petty (1998 ) confirms it , remain popular means of enlivening revisions.

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Competition pushes students to learn effectively among the group because “one group’s “win” is not another group’s loss”

‹ In many games, group of learners have to work together towards a common goal, whether it would be solving a problem or building up point and trying to win. Clark (2002 ) emphasises the importance of collaborative games which are invaluable in helping bring the class into cohesive group. In the process of working together, students necessarily have to interact with each other, to support, suggest, encourage, share, and even correct and challenge each other. Thus, collaborative games promote cooperation and interaction between learners. Collaboration is an efficient way of practising language. Lee (1979 ) gives the instances of guessing games like Riddles that can be played at various age levels. The challenge to guess arouses considerable interest and encourages the learners to communicate what they see a possible “right answer”. In a competition, for example when a learner in a group wins, everyone in the group succeeds. Consequently, a group earns a reward which is shared by the combination of individual’s and the team’s score Kagan (1988 ).

1.6.3 . Reasons for including games in language class .

According to Richard-Amato (1996), even though games are often associated with fun, we should not lose sight of their pedagogical values, particularly in second language teaching. Games are effective because they provide motivation, lower students' stress, and give them the opportunity for real communication. It is undeniably the majority of games give students experience in communicating. Students’ competence in a second language increases through communicative games. Petty (1998) confirms: “Games also provide intense and meaningful practice of language, give a quality of concentration and positive feeling when practicing language, and stimulate student’s interest”. In other words, the involvement of games as an integral part of any language acts generally provides an immensely and enjoyable moment for both teacher and student.

McCallum (1980 ) develops other reasons for including games in a language Class as they:

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‹ can be used in any language teaching situation, and with any skill area ‹ focus students’ attention on specific structures, grammatical patterns, and vocabulary items ‹ provide immediate feedback for the teacher ‹ can function as reinforcement, review, and enrichment ‹ insure maximum students participation for a minimum of teacher preparation ‹ involve equal participation from both slow and fast learners ‹ contribute to an atmosphere of healthy competition, providing an outlet for creative use of natural language in a non-stressful situation ‹ can be adjusted to suit the individual ages and language levels of the students in the class

Carrier (1980 ) states that the insertion of games in language teaching brings many advantages. Since games provide motivation, increase student to student communication, teachers are not overtaking the floor. Lee (1979) in the same way asserts that games can be one of most enjoyable supplementary activities teachers could have with their class. Hadfield (1990) says: “Games should be regarded as an integral part of the language syllabus, not as an amusing activity for Friday afternoon or for the end of term. They provide in many cases as much concentrated practice as a traditional drill and more important, they provide an opportunity for real communication”. Thus, games do not only contain elements of fun but invaluable for language teaching. On account of its necessity, the language syllabus is interspersed with games.

1.6.4. The relevance of psychology in games

When one uses to a game one has to consider what the learners know. Hazel (1985) particularly insists on the great roles of psychology in education: “Psychology provides teachers with knowledge of the law of human development and behaviour, to pay attention to all three aspects: the intellect, the emotion and the will. Teachers should know their learners help students, care for their personal development and teach them responsibilities. Activities given to a class should correspond to the psychological state and level of the class in question for them to be successful and effective. What the teacher wants is the ability to create an atmosphere where both the learners and the teacher can work fruitfully. For that aim, we have

16 considered the importation of board games to the teaching of ‘if-clauses expressing wishes and regrets’ which are based of conditionals.

1.7. On dice and board games

This section is devoted to board games. We are going to have an overview of the family of dice games before introducing Snakes and ladders board games on which our research is mainly based. We will also highlight some homemade board games.

1.7.1. Dice

The Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 5 th Edition defines a dice as small cube (an object with six equal square sides) with a different number of spots on each side, used in games involving chance. At the same time, a dice can also refer to any game involving chance in which a dice is thrown.

1.7.2. Definitions and reasons for the choice of board games

Board games are games involving the use of figures moved across a surface (board) using counters or dices. Board games may be played by single users alone or against an artificial agent presenting a real opponent; they are played most often by multiple players providing interactive learning experiences as far as players learn from one another while playing for fun. These are designed educational board games using board rules for navigation within a quiz and for control of the questions (Feng, 2005; Retalis, 2008). According to the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005), board games are “any of many games, for example chess, in which small pieces are moved around a board with a patter on it”.

A board game is a game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre- marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Games can be based on pure strategy,

17 chance (e.g. rolling dice) or a mixture of the two, and usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve.

See pictures below:

(1) Monopoly (2) Snakes and ladders Roll-and-move (3)

http://www.bgamers.com/monopoly.htm Wikipedia on Answers.com

To develop students’ communicative skills in the target language, resorting to board games may be of a great help to the teachers to achieve the main goals of language teaching. Chang et al (2008) emphasise that using board games in the language classroom is an effective, low-anxiety, and fun way for students to learn and practice communication skills as well as develop their own communication strategies that can be readily applied to the real world

1.7.3. Activities in board games

The cited activities are just a few compared with what we can do with board games and games in general. When using board games, we should remember how these five characteristics are exemplified in the students’ interaction. Furthermore, it is important that lessons involving board games should be composed of warm-up activities, formal instruction, tasks, and wrap- up/reflection activities that integrate all language skills to provide learners with a holistic language learning experience.

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‹ Adapting board games for teaching form Many board games elicit target language forms (i.e., yes/no questions for Guess Who, Wh- questions for Clue). We propose looking at the language used in a particular game by emphasizing forms and functions when students play the game. ‹ Adapted for ESL/EFL contexts and various age groups, proficiency levels, and content Fotos (2002) claims it is important that language learners to take risks in speaking and trying new language forms and functions. A supportive classroom environment may help students take the opportunity to engage in language learning. Board games can be adapted for all age groups regardless of the levels of proficiency, and content. We are required to check the language and keep it at a level that students are comfortable with. ‹ Adapted board games for communicative activities in the classroom

Biggs (2003) says: ‘being active while learning is better than being inactive’. Many concepts of board games can be adapted like communicative activities in the classroom. This would be ideal for the language teacher in search of fun ways to liven up the classroom. For example, the game Taboo can be extended to target vocabulary words in a lesson or unit. ‘Scattegories’ can also promote.

1.7.4. The classic dice games

Certain dice board games may be familiar to families; they are referred to classic board games as the instance of backgammon, monopoly, snakes and ladders. (See exhaustive list in the annex). These are just examples of dice board games; therefore, they require the use of dices. For this work we are exploiting Snakes and ladders also known as Chutes and ladders in the United States.

1.8. Snakes and ladders board games

We have chosen snakes and ladders out of all these dice board games because of its simplicity. It can be adapted to vocabulary or grammar. The following section will help us know better about the peculiarities of this dice board game: its origin, geometry, rules, and pedagogical implications, and psycho-linguistic aspects.

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1.8.1 Origin of snakes and ladders board games

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakes_and_Ladders

Snakes and Ladders are ancient Indian board game s regarded today as a worldwide classic. It is played between two or more players on a game board having numbered, gridded squares. A number of "ladders" and "snakes" are pictured on the board, each connecting two specific board squares. The objective of the game is to navigate one's game piece, according to die rolls, from the start (bottom square) to the finish (top square), helped or hindered by ladders and snakes respectively. The historic version had root in morality lessons, where a player's progression up the board represented a life journey complicated by virtues (ladders) and vices (snakes). This game is also known under the name ‘chutes and ladders’ in America.

1.8.2. The original game Rules Rules are essential to game play. McLuhan (2001) observes, ‘games are collective and popular art forms with strict conventions’. The rules of a game should be known by the players, he adds. The convention of board games normally includes the condition of winning, or as Parlett (1999) argues, games have ends and means: a goal and ways of achieving it. The rules of board games must include certain information that allows the players to play the game: how to set up the game, what the function of pieces is, and what the victory conditions are. Each player starts with a token on the starting square (usually the "1" grid square in the bottom left corner, or simply, the imaginary space beside the "1" grid square) and takes turns to roll a single dice to move the token by the number of squares indicated by the dice

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roll. Tokens follow a fixed route marked on the game board which usually follows a boustrophedon track from the bottom to the top of the playing area, passing once through every square. If, on completion of a move, a player's token lands on the lower-numbered end of a "ladder", the player moves the token up to the ladder's higher-numbered square. If the player lands on the higher-numbered square of a "snake" (or chute), the token must be moved down to the snake's lower-numbered square. If a player rolls a 6, the player may, after moving, immediately take another turn; otherwise play passes to the next player in turn. If a player rolls three consecutive 6s, the player must return to the starting square (grid "1") and may not move again until rolling another 6. The player who is first to bring their token to the last square of the track is the winner.

1.8.3. Pedagogical implications

Snakes and ladders board games can be used to teach vocabulary, different grammar points and skills. These adapted snakes and ladders board games for ESL.

Snakes and ladders Snakes and ladders to Snakes and ladders to Snakes and ladders to templates teach the ‘weather’ teach ‘food’ teach Present Prefect tense

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"Chutes and Ladders - Snakes and Ladders" . About.com

1.8.4 The psycho-linguistics implication of the adapted board game

The students are divided into groups and each group are provided with one board game, one dice and a token. Each time a player rolls the dice, he has to answer or continue the question or the sentence related to the case indicated by the dice. For example from the start case, if the player has 5 on the dice, he is going to jump 5 cases and check the question on that case, that is to say question related to case 5. Each participant has to take turn and do the same. Until time is up or until he or she reaches the finish case. Students can help one another in case of difficulties and move along. Each student has to provide at least one full sentence as an answer but can elaborate to more than one if need be. For instance, if in case 3, the corresponding question is ‘what would you do if you were the president of Madagascar?’, the student can answer within many sentences: ‘If I were the President of Madagascar, I would help the poor, and I would build new roads to avoid traffic jams’. I is important the students keeps practising the newly given structure.

1.9. The stages in the teaching wishes and regrets The teaching of grammar is carried out following three successive stages known as: presentation, practice, and production or 3Ps (Presentation, Practice, Production) (Manoro 2005). The teaching of if-clauses to express W&R follows the 3Ps. Thus, we can proceed with the three stages:

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1.9.1. Presentation stage when teaching wishes and regrets

Presentation is the stage at which students are introduced to the form, meaning and use of a new piece of language (Harmer 1987). Thus, presentation is the stage where the teacher introduces the specific meaning of conditional Type 2 and Type 3: wishes and regrets and the verb concords related to them but taken one at a time. There are reasons why teachers need to proceed with this stage.

a) Rationale and necessity

Learning a language involves an ability to understand and to perceive this language. So, teachers first need to introduce the new language for us to be accessible to learners. What is more, Ur (1981) suggests that when a presentation is both effective and conscious it may help to activate and to maintain learners’ attention, effort, intelligence and conscious learning strategies. In that case, the new language known as input will be comprehensible to the learners and will become intake. Krashen (2003) claims that language is normally produced by using acquired linguistic competence. Therefore, a good conscious presentation is necessary.

b) Objectives

During this stage of presentation the aims are: • To capture the learner’s attention: because the learners are exposed to a new material, and they need to take them in. Thus, their attention is focused on their teacher and or on the material to be learnt; • To help the learner to perceive and understand the meaning of wishes and regrets and the difference between them as far as structures and meanings are concerned; • To give the structure of the new language in order that they can use this language later. For that, we need to start with conditional Type 2 for the lesson to be gradual. • To make the students aware that the new language is very useful and relevant and to motivate them to learn it.

1.9.2. Practice stage when dealing with wishes and regrets

This stage consists in giving students controlled or guided exercises. These exercises may be controlled matching, joining, completing, rewriting with the use of materials such as questions, pictures, prompts, notes, tables, board games and so forth. We should mention that

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Snakes and ladders board games can be used in the Practice stage but due to the complexity of the conditional Type 2 and 3, we believe it is more appropriate to have the board games in the end for the production stage. Using board games is time consuming. Since we decided to take up the Type 2 and Type 3 separately, resorting to the board game during the production stage can help integrate the two structures.

a) Rationale and necessity

In order to have a ready and fluent comprehension as well as self-expression, students need to acquire an “intuitive automatized knowledge” (Ur 1981). This “automatized knowledge” can be acquired throughout the practice stage. In addition, the practice stage makes it possible for the students to consolidate language skills and to master them thoroughly. Therefore, teachers initiate and manage activities so that students receive opportunity for effective practice.

b) Objectives

Many reasons take part in completing the practice stage. The central aims of this stage are: • To rehearse the newly presented language.; • To consolidate and improve the students ’performance; • To build the students ‟ confidence in using the new language; and • To fix the new language in the learners ‟ memory.

1.9.3. Production stage in the teaching of wishes and regrets

In a production stage, the students are engaged in using language for communication. Therefore, they use the target language by themselves and work in pairs or in groups. Board games can be used in this stage as students have acquired a certain control of the new language in the previous stages.

a) Rationale and necessity

Students need to be free from their teacher and do things for themselves and by themselves. Hence, they have to produce. They also need to express their ideas and interact among themselves, so that they can take part in classroom activities and consciously acquire communication skills.

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b) Objectives

The basic aims for the production stages are: • To provide the students with the opportunity to experiment the language on their own, independently after they practiced wishes and regrets under controlled conditions ; • To allow the students to realize by themselves how they understood and learnt the new language; and • To provide a feedback for the teacher will allow him to assess the attainment of these teaching objectives. Therefore, in this phase of teaching the students know their weaknesses and strengths. That is to say, what have they learnt or not yet learnt? What do they need to reinforce? To what extent are they good? Similarly, the teacher realizes what students have learnt or not learnt what he should do next. Snakes and ladders with dice totally fit to be used in the production stage to these aims and that justifies the choice we have made.

• 1.9.4. The teachers’ roles during the games

Be the prompter Be the organiser

Be the assessor

Be the monitor

Since the approach is centred on students’ learning and based on the Communicative Approach, the teacher plays the role of facilitator of students’ learning. To do so, he has to perform several functions in order to reach this aim. First, during the board game activities he should play the role of organizer. That requires the setting up of a warm atmosphere in which the students will feel secure and confident. Apart from creating the right atmosphere, the teacher pays attention to the materials

25 to be used as well as the activities and the techniques used (pair or group work) which will best suit the students’ needs and activities. The second function is to act as a prompter. During the activities, the students do most of the speaking the teachers’ participation is reduced in order to incite students to speak as much as possible. As a monitor, the teacher should not interfere during the activities but let the students participate. He sets up and guides the activity at the beginning; and because the students’ performance is the goal, he just observes and listens to the students. It is only when students have difficulty with the activities and need help that the teacher can interfere. During the games, the teachers are assessors. They correct students’ mistakes during their students’ performance and show the right forms. Therefore, the fact of correcting should be done with tact in order to avoid frustration or fear. In other words, during the games, the teacher plays an essential role. Not only is he an organiser and a prompter but he also acts as a monitor and an assessor for the sessions to be lively and active.

1.10. Using board games to teach wishes and regrets

Language teachers always try to find new and exciting ways or methods to make the teaching and learning process more interesting especially when it comes to the teaching of complex grammatical structures.

1.10.1. Adapted board games using dices to teach wishes and regrets

In the current board game, students are working in pair, their take turn rolling the dice and move their token accordingly, and ask their peers the question they see in the case. The students will take turns asking and answering questions. Snakes and ladders can be used either in Practice or Production stage as they can evaluate to what extent the new language has be acquired the students but we have particularly chose to use board games in the Production stage (See Appendix)

1.10.2. Adaptation of the rules of the game

As for snakes and ladders, the original rules were adapted so as to have simpler ones for classroom activities. These would be the main rules.

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1. Roll the dice and count spaces according to the number on the dice. Wherever you land, read the sentence and follow the instructions between brackets, then speak the answer out. 2. If you fall in the spaces where you have the head of a snake, you return according to the space indicated by the tail of the snake. The snakes are only to pull you backward to interior spaces, not vice versa. 3. If you fall in a ladder space, you must go up to the space indicated by the top of the ladder, not the vice versa. 4. The player who reaches the Finish space first is the winner, whereas the other players should continue playing till they reach the case at their turn.

1.10.3. The advantages of using S&L to teach wishes and regrets

The use of S&L to teach wishes and regrets offers many advantages: Practice: when learning foreign languages, if the students want improvement they will have to practice it. Not all students have the opportunity to do so in their everyday life. Besides, the students learn to speak in the second language by interacting and as mentioned earlier, communicative activities promote interaction among the students for communicative purposes through pair and group work and so S&L which are played within groups of students. Therefore, Using S&L to teach ‘wishes and regrets’ will increase students talking time. These will increase the students’ self-confidence enough so that they use these skills during classroom activities or outside classrooms. In other words, using such communicative activities in class gives students practice which will develop their communication skills.

Real life communication : Communicative activities focus on realistic communication situations. Thus, as communicative activities, Snakes and ladders in the same way provide practice in situations students will encounter in real life. Thanks to the use of communicative activities in class, students communicate in a natural way.

Motivation : Motivation is important in language learning. If the students get de- motivated, they will lose interest in learning. Communicative activities are motivating. The use of snakes and ladders is of great help to the students’ motivation as they bring variety to the activities. Indeed, communicative activities come in endless varieties and the use of different types of tasks and aids attract students’ attention and curiosity. These will increase the motivation for students to get involved and participate actively in the activities.

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Fun: With board games and dices, the students will learn expressions of wishes and regrets in an environment that is more fun. Indeed, communicative activities are designed to be lively, interactive, and fun when the students feel comfortable, they are likely to learn more.

As for teachers , the use of communicative activities will increase students talk and promote interaction among students for communicative purposes. That will help language teachers reach one of the most important goals in language teaching: developing students’ communicative oral skills. They will be delighted with the students’ performances thanks to the use of communicative activities like snakes and ladders.

In communicative activities, students make use of the language as a means of communication since the students are put in situations close to real life. Through communicative activities, language teachers encourage students to experiment the language and create an enjoyable atmosphere that allow students to communicate freely and naturally.

1.10.4. Where to find snakes and ladders

Snakes and ladders can be found in different websites such as en.islcollecive.com or busyteacher.com, or eslprintable.com. However, we can also build up our own board games depending on the language points we want to teach and the level of our students.

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CONCLUSION TO PART ONE

Grammarians classify conditionals into various forms but we considered classifications within 4 types including Type zero, one, two, and three. When considering Type two and Type three conditionals, we need to consider the unreal past tenses, which are most of the time confusing as they are most of the time indicating an advance in time.

Conditionals Type 2 and Type 3 expressing wishes and regrets are complex structures that need special attention. It is worth taking them separately. Therefore, the 3Ps applies to each of the structure. The use of S&L may not be common among teachers of English but can be used as an interesting communicative activity: it promotes interaction among students and provides practices of expressions like in real life situations so that the students can develop their communicative oral skills.

Associating S&L with the teaching of wishes and regrets can be effective because they provide motivation, lower students' stress, and give them the opportunity for real communication are often associated with fun. These reasons justify the principles of the Communicative Approach. Snakes and ladders can be used either in the Practice or the Production stage but for this work, we decided to resort to it in the Production stage.

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PART TWO: CURRENT TEACHING OF WISHES AND REGRETS IN MADAGASCAR

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2 THE CURRENT TEACHING OF ‘WISHES AND REGRETS’ IN MADAGASCAR

Owing to the fact that this dissertation aims at helping the teachers in the Malagasy Lycée teach wishes and regrets, some Malagasy lycées were chosen for us to see how English language teachers deal with the teaching of this specific grammar point. Investigations on the teaching of W&R are addressed in classes Térrminales and Premières.

2-1 Methods for data collection

For our investigation, we have chosen two data collection methods which are the questionnaire and the class observations.

2.1.1 Investigations through questionnaire

As that it is impossible to observe all classes in all the lycées, questionnaires were used to collect information for this research. This section will include the presentation of the questionnaire, the dispatching and collecting of the questionnaires, and the analysis of the questionnaires results.

2.1.1.1Presentation of the a questionnaire

The questionnaire focused on four main points as follow: ‹ The teaching of conditional types ‹ The teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’ ‹ The use of games in grammar teaching ‹ The use of board games to teach ‘wishes and regrets’

The current questionnaire contains eighteen questions to be filled by teachers from Lycées in Analamanga and in Mahajanga, but also from teachers from English Learning Centers like CNELA and ETP, and ISPA. Almost all the questions are closed questions. Therefore, the answers to these questions are limited and clear. The teachers are given opportunities to give other possible answers apart from the alternatives provided when necessary.

2.1.1.2 Dispatching and collecting of the questionnaires

Teachers in the lycées were kindly asked to fill in the questionnaire. Some of them refused, whereas many others kindly accepted. Fifty questionnaires were dispatched in and outside the Region of Analamanga, but only thirty four teachers returned their questionnaires. The questionnaires were given to teachers in sixteen different Schools and two centers (seven

31 private lycées, seven States schools, and two English centers (Centre National d’Enseignement de la Langue Anglaise (CNELA), English Teaching program (ETP) were surveyed)

It took us three weeks to dispatch and collect the questionnaires to and from the schools and Centers mentioned above (8-28 December 2014). We established contact with the teachers of English we met; each of them was given a S&L and a dice as compensation for their precious collaboration as well as to facilitate the exchange.

2.1.1.3 Questionnaire dispatching table (Appendices) This table pinpoints the different schools and centers where we sent our questionnaire and where we conducted our research. We visited 17 schools, as shown in the table. We used the letter P to refer to Private school, S to refer to State school, and C to English Center.

We based our analysis on the returned questionnaires. Significant outputs could be taken from these questionnaires regarding the teaching of Wishes and Regrets.

2.1.2 Questionnaire analysis

The main objective of each question will be presented in this section, and all the answers to the questions commented upon. Questions 1, 2, and 3 deal with the information about the lycée, the teacher, and the class. Questions 4 until question 6 report about the current teaching of conditional Types. Questions 7 to 11 focus on the teaching ‘wishes and regrets’; whereas, 12 until 17 deal with games and other techniques on how to teach grammar including W&R. Finally, question 18 encourages the implementation of S&L in the teaching of W&R.

Question 1 : 1-Name of the school:………………………”

This information is intended to give information about the location of school (in town or in the region), in a private or a State school, which may influence the teaching of wishes and regrets. This first question is not really a question. We just wanted to know the name of the place where the teachers work. As a result, 50% of the teachers work in state schools and the other 50% in private schools.

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Question 2 and 3: How long have you been teaching English? a. For less than 5 years b. For 5 -15 years c. For more than 15 years Your degree: a. License b. Maîtrise c. CAPEN

These two questions refer directly the teacher’s experience, that is to say, the period during which they served as teachers, and the degree they have. Within the Thirty four (34) questionnaire sheets that that were returned to us, we could deduce that 32% of the teachers have been teaching for less than 5 years, 47% between 5 and 15 years and 20% for more than 15 years. 29% of these teachers have a License, 15% have got a “Maitrise”, and 50 % have got a CAPEN. 6% of the teachers who returned their questionnaires refused to mention their qualifications, they wanted to remain anonymous. Concerning the years of teaching, we can say that most of the teachers have teaching experience for most of them have been teaching for more than 5 years. (Figure 1)

Lisence Maîtrise CAPEN Anonymous

Figure 1: Teacher's degrees and qualifications

Question 4: Do you teach the conditionals?

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a. yes b. No

This question is basic to our survey as the teaching of “wishes and regrets” is based on Type 2 and 3 conditionals. In fact, all of them without exception answered they taught “wishes and regrets”. Question 5: What are the conditional Types you teach to your students? a. Type 0 b. Type 1 c. Type 2 d. Type 3

By means of this question we wanted to know which conditional types teachers value in their teaching. 44% of the teachers teach all types, i.e. Type 0, 1, 2, and 3. 47% just teach Type 1,2, and 3; whereas, 9% of them just teach Type 0,1, and 2 conditionals (Figure 2). The result, actually, confirm the fact that 100% of the teachers teach wishes and regrets as they all teach conditional Type 2 and 3.

Type 0,1,2

Type 0,1,2,3

Type 1,2,3

Figure 2: Conditional Types

Question 6: What aspect(s) of If-clauses do you teach? a. Meaning b. Use c. Form e. Other aspects

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This question aims at knowing which aspect(s) teachers focus on in teaching conditional types. The teacher can tick more than one box. The figure below represents the results related to that. Considering that meaning, use, and form are essential to the teaching of language elements like grammar, 71% of the teachers affirmed they teach the three aspects mentioned above. On the other hand, 26% focus on use and form when teaching “wishes and regrets”. However, 3% of the surveyed teachers in the questionnaire just remain on the teaching of meaning.

In other words, 100% of the teachers teach form, if 91% teach use, and 71% teach meaning. Therefore, many teachers of English privilege form rather than use or meaning. The latter is the least considered amongst the three aspects mentioned above, although we cannot put it aside while teaching grammar in general. (Figure 3)

120%

100%

80% Form 60% Use Meaning 40%

20%

0%

Figure 3: The teaching of meaning, form and use

Question 7 and 8: Do you teach ‘Wishes and regrets’? a. Yes b. No If ‘No’, what may be the reasons?...... Questions 7 and 8 introduce the main object of our research. This will let us know if teachers do teach wishes and regrets. 81% of the teachers teach it; whereas, 9% do not teach it for they are not teaching in high school. This result is particularly important to our studies as this would reveal that teachers follows the curriculum and teach Wishes and regrets. (Figure 4)

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Teach

Don't teach

Figure 4: Teaching of " wishes and regrets

Question 9: If ‘yes’, at what level do you teach it? a. Classe de Seconde b. Classe de Première c. Classe de Terminale

This question will help us know in which class teachers teach wishes and regrets in Lycées. Of course, for this question, the teachers can tick in more than one box. 35% of the teachers affirmed they teach it in Terminale only; whereas 24% do teach it both in Première and in Terminale. 21% reveal they teach it in Se conde, Première, and Terminale. 6% of the teachers teach wishes and regrets in Seconde and Terminale; 6% of the teachers teach it in Première and Termi nale. In short, teachers of the Lycée have different ways to tackle this lesson as some start teaching teaching wishes and regrets right from Seconde. Some others just teach it in Terminale.

In summary, 86% of the teachers teach wishes and regrets in Term inale; 50% teach it in Première and 32% in Seconde. Some of the teachers asserted, that due to the complexity of the structure , they find it necessary to start initiating wishes and regrets from Seconde. (Figure 5)

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Teach in Terminale

Teach in Première

Teach in Seconde

Figure 5: Statistics on which level wishes and regrets is taught

Question 10: When do you teach it? a. When mistakes occur b. Every time I find it necessary a. Following the order in the syllabus b. Other occasions:

The current question refers to the time when the teachers initiate the lesson in the academic year. The teachers may choose more than one option which gives the following details in percentage. 12% asserted they teach it when mistakes occur in class, and following the order in the syllabus. 12% said they teach it every time they find it necessary to, but also following the syllabus.

In short, 88% follow the order in the syllabus; 26% teach wishes and regrets when mistakes occur. 26%. Affirmed they teach it every time they find it necessary (Figure 6)

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Following the sylllabus When mistakes occur When necessary

Figure 6: When to teach Wishes and Reg rets

Question 11 Why do you teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. They must be taught because prescribed in the syllabus b. I consider them as an important element of the English language c. My students often make mistakes when they use it d. Other occasions: …………………………………………

This question is meant to know the reasons why teachers teach wishes and regrets ; they can tick more than one option. 76% of the teachers being asked affirmed they taught wishes and regrets because it must be taught as prescribed in the syllabus . However, 59% of them consider wishes and regrets as an important element of the English lan guage; whereas, 26% assert they teach it when mistakes occurs amongst students in the use. M ore and more teachers teach ‘wishes age regrets’, strictly following the syllabus.

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Syllabus requires

It is an important language element Mistakes require

Figure 7: Reasons for teaching wishes and regrets

Questions 12 : Have you ever used games to teach grammar? a. yes b. No

The current question was introduced to know if teachers are used to using games in the teaching of grammar. They had to answer it with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The result of our survey revealed that exactly 50% of the teachers use games in the teaching of grammar; 50% others do not. (Figure 8)

Use grammar games Don't use grammar games

Figure 8: Percentage of the teachers who use grammar games

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50% of the teachers affirmed they use grammar games and the 50% others do not use grammar games in classrooms due to different factors not mentioned in our questionnaire. The teachers who use grammar games in their classrooms have different reasons to do so.

Question 13 13. If your answer is ‘no’, you do not use games because: a. You are not used to using them b. You do not have enough time to prepare them c. You did not receive any training on how to use them d. You find it difficult to find grammar games

35% of the teachers who declared not using games in classrooms affirmed that they do not have enough time to prepare games. 40% of these teachers are not used to using games and 25% said they did not receive any training on how to use games.

Not enoug time to prepare games Not used to using games

Did not reveive training on how to used games

Figure 9: Reasons for not using games in classrooms

Question 14: 14- If ‘yes’, you use games to teach grammar because a. Games are relaxing and motivating for students b. Games provide students with an opportunity to communicate with one another c. Games raise students participation in class d. Games help students memorize the new structure being presented e. It is easier to learn by playing

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This question informs us on reasons why the half of the teachers use games in grammar teaching. As matter of fact the teachers were given a number of choices as seen above. After analysis, we could find that 41% agree that games raise students’ participation in class, as 35% declare it is easier for the students to learn by playing. 32% think games are relaxing and motiva te students; 24% of the teachers are convinced games help students memorize a newly presented grammar point. 21% think that games provide students with an opportunity to communicate with one another.

Raise students participation in class Easier to learn by playing

Relaxing and motivating

Opportunity for the students to interact

Figure 10: Reasons for using games in classrooms

Question 15: Which of these techniques do you use to teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. Oral and written drills b. Information gaps c. Written exercises d. Listen and do exercises e. Compositions a. Pair work activities b. Roles plays c. Discussion and debates d. Simulations e. Other techniques: …………………………………....

A certain number of options are available to the teachers. Our research revealed the following figures: 74% use written exercises, 47% use information gaps, 44% use both oral

41 and written drills, 29% use role plays, 18% use listen and do, 18% use compositions, 15% use simulations exercises , and 12% use other techniques.

Written exercises Infformation gaps Oral and written drills Listen and do Role plays Composition Simulations

Figure 11: Techniques used for teaching wishes andd regrets

Question 16: How do you find the performance of your students with your techniques(s) of teaching wishes and regrets ? a. Excellent b. Good c. Average d. Poor

Most of the teachers ticked option b and c as follow: 41% good and 56% average.

Good Average

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Figure 12: Students performance within teachers’ common techniques of teaching wishes and regrets

Question 17: 17-What are the common mistakes with your students a. Meaning b. Use c. Form e. Other aspects

The teachers were given the options above. 65% of the teachers affirmed their students have problems learning the form; 41% of the teachers asserted their students make mistakes on meaning and 41% other teachers reported that their students often make mist akes on uses. We can deduce that struggle with the structures related to wishes and regrets . Mistakes regarding use and meaning are less important but are at the same level: 41%.

Form Meaning Use

Figure 13: Common mistakes among the students regarding form, use and meaning

Question 18:

Would you be interested in using board games to teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. yes b. No

The last question is put for us to know if teache rs are interested in using board games to teach wishes and regrets As a result, 12% said they were not interested in our suggestions as they said games are time-consuming, and their large classes do not give them enough room

43 to put games into practice. 88% are interested in using board games to teach wishes and regrets.

Interested Not interested

Figure 14: Interest in board games to teach wishes and regrets

Conclusion of the questionnaire analysis The current questionnaire has allowed us to know if teachers teach wishes and regrets and how they deal with the teaching of it. All teachers said they teach wishes and regrets, but many of them do not use games in teaching it due to lack of time, experience in using grammar games, but also because the number of students in class is not appropriate for that. The class observations will help us know the reality about the teaching of this topic in the classroom.

2.2. Analysis and comments of the official syllabus in the Malagasy lycées regarding the teaching of conditional Types

The English syllabus for Seconde, Première, and ‘Terminale’ can be found in the book MINISEB and UERP, Programme Scolaire. Even if the teaching of wishes and regrets is seen in Terminales only, we think it is important to go through the entire syllabus for Seconde, Première, and Terminale for us to give the students a complete understanding of the Conditionals. In this section, we will analyze how conditionals are dispatched in the syllabus starting from Seconde.

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2.2.1 Contents and comments of the ‘Classe de Seconde’ syllabus on the teaching of wishes and regrets

The official syllabus of the ‘Classe de Seconde’ includes ten units, but only one of them, unit 4: advice, deals with the teaching of Type one and Type two conditionals. We can say the conditionals are implemented early in the lycée syllabus.

2.2.2 Contents and comments on the ‘Classe de Première’ syllabus The current syllabus is composed of 12 units and unit 4 entitled Opinions has as objective the reinforcement of both Type 2 conditions and Type 3. However, Type 3 conditional yet has not even been introduced anywhere in Seconde. Therefore, Type 3 conditionals should not be classified as a new structure to be implemented but not to be reinforced. Moreover, unit 10 entitled ‘Speculating’ shows more interests to us as it initiates the teaching of wishes and regrets within the structure: I wish+ simple past, and I wish + past perfect. The same Unit, either, emphasizes the reinforcement of present wish and past wish.

2.2.3 Contents and comments on the ‘Classe de Terminales’ syllabus The official syllabus for Terminales presents the lesson which is the pillar of the current research work—unit 10: wishes and regrets. Two clear subdivisions are to be seen in this unit: expressing dissatisfaction with the present situation on the one hand, and regretting past action on the other hand. Obviously, these structures—Type 2 and Type 3--were implemented in Seconde and Première for teachers of English to carry on with the reinforcement settle with the specific meaning of Type 2 and Type 3: wishes and regrets.

2.2.4 General comments on the official syllabus concerning the stages of implementation of the conditional types, regarding the teaching of wishes and regrets. Conditional Type 1 and 2 were initiated in Seconde, then reinforced in Première. The conditional Type 3 is being implemented in Première with an insight to the use of the verb ‘wish’ introducing already the meaning ‘wishes and regrets’ but in a simpler way: I wish + past simple, and I wish + past perfect. All these should render the teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’ in Terminale simpler and efficient.

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2.3 Case study: class observations In addition to the questionnaire we distributed to the teachers, class observations were also conducted in some Lycées in Analamanga Regions in order to back up the information about the teaching of wishes and regrets. The class observations provide us with additional details on the realities on the teaching of wishes and regrets. After the data collection, we kept contact with the teacher to know when we could come back for class observations when they teach wishes and regrets.

2.3.1 Presentation of the class observation

We made our class observations in three Lycées in Antananarivo: Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha, Lycée Nanisana, and Lycée Saint Joseph. In total, we observed 7 classes within these Lycées.

To facilitate the reading, we use some abbreviations: “T” means Teacher and “S” stands for student. SS: the students; “T” means Teacher’s question and “S” is student’s answer.

2.3.1.1 Observation N°1 (See Appendix 4)

School : Lycée Nanisana Level : Terminal A5 Duration : 1h30 Date : 16 December 2015 Number of students : 56 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

Overall view on class observation N°1 (see appendix ) Step 1: Presentation of the lesson The conditional Type two will be reviewed with the students. The comparison between conditional Type two and Type three will be made with the students. Two sentences will be introduced and the difference between wishes and regrets will be explained to the students.

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Comments on class observation N°1 The teacher introduced the lesson by dividing the board into two. She wrote down one conditional Type 2 sentence in the first division and on the other one a conditional Type 3 sentence, and asked the students whether they understand the meaning of the two sentences. Meaning and structure were drawn out of the two sentences. Wish-clauses to express W&R were as well given. The teacher had difficulty explaining the meaning of the sentences the lesson to the students. She did not fully exploit the openings given by the students—‘I wish you marry Christmas’— i.e. she could have strengthened the idea that this sentence really had nothing to do with the meaning being dealt with as it doesn’t express dissatisfaction about the present situation. The teacher failed giving the exact meaning of the structure for it to be clear in the mind of the students. She encountered the same challenge for ‘regrets’. The explanation was not accurate. Secondly, by asking ‘ Action passé ve ilay voalohany? ’ referring to the first sentence, the teacher could have continued to explain the time and tense relationship in the sentence as it is key point to the teaching of the particular grammatical point. Consequently, it is worth mentioning that certain elements are still missing in the explanation the teacher gave for the lesson to be really successful and understood. The students were not concentrated since this was the last lesson before the Christmas holiday; they were not really involved in the lesson. However, the way the teacher introduced the lesson was quite interesting as she tried to attract students’ attention with the two sentences; the structures were written on the board for both wishes and regrets. Unfortunately, we did not have the opportunity to attend the next class for the practice and the production stage of the lesson.

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2.3.2 Class observation N°2 (see Appendix 5)

School : Saint Joseph Level : Première A1 Duration : 1h30 Date : 24 February 2015 Number of students : 35 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

One week before the session, the students were asked to come up one sentence with conditional type 2; the structure had been given by the teacher during the previous class. Each time the teacher called the names of her students, the latter had to produce a conditional type 2 sentence they have prepared at home. The teacher’s main focus remained on the form. 22 minutes were spent on that. These were sample sentences uttered by some of the students: “If I were a god, I would judge”, “If I were a billionaire, I would buy a fancy car.”, “If I were an angel, I would fly with my wings”

Overall view on class observation N°2

Step 1 : Warming up activity

The students will be impregnated with the basics of the newly implemented lesson by asking them to utter conditional type 2 sentences they prepared at home.. Step 2 : Presentation stage of wishes’ A home-made picture of a poor boy wishing many things will be used to attract students’ attention. The verb ‘to wish’ and the noun ‘wish’ and its meaning will be provided to the students. Students will be familiarized with the first structure to express wishes—I wish + Past simple tense. An example will be illustrated on the board.

Step 3: Practice stage of ‘wishes’ Students will be asked at random to look at the picture and express the poor boy’s wishes using the structure of conditional Type 2.

Step 4: Presentation stage of ‘regrets’ Two other home-made pictures will be used to illustrate the lesson—that of an upset boy laying his head on a table, and that of a pregnant girl. Two structures will be provided: I

48 wish + I + Past perfect; conditional type 3 (newly implemented). An example on each structure will be illustrated.

Step 5: Practice stage of ‘regrets’ Students will be asked to utter sentences expressing regrets based on the previously showed pictures. Both form and meaning will be focused on.

Step 6: Overall Production stage for wishes and regrets

The students will be given homework as to build up 5 sentences for each structure, the equivalent of 20 sentences including wishes and regrets.

Comments on class observation N°2

This is according to us an instance of a successful lesson because not only was it well- structured but also well-conducted. As mentioned in the observation (Annex), the teachers spent quite much time calling the row for each and every student has to utter a sentence within conditional type 2. The majority of the students managed to utter the required form even though misuse in vocabulary was observed. We noticed that the form was not the main focus of the teacher at this very stage of the lesson.

It is also worth mentioning that the teacher’s resorting to homemade pictures influenced the student’s concentration and interests. In all, four pictures were used—a pregnant women, a poor boy wishing many things, a boy with a bad mark, and a snowman. The teacher used the Presentation-Practice-Production system to carry out the lesson; however, we could notice the absence of Presentation stages after each practice for both “W&R” stages. One single production stage was implemented in the end of the lesson as homework. We can say that regarding the form, students did not face much difficulty when expressing W&R.The main problems were depicted during the practice stage on the form of the past tense irregular verbs among some students. Some others students had difficulties reformulating sentences to express regrets as they were lost in the use of negative and affirmative form to produce counterfactual situations. Many students were not used to hearing and using the form “had had” regarding the past perfect to express regrets. In general, class participation is high resulting in good class atmosphere. The teacher could cover the lesson in due time—1h30 long. The lesson was interesting; not only the forms, but also meaning, and use were highlighted.

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2.3.1.3 Class observation N°3 (see Appendix 6) School : Saint Joseph Level : Première A2 Duration : 1h30 Date : 24 February Number of students : 32 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

This class was conducted by the same teacher as the one in the previous observation. The previous week, the students were asked to prepare one conditional Type 2 sentence each; same as in the previous class the structure had been given beforehand. The row calling lasted about 17 minutes as each and every student had to a produce sentence.

Overall view on class observation N°3 (see Appendix…..)

Step 1 : Warming up activity

The newly implemented lesson will be introduced by asking the students to utter conditional type 2 sentences they had already prepared at home. Each student will be given the chance to give one sentence and helped in cases of mistakes.

Step 2 : Presentation stage of wishes’ A poor boy wishing many things will be used to attract students’ attention. The teacher will provide the students with the verb ‘to wish’ and the noun ‘wish’ and stressed on their meanings. Conditional type 2 will be provided to the students as alternative to express wishes.

Step 3: Practice stage of ‘wishes’ Students will be appointed to express one possible wish of the poor based on the previous picture and both form and meaning will be focused on.

Step 4: Presentation stage of ‘regrets’ Two other home-made pictures will be used to illustrate the lesson—that of an upset boy laying his head on a table, and that of a pregnant girl. Two structures will be provided: I wish + I + Past perfect; conditional type 3 (newly implemented). An example on each structure will be illustrated.

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Step 5: Practice stage of ‘regrets’ The students will be asked to utter sentences expressing regrets based on the previously showed pictures.

Step 6: Overall Production stage for ‘wishes and regrets’ Homework will be given to the students as production- the students will be asked to build up 5 sentences for each structure, the equivalent of 20 sentences including wishes and regrets.

Comments on class observation N°3

In general he class was very lively and students had the opportunity to practice. This was an interesting class with high level of participation. The lesson was well-structured but also well-conducted. The fact of giving the students homework to prepare a conditional type 2 sentence was instrumental to the continuation of the lesson. Students were prepared psychologically and knew what the lesson was about way in advance although the row calling was time consuming.

The homemade pictures the teacher used had great positive impact on the lesson as they were very explicit and appealing. Four pictures were used—a pregnant women, a poor boy wishing many things, a boy with bad mark, and a snowman.

The teacher used the Presentation-Practice-Production system to carry out the lesson; however, we could notice the absence of Production stages after each practice for both “W&R” stages. One single production stage was implemented in the end of the lesson as homework. Anyway, that did not prevent the students from understanding the value “wishes and regrets”. During the practice stage, the students were working orally. The class could have been more effective if the students were giving a certain time to be familiar with the new structures and to write them. That could have avoided common mistakes. The students did not face considerable challenges regarding the meaning of W&R but they were somehow lost in the tenses especially for the past perfect tense and their low mastery of irregular verbs. Some others students had difficulties reformulating sentences expressing regrets as they were lost in the use of negative and affirmative form of sentences to produce counterfactual situations. Many students were not used to hearing and using the form “had had” regarding the past perfect to express regrets. The teacher could tackle both the form and the meaning aspect of ‘wishes and regrets’.

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2.3.1.4. Class Observation N°4 (see Appendix 7)

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D2 Duration : 2h45 Date : 3 March Number of students : 56 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

Overall view on class observation N°4

Step 1: Elicitation Exercises will be given to the students to introduce the lesson. The explanation on the difference between W&R will be given- when the subject of the verb is before wish is ‘I’, the meaning is all about regrets but when the subject other than ‘I’ the meaning is all about regret. Pictures will be used to introduce the lesson—a very sexy big girl eating a pizza and a very sexy thin girl. A mechanical recognition exercise of was given to the students to start the lesson.

WISH or REGRET

• I have bellyache now; I wish I hadn’t eaten the green mangoes yesterday. • My parents wish I were a pilot, not a driver. • Jessie is always complaining that she has to wear bras; if only she were a girl. • If only Madagascar were a British colony; we would be very developed now. • It is raining; I wish I had bought an umbrella. • I failed my exam. I only I had learnt my lessons ad finished more exercises. • You don’t like your boyish hair, Helen. Surely you wish you hadn’t cut it.

Step 2: Presentation: structures and use The structures and the use for present and past and future wishes as well as the present and past regrets will be provided to the students in a big chart. The if-clauses equivalence of the each sentence expressing W&R will be given by the teacher (type 1, type 2, and type 3).

Step 3: Practice stage Students will be given a completion exercises on a handout about the newly presented lesson. They are focused on the present, past, and future wishes with including wish-clauses and if- clauses.

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Comments on class observation N°4

To introduce the lesson with pictures was very explicit and helpful to the students. The latter really craved the very sexy girls in the pictures. The concept ‘W&R was well illustrated by the illustration of a very sexy women who wished to eat a pizza and by eating that pizza, her put on weight and regretted in the end. However, the pictures were extremely provocative—the objective would have been anyway reached even with plainer characters.

The teacher was not really convinced by his chart and kept cleaning what he was writing on the board while he apologized to the students. The students themselves were even lost in the lesson but raised no issues. The teacher wanted to draw the students’ attention by giving them all the conditional types including type one. He could have done better by just focusing on the type two and type three.

Moreover, the concept the subject ‘I’ before the verb ‘wish’ induces a Wish and the use of any other subjects before the verb ‘wish’ induces Regret is misleading to the students. The students just copied the lessons but most of them did not continue with the exercises given by the teacher. The lesson lasted 2h45min but the practice stage was not even finished. The lesson was left undone and the students left confused.

The lesson was conducted in a very complicated way for the students to understand and the premises of the teacher regarding the concept on how to express W&R is misleading and wrong.

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2.3.1.5. Class observation N°5 (see Appendix 8)

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D5 Duration : 1h Date : 24 April 2015 Number of students : 45 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

The explanation of the lesson was provided in Malagasy

Overall view on class observation N°5 (see Appendix….)

Step 1: Elicitation of the lesson The lesson will be introduced in Malagasy “Te, maniry ny ho dia filazana inona?” “Maniry lasa ho mpitandrina aho saingy tsy mahazaka fitsapana.”

Step 2: Presentation of Wishes Different structures will be given to the students including “May….”, “If-clause”, and “conditional Type 2”. All these will be illustrated with example in Malagasy and provided with their meaning.

Step 3 : Presentation of Regrets Different structures will be given to the students including “Conditional Type 3”. The students will be provided with an example for each given structure

Comments on class observation N°5 The entire explanation was conducted in Malagasy as the teacher said she is used to teaching all her classes in Malagasy because of her background education. The teacher used Malagasy as the teaching language not because the students do not understand it but because she is at easy doing so as she said. The teacher was giving a lecture to the students—the students were just listening. It took the teacher a whole hour to present the lesson. Students were not given the opportunity to practice and to produce the newly implemented lesson to assess to what extent they understood the lesson.

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The use of Malagasy to explain the lesson made the lesson even more difficult to understand for the students has to refer to Malagasy prefix like ‘ho’ and ‘n”. No didactic materials were used as illustrations. The teacher uses Grammar Translation Method. The examples taken by the teacher were a little difficult as the instance of: “I wish you a quick recovery, to come through”. Not only do the students have to focus on the structure, but they also have to decode the meaning of the sentence for the vocabulary items used were totally new and confusing for them.

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2.3.1.6. Class observation N°6

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D7 Duration : 1h Date : 30 April 2015 Number of students : 15 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

Step 1: Elicitation of ‘wishes’

Students will be able to understand wishes and how to express them by means of a dialogue.

Step 2: Presentation of wishes

Students will familiarize with the different structures used to express wishes.

Step 3: Practice stage for wishes

Students will be able to use the newly implemented structure to express wishes

Comments on class observation N°6 (See Appendix X)

By using to the dialogue, the students were given a clear context on how to express wishes. The teacher did not read the dialogue to set the example but directly appointed 2 students to read and practice the dialogue. The teacher provided the students with the maximum number of structures to express wishes without really stressing on their meaning. The students were not consulted whether they understood the given structures. The teacher rushed to give the exercises. On the other hand the students did not raise any questions as they were busy copying the lesson and the exercises before the class is closed. One of the structures given by the teacher was not complete. She just wrote If +only without giving the verb tense to be used with it. Additionally, she gave the students a wrong structure: If only he would marry me. For this particular structure, if only should be followed by the simple past tense. The teacher did not use any didactic materials and the lesson was not clear enough for the students to understand. We also noticed the lack of participation from the students. We did not have the opportunity to proceed to the correction because the class closed. Obviously the teacher highlighted a number of structures used to express ‘wishes’ but only one was practiced in the exercises: wish+ past simple.

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2.3.1.7. Class observation N°7

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D7 Duration : 1h Date : 6 mai 2015 Number of students : 15 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

Step 1: Elicitation of expressing ‘regret’

Students will be able to understand wishes and how to express them by means of a dialogue.

Step 2: Presentation of ‘regret’

Students will be familiarized with the different structures used to express wishes.

Because of our lateness to arrive in the class to be observed, we could not see how the correction of the exercises on ‘wish’ was conducted. For the teaching of ‘regrets’, the same technique was used. The teacher resorted to a dialogue to introduce the lesson and appointed volunteers to practice the dialogue. She asked the students to draw the title of the new lesson out of the dialogues. The students seemed not to be really enthusiastic because the teacher herself was not dynamic. Within the teacher’s prompts, they could find it anyway.

No didactic materials were used during the lessons and the same white chalks were used for the different parts of the lessons.

The teacher did not take the opportunity to focus on the use aspect of regrets but directly moved on to the structures. Some of given structures were not complete which can create confusion among the students: If + past perfect. The past conditional part is missing and can mislead the students but no issues were raised since the students were busy copying the lesson. However, the teacher provided the students with an array of structures to express regrets but she could have focused on one or two structures due to the complexity of the structure as the instance of structure 3: Inversion + past perfect.

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CONCLUSION TO PART TWO The data gathered through the questionnaire and class observations made us aware of the reality regarding the teaching of wishes and regrets to Malagasy students. We could notice that 50% of the teachers do not use games to teach grammar in general due to lack of time and classroom management hardships. Most of the teachers focus on the form when teaching wishes and regrets. The class observations showed that teachers themselves had difficulties understanding how to use the verb to wish to express wishes and regrets. That creates confusion among the students as the instance of class observation 5. We could notice that the teaching of this particular lesson requires the participation of the students for the time and tense relation can be confusing to the students. In other words, students should be given the opportunity to think and write structures, and use these structures in a more communicative ways. We can also say that 3 out 4 of the teachers we observed did not use the 3Ps (Presentation, Practice, Production) as it ought to be. Teachers had an overall production at the end of the lesson; i.e. they did not make the students produce the newly implemented structures after each practice stage but instead they had only one production stage for both wishes and regrets. Resorting to more communicative techniques would have been more successful for the students very often are not given the opportunity to practise. That would also improve students’ motivation and concentration. The next part of this work will focus on the experimentations that we have done in some public lycées in Antananarivo, then on some suggested activities and finally, on the solutions to the problems we encountered.

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PART 3: EXPERIMNTATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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3. EXPERIMNTATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Teaching wishes and regrets requires delicacy as it is remains difficult to understand due to the complex time and tense relationship, and its different expressions and structures. Referring to our observation, some teachers failed making students use the target language. Suggestions on the teaching of the specific subject are given in this last part of our work. The experimentation makes it possible to give teaching suggestions would help us by taking into account the parameters and comments given in the class observation. For this work, it is worth mentioning that the lesson plan we based our experimentations on was an experienced lesson plan we used during our teaching training. This explains the use of the terminology experienced and experimented. After correction and improvements, the experienced lesson plan was used for experimentation that is the reason why the original one is referred to as experienced.

3.1. Initial implemented lesson plan

It is worth mentioning that the two following lesson plans were used during our training in the Lycée Andohalo; we based our research on the changes and the feedback provided by the Training advisor as well as our then Training inspector, who currently is my dissertation advisor. First, the experienced but non-corrected lesson plan will be presented, followed by the second one which is the improved versions of the previous one. Based on the corrected lesson plan, we have focused our research for it was given feedback; however, the realities on field forced us to provide other alteration to the last lesson plan such as the changing of the race board game into snakes and ladders.

3.1.1. Presentation of the Initial implemented but non-corrected lesson plan

(LP 1)

The following lesson plan was initially implemented at Lycée Andohalo in Terminal D, a class composed of 64 students before it was given the feedback which is coming shortly. In this lesson plan, board game was incorporated.

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Wishes and regrets

School : Lycée Andohalo Training : Mrs RAHARINOSY Advisor Vatosoa Date : 7-April-2014 Trainees : - RAKOTOMANANA Andry Heriniana Class : Terminale D1 - TOMARIELISON Christian Espérant Classroom : Salle C2 Duration : 90mn General : Students will be able to express their wishes and regrets. objective Specific : - Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the present situation objective - Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the past situation - Students will be able to know the structure of wishes and regrets - Students will be able to know when to use expressions of and regrets - Students will be able to strengthen their listening skills Didactic : Handouts, pictures, computer, speaker material Bibliography : islcollective.com / mp3skull.com / busyteacher.com

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Timin Final Intermediat Didactic Stage Content Hint g objective e objectives material Warming 5mn Students are Students will Draw Pictures up able to be ready for wishes express their the class and and dissatisfactio will be put regrets n about the into the here. present and context of the the past lesson (regret)

Presentatio 10mn Students will LISTENING Ask some Speaker, n be able to Pre listening: Introduction of the listening students computer know how to what the express their While listening wishes are dissatisfactio 1- I live with my parents. about. n about the Wish: I wish I didn’t live with my parents. present. Wish: I wish I had my own apartment. Ask 2- Life is difficult students Wish: I wish it were easier about the Wish: I wish it weren’t so difficult. difference between ÏI wish I had my own apartment the two Structure: I wish + Past Simple Ï To express dissatisfaction with wishes of present situations. each person

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Draw the structure of the wish about the present from the listening Practice 10mn Students will Post listening: Give Handouts be able to example express their What would you wish in those following situations? Focus on the for the dissatisfactio underlined verbs students n about the 1. I really like basketball, but I am not tall enough. to present Ï I wish I were tall. understan situation 2. Speaking English is very useful in my new job whereas I d more. according to cannot speak English perfectly. a given Ï I wish I situation ______3. Today is Valentine’s Day, and I don’t have a partner. Ï I wish I ______4. I don’t like my nose with my nose because it is too big. Ï I wish ______5. Today is our exam, and I am too late. Ï I wish I ______

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6. I only have one pair of trousers, and it is dirty. Ï I wish I ______10mn Students will Song : “If I were a boy” Computer be able to If I were a boy, I would turn off my phone. , speaker, reinforce handouts their Use all the sentences in the previous exercise, and follow the given knowledge of example by using the words in brackets. conditional 1. If I were tall, I would play basketball every day. (play every type 2 day) 2. If I could speak English perfectly, I ______(be happy) 3. If I had a partner, I ______(go to cinema with him/her) 4. If I had a small nose, I ______(be beautiful) 5. If I were not late, I ______(not, be stressful) 6. If my trousers were not dirty, I ______(be relieved) Presentatio 10mn Students will Jimmy didn’t succeed in his exam, and now he regrets that he did After Handouts, n be able to not study hard enough before his exam. students picture express their have dissatisfactio discussed n with past with their situations partner, ask some Students will volunteers be able to to report know the

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structure of Draw the the wish Mother : How was your exam? structure about the Jimmy : So-so, but I am not really satisfied with my English. of the past. wish Mother : What happened? about the Jimmy : Well, I wish I had read the text carefully, but I didn’t. So, past from my answers were wrong. the Mother : Next time you should take time to read the text before dialogue answering the questions. Jimmy : That’s right.

ÏI wish I had read the text carefully Structure: I wish + Past Perfect ÏTo express dissatisfaction with past situations (regret) Practice 10mn Students will What would you wish in those following situations? Focus on the Handouts be able to underlined verbs. express their 1. I didn’t learn English when I was younger. Now I cannot read dissatisfactio books which are written in English. n about the Ï I wish I had learnt English when I was younger. past 2. I didn’t go out to the disco with my friends last night, and now according to I really regret it. a given Ï I wish I situation. ______3. I did not listen to my mother. Now I have problems. Ï I wish I ______4. I feel sorry that I did not visit grandmother last week. Now she is dead and I cannot talk to her any more. Ï I wish I

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______5. I did not count the change after I bought the bread this morning. Now the money is not enough. Ï I wish I ______6. I did not kiss my darling when we left each other yesterday. Now I regret it. Ï I wish I ______10mn Students will Do you know another way to express your regret apart from “I wish Either Pictures be able to Had learnt English” (for example)? students know another Song : “I should have kissed you” Chris Brown can find way of the other expressing What would those people regret way or their regrets. not, make them listen to the song.

Ask students to draw the expressio n from the song.

For the

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exercise, give an example to help

Study hard Bring umbrella Drive slower students understan d what to do.

Tell the truth Practise sport Not drink alcohol

Production 10mn Students will Work in pairs and talk about 2 things you should have done when you After be able to were younger. students express their have regret about discussed, their own ask some situation volunteers to report.

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10mn Students will Handouts be able to review conditional type I, II and wishes and regrets all together.

Students will be able to produce wishes and regrets according to a given situation 5mn SONG: ‘I should have kissed you’ Chris Brown Speaker, computer [Chorus:] I should've kissed you, I should've told you, Told you just how I feel, And next time I won't stop, I'll listen to my heart, Cause what I feel is real! I should've kissed you, I should've told you how I feel, I should've kissed you, I should've showed you just how I feel

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3.1.2 Overall view on the initial implemented lesson plan Step 1: Warming up Students will be ready for the class and will be put into the context of the lesson. Students will be able to understand the difference between Wishes and Regrets. Step 2: Presentation stage Students will be able to know how to express their dissatisfaction about the present situation. The teacher asks students what the wishes are about. Ask students about the difference between the two wishes of each person. The teacher draws the structure of the wish about the present from the listening

Step 3: Practice stage for wishes Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the present situation according to a given situation. The teacher gives example for the students to understand more.

Step 4: Presentation stage of regrets Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction with past situations. Students will be able to know the structure of the wish about the past.

Step 5: Practice stage of regrets Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the past according to a given situation.

Step 6: overall practice both for Wishes and regrets Students will be able to review conditional Type I, II and W&R all together. Students will be able to produce W&R according to a given situation.

3.1.3. Comments and feedback on the Initial implemented lesson plan In general the presentation and the content of the lesson plan were appreciated both by the Training advisor and the Training inspector. Nevertheless, some objectives were not reached as we missed some points during the teaching. We referred to ‘I wish you merry Christmas’, while teaching ‘wishes’, which was quite erroneous since it has nothing to do with that special use of the verb ‘wish’. The structures presented some problems—we should have had a Presentation stage, a Practice stage, and a Production stage for either the teaching of ‘Wishes’ or the teaching of

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‘Regrets’, which actually was not the case. We could never reach our general objectives which is ‘students will be able to express wishes and regrets because the production stage for either Wishes or Regrets was missing. We have an overall production stage. The above lesson plan is then valid but not reliable. We could not finish the lesson because of imbalanced timing and unexpected questions from the students that we could not answer correctly. We could not use the board game. Knowing the weak points of the lesson plan,, this can be good thing. The initiation and the use of pictures raised great appreciation from the Training Inspector as the pictures were very explicit and attracted the student’s attention. The resorting to modern and famous songs by Beyonce Knowles and Chris Brown were strategic because these are songs known by the students. (If I were a boy, I would turn off my phone…; I should have kissed you, I should have told you how I feel). These songs are known by the current generation of students. Finally, improvements were required for this lesson plan to be at the same time valid and reliable. The feedback and comments from the Training inspector, Ms Randiamampionona Christiane, were very helpful to reach that aim and produce an improved and more efficient lesson plan.

3.2 The Initial amended lesson plan

The following lesson plan took its improvement from the remarks and feedback presented previously, and was experimented some days later in a literary class in Lycée Andohalo during our training practice.

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Wishes and regrets

School : Lycée Andohalo Training : Mrs RAHARINOSY Advisor Vatosoa Date : 7-April-2014 Trainees : - RAKOTOMANANA Andry Heriniana Class : Terminale a5 - TOMARIELISON Christian Espérant Classroom : Salle a5 Duration : 112mn General : Students will be able to express their wishes and regrets. objective Specific : - Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the present situation objective - Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the past situation - Students will know the structure of wishes and regrets - Students will know when to use expressions of wishes and regrets - Students’ listening skills will be improved - Students’ speaking skills will be improved Didactic : Handouts, pictures, computer, speaker, blackboard material Bibliography / : islcollective.com / mp3skull.com / busyteacher.com Weboography

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Timin Final Intermediat Didactic Stage Content Hint g objective e objectives material Warming 5mn Students are Students will Draw wishes Pictures up able to be ready for and regrets express their the class and here. dissatisfactio will be put n about the into the present context of (wishes) and the lesson the past (regrets)

Presentatio 15mn Students will PRE LISTENING: Introduction of the listening Ask some Speaker, n (Wish) know the students computer, structure of WHILE LISTENING what the handouts wish. 3- I live with my parents. wishes are Wish Ï I wish I didn’t live with my parents / Ï I am sorry now about. Students’ because I live with my parents listening Wish Ï I wish I had my own apartment / Ï I am sorry now Ask students skills will be because I don’t have my own apartment about the improved. 4- Life is difficult difference Wish Ï I wish it were easier / Ï I am sorry now that life is between the difficult. two wishes Wish Ï I wish it weren’t so difficult / Ï I am sorry now that of each life is difficult. person

ÏI wish I had my own apartment Draw the structure of

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Structure: I wish + Past Simple Ï To express dissatisfaction with the wish present situations. about the present from the listening Practice 7mn Students will POST LISTENING: Give Handouts be able to example for express their What would you wish in those following situations? Focus on the the students dissatisfactio underlined verbs to n about the 7. I really like basketball, but I am not tall enough. understand present Ï I wish I were tall. more. situation 8. Today is Valentine’s Day, and I don’t have a partner. according to Ï I wish I a given ______situation ____ 9. I don’t like my nose with my nose because it is too big. Ï I wish ______10. Today is our exam, and I am too late. Ï I wish I ______Production 7mn Students’ Work in pairs and tell your friend about something that you are After this speaking not happy with now, and express your wish about it by starting exercise, ask skills will be with I wish some improved students to share their wish with the class. Presentatio 5mn Students will Song : “If I were a boy” Computer n (If clause review If I were a boy , I would turn off my phone , speaker

73 type 2) conditional type 2 Practice 7mn Students will Use all the sentences in the exercise with ‘I wish’, and follow the Another Handouts know given example by using the words in brackets. structure another way 7. If I were tall, I would play basketball every day . (play every which can to express day) be used wish by 8. If I had a partner during Valentine’s day, I when talking using ______(go to cinema with about wish conditional him/her) is type 2 9. If I had a smaller nose, I ______(be beautiful) If I were... : 10. If I were not late, I ______(not, when the be stressful) situation is totally impossible If I was... : when the situation is somehow possible Production 7mn Work in pairs and tell your partner about 1 thing you wish by After this starting with ‘If ...’ exercise, ask Ex: If I were a boy, I would turn off my phone all day. some volunteers to report Presentatio 15mn Students will Jimmy didn’t succeed in his exam, and now he regrets that he After Handouts, n (Regret) know the did not study hard enough before his exam. students picture structure of have regret. discussed with their partner, ask

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some volunteers to report

Draw the structure of the wish about the Mother : How was your exam? past from the dialogue Jimmy : So-so, but I am not really satisfied with my English. Mother : What happened? Jimmy : Well, I wish I had read the text carefully, but I didn’t . So, my answers were wrong. Mother : Next time you should take time to read the text before answering the questions. Jimmy : That’s right.

ÏI wish I had read the text carefully

Structure: I wish + Past Perfect ÏTo express dissatisfaction with past situations (regret) Practice 7mn Students will What would you wish in those following situations? Focus on the Handouts be able to underlined verbs. express their 7. I didn’t learn English when I was younger. Now I cannot dissatisfactio read books which are written in English. n about the Ï I wish I had learnt English when I was younger. past 8. I did not listen to my mother. Now I have problems. according to Ï I wish I a given ______situation. ____

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9. I feel sorry that I did not visit grandmother last week. Now she is dead and I cannot talk to her any more. Ï I wish I ______10. I did not kiss my darling when we left each other yesterday. Now I regret it. Ï I wish I ______Production 7mn Work in groups of 4 and tell your friends about something you After this regret about last year. exercise, ask one representativ e from a group to report about their conversation . Presentatio 5mn Students will Do you know another way to express your regret apart from “I wish n (should know the Had learnt English” (for example)? have) structure of Song : “I should have kissed you” Chris Brown ‘I should have’ Practice 15mn Students will Look at the pictures and guess what these people regret by using Either Pictures, know ‘should have’. Look at the example. students can blackboar another way find the d of Ex: Study hard ÏI should have studied harder. other way or expressing not, make their regrets. them listen

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to the song.

Ask students to draw the

Study hard Bring an umbrella expression from the song.

For the exercise, give an Practise sport Not drink alcohol example to help students understand what to do. Production 7mn Students’ SPEAKING After speaking Work in pairs and talk about 1 thing you should have done when students skills will be you were younger, but you did not do. have improved discussed, ask some Students will volunteers to be able to report. express their own regret

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10mn Students will Handouts be able to review conditional type I, II and wishes and regrets all together.

Students will be able to produce wishes and regrets according to a given situation 3mn The class SONG: ‘I should have kissed you’ Chris Brown This part is Speaker, will be optional computer ended in a [Chorus:] lively way I should've kissed you, I should've told you, Told you just how I feel, And next time I won't stop, I'll listen to my heart, Cause what I feel is real! I should've kissed you, I should've told you how I feel, I should've kissed you, I should've showed you just how I feel

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3.2.1. Overall view on the initial amended lesson plan Step 1: Warming up Students will be ready for the class and will be put into the context of the lesson. The teacher will stick pictures on the board. Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the present (wish) and the past (regret) Step 2: Presentation stage Students will be able to know how to express their dissatisfaction about the present. The teacher will ask students what the wishes are about. Ask students about the difference between the two wishes of each person. The teacher draws the structure of the wish about the present from the listening.

Step 4: Practice stage for wishes

Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the present situation according to a given situation. The teacher gives example for the students to understand more.

Step 3: Production stage for wishes

Students’ speaking skills will be improved. After this exercise, the teacher will ask some students to share about their wishes to the class.

Step 4: Presentation stage of regrets Students will be able to make the difference between dissatisfaction with the present and past situations. Students will be able to know the structure of the wish about the past. After students have discussed with their partners, the teacher will ask some volunteers to report. The teacher will draw the structure of the wish about the past from the dialogue.

Step 5: Practice stage of regrets Students will be able to express their dissatisfaction about the past according to a given situation. Step 6: Production stage of regrets

Students’ speaking skills will be improved. Students will be able to express their own regret using S&L with dices. After students have discussed, the teacher will ask some volunteers to report

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3.2.2. Comments on lesson plan 2 We could notice that the changes were blatant because the objectives were reached. The lesson was conducted on a class composed of 56 students but the lesson went on smoothly as we gained assurance and self-confidence on how to conduct the lesson appropriately. A production stage was added at the level of each part— wishes and regrets, and accurate explanations were provided to the students as far as the teaching of ‘wishes’ is concerned. The students were more active and participative because they were given more opportunity to speak in the newly implemented production stages. The time management was well balanced and respected; the lesson was conducted through, including a production snakes and ladders.

Concerning the use snakes and ladders, the students had a lot of fun playing it as it is unusual to them. One S&L and one dice were dealt out to two students; they had to find their own token for them to play (rubber, pen cap, a stone,...). However, some of the dices disappeared while we were collecting them.

Some students were a little concerned about the time and tense relationship for ‘wishes’, i.e. past simple tense referring to present situation. To remedy this we had to explain the difference between time and tense.

In all, we can assert that the lesson plan was fun, valid and reliable and the teaching was successful. We closed the class with the song ‘I should have kissed you’ by Chris Brown.

3.2.3. Adaptation of the corrected experienced lesson plan to the use of snakes and ladders

The above lesson plan was slightly altered as far as the last production is concerned. The speaking part is changed into board game and the song is kept if time allows us to close the class with it. (See the modified part of the lesson plan)

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Production 7mn Students’ speaking SPEAKING After skills will be Work in pairs and talk about 1 thing you should students improved have done when you were younger, but you did have not do. discussed, Students will be ask some able to express volunteers their own regret to report. 3mn The class will be SONG: ‘I should have kissed you’ Chris This part Speaker, ended in a lively Brown is computer way optional [Chorus:] I should've kissed you, I should've told you, Told you just how I feel, And next time I won't stop, I'll listen to my heart, Cause what I feel is real! I should've kissed you, I should've told you how I feel, I should've kissed you, I should've showed you just how I feel

Application of the changes

Product 7m Students’ SPEAKING After Board ion n speaking students games skills will have and be discussed, dices improved ask some volunteers Students to report. will be able to express their own regret

3m The class SONG: ‘I should have kissed you’ Chris Brown This part Speake n will be is optional r, ended in a [Chorus:] compu lively way I should've kissed you, ter I should've told you, Told you just how I feel, And next time I won't stop, I'll listen to my heart,

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Cause what I feel is real! I should've kissed you, I should've told you how I feel, I should've kissed you, I should've showed you just how I feel

3.3 Experimentation of the initial amended lesson plan integrated with snakes and ladders board games The initial amended lesson plan was experimented 7 times. The 2 first times were experimented during our teaching raining in Lycee Andohalo, whereas the following are comments based on the experimentation conducted in other Lycees and Institutes. The 2 first experimentations were conducted without the snakes and ladders

3.3.1 Experimentation 1

School : Lycée Nanisana Class : Terminal A3 Students : 63 Lesson : Wishes and regrets

The lesson about wishes and regrets was not new to the class; presentation had been introduced earlier at the end of the first term. We presented the lesson once again in our way. Obviously, most of the students did not remember the lesson they had about wishes and regrets —they, actually, did not review during the Christmas holiday. The students remembered the structures used to express wishes, but many of them struggled on the use of the past simple tense to refer to the present time in wish-clauses, a classical problem. We had to resort to Malagasy language to make it clearer. The students were very active and participative, though some made mistakes on the structure of type two, as they omitted ‘would’ during the preceding of the correction. Nevertheless, the students had the opportunity to really put the structures into practice because they were given opportunities to speak and reports. It is worth mentioning that we could just cover half of the lesson—the wish part, since we evolved very slowly. They are in terminal A, but they had problems understanding the explanation in English. Almost everything was repeated in Malagasy. In addition to that, the students were too noisy and really hard to manage; they had difficulties in respecting the

82 timing allotted to them. The game environment was new for some of the students, and some others were stuck in the games as they had problems of vocabulary.

3.3.2 Experimentation 2

School : Institut Supérieur Pédagogique d’Antananarivo Class : 2 ème Année Students : 8 Lesson : Wishes and regrets

Right from the beginning of the lesson we experienced some blockage for the students did not know what smileys are. They said they are not on facebook but that did not prevent us from finding a different way to carry on the lesson. The time and tense aspect of the past simple in wish-clause was not an obstacle for them. Before we tackled the structures, we explained the meaning of wish clause and its use in ‘wishes’. However, as long as we went on with the third structure—‘If clause Type 2—three out of 9 students struggled using the appropriate structure even if everything was still shown on the board. This demonstrates that the students are not used to using Type 2 conditional in day every day English. We could also notice that students had problem with the ‘If only-clause’ for he was not convince we can say ‘If only I didn’t eat too much sandwiches’. We could say that the students were not very creative as they had difficulties use the structures in the negative form.

Regarding how small the class was, students had more opportunities to simulate the newly presented structures, and report their partners’ ‘wishes’ by using the structures. Additionally, it was not even difficult to manage the class. Therefore, there was no much difficulty for us to teach this first part of the lesson but what can we say about the teaching ‘regrets’?

The teaching of ‘regrets’ was not as smooth as the teaching of ‘wishes’ due to its more complex structure. The students enjoyed playing snakes and ladders, and could reinforce their use of wishes and regrets structures in simulation exercises.

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3.3.3 Experimentation 3

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Class : Terminale A6 Students : 58 Lesson : Wishes and regrets

This lesson takes the following positive features-the students appreciated the pictures we used for elicitation. In addition to this, they were happy because we have given them the pictures. We conducted the lesson communicatively so that the students could have a lot of opportunities to put the newly given grammatical point into practice.

The students were not used to working in pairs and developing interaction skills as they just looked around for a while. Additionally, more and more of the students to accounted new things—conditional Type 2 and Type 3 seemed really new forms for many of them. It is also worth mentioning that students had difficulties in situating themselves in the context of a given sentence for many of them came up with the correct tense structures but had problems in the negative and the positive form part of the meaning. For example,

What would you wish in those following situations? Focus on the underlined verbs Today is our exam, and I am too late. Ï I wish I was too late These were recurrent mistakes amongst the students. Most students remained “spectators” though they seem interested in the new lesson. Second, monitoring a pair work managed classroom has proved to be difficult for large classes and especially when the students are not used to such an organization. Lots of energy is needed not only for monitoring but also for encouraging the students to speak in the native language. Students were not used to using the past perfect tense, plus the fact they do not master their irregular verbs. The students were somehow struggling for the use of the past perfect tense and the past conditional for regrets,—we, therefore spent time explaining structures and meanings. As a result, 2 hours and 40 minutes were not enough to finish the lesson; hence we could not have time for the S&L during the session. As a conclusion, the teaching of wishes and regrets in this class was really tough due to the low background level of the students from the early classes.

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3.3.4 Experimentation 4

School : CNELA Class : Level 2 Students : 20 Lesson : Wishes and regrets

This class does not have regrets and conditional type 3 in the scheme of work so we couldn’t go through the whole lesson plan. We just focused on wishes. The students very concentrated and interested when they saw the pictures. One student inquired about the time and tense relationship in conditional type 2 she did not understand why the past simple tense refer to the present time. The student had no problem interacting with one another for they are used to doing so with their teacher. It did not take too much time to explain the game rules to the students for most of them have already played S&L The class had fun playing and had funny sentences to report to the class. We can say that the board games really motivated them.

3.3.5. Experimentation 5

School : LMA Class : Premiere Students : 49 Lesson : Wishes and regrets This class was particularly interesting. The students had a good level of English. We did not have important challenges conducting the lesson. The use of the pictures was a real success as they were very explicit and the students had real fun. The students were ready for the lesson. They did not face difficulties expressing their dissatisfaction about the present. The use of I wish associated with the past simple tense was not a big deal for them. However, some of the student failed in transforming the following sentence:

11. Today is our exam, and I am too late. Ï I wish I ______The students were focusing on the form but not on the meaning but they recognized their mistakes. They student were familiar with the use of the conditional type 2 and we did not

85 face particular issues regarding that part of the lesson. This was proved by the students’ ability to play with the meaning at this stage of the lesson:

1. If I had a smaller nose, I ______(be beautiful)

Some of the students answered with a negative sentence which they said were true for them even though that was not recommended by the question. This is absolutely interesting for us because not only were the students focused the structure but they also were concentrated on the meaning. Of course, the answer is wrong but still the mastery of the structure is there.

The shift from conditional type 2 to type 3 was successfully made by means of the picture with Jim and his parents. However, the students were confused about the complexity of the past perfect tense and the past conditional which is common challenge among Lycee students. The students could help each other by working in pair. The students regained confidence in the use of the newly implemented structure and its meaning.

Resorting to the snakes and ladders helped the students build their confidence. They had good fun playing the game while interacting with their peers even though some instances of mistakes still persisted regarding the use of the past perfect and the past conditional.

The experimentations helped us know the asset and the weaknesses of our techniques and but also that of the snakes and ladders. However, here are some recommendations regarding the teaching of wishes and regrets. We carried out a survey of the Ministerial English Syllabus regarding the teaching of conditional Type 2 and Type 3, specially the teaching of wishes and regrets.

3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

3.4.1. Difficulties and solutions in the teaching of wishes and regrets

After experimentation and observation in different schools and centers, we can confirm Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) report’s that learners of English as a second language (ESL) have difficulties in acquiring English conditionals due to the syntactic and semantic complexities embedded in conditional constructions. This section is an attempt to pinpoint the difficulties of teaching and learning ‘wishes and regrets’ as well as to provide the solutions to overcome the difficulties.

Either conditionals Type 2 or Type 3 poses serious teaching problems encountered by teachers of English, which eventually makes the teaching of wishes and regrets challenging.

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The complexity of such sentences lies in the dependence of the result clause on the condition clause. There is no simple answer to the question of how conditional constructions should be taught and learnt because the principles of English conditionals teaching and learning are not quite clear. However, we would like to suggest teachers to start the teaching of meaning before the teaching of structure when teaching wishes and regrets for the students to be impregnated with the use. This is because conditional sentences are syntactically more complex than many other structures not only for foreign speakers but also for native speakers. Therefore, students need a good grasp of the English tense–time system. Students should try to handle conditionals syntactically, semantically, and in realistic contexts by strengthening practices and productions; the resorting to board games is a fun and practical means to achieve this.

Very often, the teachers we observed and even ourselves resorted to the use of Malagasy or English sometime in the teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’. This confirms that different methods and approaches of teaching, including Direct Method, Grammar Translation Method, Communicative Approach, etc. can be used to overcome the difficulties and arrive at successful solutions.

3.4.1.1 Suggestions for teaching conditionals

Regarding the order of teaching of the conditionals in the syllabus the following suggestions and directions should be taken into account when teaching conditionals: 1. Teachers of English in secondary schools are advised to teach their students conditionals according to the following traditional order:

‹ Likely to happen: If he sees me, he will help me. (Real) ‹ Unlikely to happen: If he saw me, he would help me. (Unreal) ‹ Impossible to happen: If he had seen me, he would have helped me.

2. Teachers of English in colleges are advised to teach their students factual conditionals first. Future conditionals should be taught second. Imaginative conditionals have to be taught last after the students have learnt the essentials of conditionals

3. Practical teaching must include an emphasis on the meaning of conditionals as they are really used in real life situation.

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4. Students should be prepared, not just to learn the forms of if –clauses, but to learn how to use them practically in real contexts.

5. Students have to attain a communicative competence in using the conditionals. They should have the capacity to communicate with others fluently.

3.4.1.2 Suggested snakes and ladders board games Board games can be found on line and can be used for the teaching of any vocabulary items and any grammatical points—en.islcollective.com provides which also provides teachers with relevant tips for ESL teaching.

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3.4.1.3 Sample snakes and ladders board games

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If only……… Move back! (regret)

If I were a boy, I

would......

1) Answer the questions orally What would you do if you had if you saw 2) Continue the sentences

bad of money on the street

Move back!

Move

forward!

If I had hadn’ a What would you bad dream, do if you an alien

…….. in your garden?

90 Wishes and regrets What would I am sorry the I don’t have a “Talk about you you do if you Finish electricity is cut. girlfriend. I could fly? If only … regret it. I wish wishes and

….. regrets” What would I would have you do if you brought an were invisible Skip One umbrella if……. for one day ? Turn

You lost you What would Move If I were money. You did you do if you invisible, …. Back 3 not listen to won Mun. you Ar1 000 000 on Spaces Rules Box regret. If only … PMU? 1) Roll the dice I live with my I drunk too Super and answer the parents. I don’t much alcohol Skip questions or like it. If only I yeasterday. I continue the …… feel bad now. I Move sentences wish…. Ahead I had did If I was the I didn’t kiss my opportunity to President of partner. I regret kiss her but I Madagascar, I it. If only….. 2) Follow the didn’t. I ……. should…… 3) The player If I met Obama, If I had listened Move I….. to my father, I… who landed on Ahead 3 the square Spaces should use the three verbs to talk about the Rindra ate Last Doctor visit My topic. much mango. grandmother is He is sick. If -say dead. I wish only…. -take ……..

I don’t like Oh No! If I were a boy, I had zero at the eating rice but I I…. exam. If don’t have the Go Back only…..; choice. I wish ….

Move I don’t like my I could never go I don’ have a school. I out alone. If car. If only ….. Ahead 2 wish…… only…. Spaces Start ……. (wish)

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CONCLUSION TO PART THREE

Our experience during and our failure the teaching training incentivized us to conduct a research on this particular topic- wishes and regrets. The lesson plan we based this work was used during the training, which obliges us to use two distinct terminologies: initial implemented and initial amended lesson plan. The initial implemented lesson plan was a failure mainly because of lack of consistence in the use of 3Ps but also for our lack of knowledge of the meaning and the use of the structure. A production stage was added at the level of each part— wishes and regrets and accurate explanations were provided to the students as far as the teaching of ‘wishes’ is concerned.

The students had a lot of fun playing board game it as it is unusual to them. We could notice students inquired about the time and tense relationship in conditional type 2 and did not understand why the past simple tense refer to the present time.

We advise that teachers start the teaching the meaning before the teaching the structure when teaching wishes and regrets for the students to be impregnated with the use because conditional sentences are syntactically more complex than many other structures not only for foreign speakers but also for native speakers. Obviously, using board games like snakes and ladders puts the students in situations close to real life.

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GENERAL CONCLUSION

93

GENERAL CONCLUSION

Our work, ‘Using Snakes and Ladders board games with dices to teach Wishes and Regrets to Malagasy students’ is divided into three main parts.

The first part presents the definition and the classification of the conditional constructions, the general consideration of the teaching of grammar, the time and tense systems in conditional Type 2 and 3, the particularity of the snakes and ladders, and the different stages to teach wishes and regrets. Conditional Type 2 and 3 are classified as unlikely conditionals. They refer to the past, present, and future. They require the use of the unreal past (including Past Perfect, subjunctive) to discuss imaginary situations, to express impossible wishes. ‘Wish-clauses’ can be used to express both wishes and regrets for the present, past, and future situations. To teach wishes and regrets wishes and regrets, we suggest the Communicative Approach. The interactive methodology promotes the use of the target language in real life situations, without excluding grammar accuracy. The lesson will be introduced into three stages namely the Presentation, the Practice and the Production stages. Due to semantic complexity of wishes and regrets, the meaning is introduced before the structure is presented in a way that will allow the learners to grasp the use of wishes and regrets. Example: If I had a map I would lend it to you ( but I don’t have a map so I can’t lend you a map. The meaning here is the present )

If the weather wasn’t so bad, we would go to the park ( but it is bad, so we can’t go. The meaning here is the present )

For this purpose, a clear context is needed. The next stage will focus on the practice of the form of the newly presented structure. The learners will be involved into motivating and meaningful activities which they will accomplish with the help of the teacher. The production stage offers an opportunity for the students to use the forms they have learnt in real life situations by playing S&L and sing a song.

The second part of our study deals with the current teaching of wishes and regrets in Malagasy Lyçées. This study has been carried out through questionnaires and classes observations. As observation fields, we have selected Lyçées in the region of Analamanga. Fifty questionnaires were dispatched to teachers of English in Mahajanga and Antananarivo.

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The data collected from the questionnaires and the classroom observations enable us to reach to the conclusions that most teachers introduce their lessons with unbalanced 3 stages but most of the times they generally have a combined production stage for both wishes and regrets. They are also used to introducing the structures ( If + simple past + would + infinitive (-to); If + past perfect tense + perfect conditional tense ) before the use and meaning; the meaning is not stressed. Apart from this, the activities lack variation. Due to time constraints and class population, teachers cannot introduce games in the classrooms.

The last part offers some practical suggestions for the improvement of the teaching of wishes and regrets to Malagasy Lyçée students. We analyzed the syllabus and deducted the early implementation of the conditional Type 2 and 3. Conditional Type 1 and 2 were initiated in Seconde, and then reinforced in Première. The conditional Type 3 is implemented in Première with an insight to the use of the verb ‘wish’ introducing already the meaning W&R but in a simpler way: I wish + past simple, and I wish + past perfect.

We have proposed one lessons plan with the summery of the techniques and the activities at each stage. Of course, the lesson plan we presented has its weaknesses but we hope that the comments that we it will help the teachers who will use it in class. We advise teachers of English to start the teaching of wishes and regrets by giving the meaning and teach their students conditionals according to the following traditional order:

‹ Likely to happen: If he sees me, he will help me. (Real) ‹ Unlikely to happen: If he saw me, he would help me. (Unreal) ‹ Impossible to happen: If he had seen me, he would have helped me.

We strongly advise the teachers to use fun and communicative games like snakes and ladders for a more productive and stress less classroom environment. It is worth mentioning that snakes and ladders can be used to teach vocabulary and many other grammatical points communicatively: the body part, vegetables, clothes…. Other aspects of this work we could not elaborate on is on the one hand, the use of other board games in the teaching of English as a second language, and the use of snakes and ladders in the Presentation or Practice stage or as a warm-up.

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APPENDICES

I

Appendix 1: questionnaire

Using board games to teach ‘wishes and regrets’ to Malagasy students To realize our dissertation, your collaboration would be of a great help for our data collection. This questionnaire is mainly focused on: ‹ the teaching of conditional types ‹ the teaching of ‘wishes and regrets’ ‹ the use of games in grammar teaching ‹ the use of board games to teach ‘wishes and regrets’ We thank you in advance for the collaboration. Please put a cross (×) in the squares ( ) corresponding to your answer (s). You may put a cross in more than one square. You may also give specification in the given spaces.

1- Name of the school: ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2- How long have you been teaching English? a. For less than 5 years b. For 5 -15 years c. For more than 15 years 3- Your degree: a. License b. Maîtrise c. CAPEN 4- Do you teach the conditional? a. yes b. No 5- What are the conditional types you teach to your students? a. Type 0 b. Type 1 c. Type 2 d. Type 3 6- What aspect(s) of if-clauses do you teach? a. Meaning b. Use c. Form e. Other aspects 7- Do you teach ‘Wishes and regrets’? a. Yes b. No 8- If ‘No’, what may be the reasons? ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9- If ‘yes’, at what level do you teach it? a. Classe de Seconde b. Classe de Première c. Classe de Terminale II

10- When do you teach it? a. When mistakes occur b. Every time I find it necessary a. Following the order in the syllabus b. Other occasions : …………………………………………..

11-Why do you teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. They must be taught according to the syllabus b. I consider them as an important element of the English language c. My students often make mistakes when they use it d. Other occasions: ………………………………………… 12- Have you ever used games to teach grammar? a. yes b. No 13- If your answer is ‘no’, you do not use games because: a. You are not used to using them b. You do not have enough time to prepare them c. You did not receive any training on how to use them d. You find it difficult to find grammar games 14- If ‘yes’, you use games to teach grammar because a. Games are relaxing and motivating for students b. Games provide students with an opportunity to communicate with one another c. Games raise students participation in class d. Games help students memorize the new structure being presented e. It is easier to learn by playing 15- Which of these techniques do you use to teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. Oral and written drills b. Information gaps c. Written exercises d. Listen and do exercises e. Compositions a. Pair work activities b. Roles plays c. Discussion and debates d. Simulations e. Other techniques: …………………………………... . 16- How did you find the performance of your students with your techniques(s) of teaching ‘wishes and regrets’ ? a. Excellent b. Good c. Average d. Poor 17-What were the recurrent mistakes with your students a. Meaning III

b. Use c. Form e. Other aspects 18-Would you be interested in using board games to teach ‘wishes and regrets’? a. yes b. No

Appendix 2: types board games

The following are games which largely, if not entirely, depend on dice:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dice_games

• Backgammon • Doodle Dice • Poker dice • Balut • Double Prime • Pot Farmer • Bears! • Dudo • Risk • Beetle • Duell • Sharp-Shooter • Bidou • Farkle • Ship, Captain, and Crew • Black Tie • Greed • Shoot the Moons • Blisters • Hazard • Shut the box • Boggle • Heroclix • Sic bo • Bunco • High Rollers • Snakes and Ladders • Button Men • Jacquet • Strat-O-Matic • Catan Dice Game • Kick Bones • Swipe • Cee-lo • Kismet • Tabula • Chingona • Kitsune bakuchi • The Game • Cho-han bakuchi • LCR • Three Man • Chuck-a-luck • Liar's dice • Threes • Codigo Cube Trivia • Ludo (board • Three's Out • Cosmic Wimpout game) • To Court the King • Craps • Lumps • Tops Up • Crown and Anchor • Mexico • Tourne-case • Cthulhu Dice • Mia • Twenty one • Cubilete • Midnight (game) • Under Over • Dayakattai • Multipliers • Wombat • Dice 10000 / 5000 / 1000 • Monopoly • Yacht • Dicecapades • Perquackey • Yahtzee • Diception • Phase 10 Dice • Zonk • Dice Chess • Pig • Zombie Dice

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Appendix 3: Dispatching of the questionnaire

Lycée and Centers Distributed Returned Questionnaires Questionnaires N° P=Private/S=State/ C=Centre 1 Lycée Andohalo (S) 4 2 2 Lycée MarieManjaka Andohalo (P) 1 1 3 CNELA (C) 4 2 4 Kangourou Behoririka (P) 1 1 5 Cour Academy Andavamaba (P) 2 1 6 La Source Mahamasina (P) 3 3 7 Monfort Saint Gabriel Mahajanga (P) 3 2 8 Lycée Privée du Progrès Mananjary (P) 1 1 9 Lycée Jules Ferry Varavohitra (S) 5 5 10 Lycée Jean Joseph Rabearivelo (S) 6 6 11 Lycée Philibert Tsiranana Mahajanga (S) 3 2 12 Lycée Nanisana (S) 4 1 13 English Teaching Programme 3 1 14 Lycée Antanimalandy Mahajanga (S) 3 1 15 Lycée Mahabo (S) 1 1 16 Lycée Saint François Xavier Ananimena (P) 5 3 17 Saint Michel Amparibe (P) 1 1 Total 50 34

V

Appendix 4: Observations 1

Appendix 4: Observation N°1

School : Lycée Nanisana Level : Terminal A5 Duration : 1h30 Date : 16 December Number of students : 56 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

If I studied well, I would succeed If I had studied well, I would have succeeded

T : What is the difference between the two sentences? Ss : Present perfect,….condition T : Can you know the meaning of the two sentences? Ss : (nothing for a while)

The teacher continued and wrote on the board the structures of the two sentences in each part of the board

T : Conditional or if-clause. Sentence 1 is If + past simple + conditional and sentence 2 is If + past perfect + past conditional. This is if-clause Type 2, and this is if-clause type 3. The meanings are different; what are the difference? Ss : (no reaction) T : I told you from the beginning, the tenses are different so the meanings are also different. You can tell it in Malagasy, can you tell?

Since the students didn’t have a clue, the teacher started to shift to Malagasy language T : Action passé ve ilay voalohany? Ss : (students are silent) T : (referring to sentence 2) What does the speaker have in mind? Satria izy tsy…...tafita. Raha nianatra tsara aho dia tafita. (Referring to sentence 1) Raha mianatra tsara aho dia tafita. Ss : (referring to sentence 1) Perhaps he did not succeed. T : The exam is, he has not sat for the exam yet. Mbola tsy hay na afaka na tsy afaka fanadinana izy. Ss : Manenina izy (referring to sentence 2) T : That means, he regretted ato ve? Izy naninona in the second sentence? When you use type 2 what is the message, what is the message if type 3, the title of our lesson is wishes and regrets , when you what to express your wish what do you use? Ss : If chause type 2 VI

T : Regrets? Ss : Type 3 T : For regrets , if-clauses type 3 I’m going to give you other expressions: I wished I studied well. I wish I succeeded in my

She divided the board into two and wrote 2 sentences, one on each side: I wish I studies well. I wish I had studied well.

T : What is the difference? What is the tense here? Ss : Simple past T : And here? Ss : Past perfect T : What does the first sentence mean in Malagasy? Ss : Raha mba nianatra tsara. T : Yes, and the structure is: S + wish + simple past And how about the second sentence? The structure is S + wish + past perfect, to express what? Ss : Regrets T : Yes. Ss : I wish you merry Christmas T : It is not the same as merry Christmas. Any questions, any? Now , you can take notes; for regrets we can also use modals for example: I could have succeeded; I shouldn’t have neglected my studies. Structures: modas (not) have+pasr participle, these are used to express wishes and regrets.

Appendix 5: Observations 2

Observation N°2

School : Saint Joseph Level : Première A Duration : 1h30 Date : 24 February Number of students : 35 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

The week before the session, the students were asked to find one sentence with conditional type 2; the structure had been given by the teacher the previous class. Each time the teacher called the names of her VII students, the latter had to produce a conditional type 2 sentence they have prepared at home. The teacher’s main focus remained on the form. 22 minutes were spent on that. These were sample sentences uttered by some of the students: “If I were a god, I would judge”, “If I were a billionaire, I would buy a fancy car.”,“If I were an angel, I would fly with my wings”

T : Ok , now I you to look at the picture ad describe it S : the man is a poor, T : here we have a poor man, with S : money, cake, house, cakes T : Is he happy with his situation now, he is not happy , he wishes to have all this. Can you express a sentence to express his wish S : He wish to have money T : Maybe he is not satisfied, manina zay izy S : Tsy manaiky ny zavamisy T : What is the verb? S : To wish T : And the noun S : A wish T : When we are not satisfied with the present situation we use : I wish + past simple. For example: I wish I were happy. Can you give an example? S : I wish I had money, I wish I had car, I wish I had money. T : (The teaher draw a picture of a picture on the board: snowman) Use these verbs to express her wishes: eat, drink, S : (number 3) I wish I ate many being fat T : Mihinanana betsaka be, remember, she is not happy being S : I wish I had drink number (13) T : What is the past of eat? S : ate T : drink? S : drank T : Weigh? S : Weghed T : negative? Sonia? S : I wish I didn’t drink so much (inductive method, helpful teacher and guiding) T : I wish I were thin S : yes for example T : 16 thankyou S : za maita I wish I were well -build T : 26? I wish I drank in S : I wish I were ate some vegetable T : Fa maninona no mbola asina were S : I wish I did not ate many food. T : ok . Again so when do you use I wish + past simple? S : when we are no satisfied with the present situation T : : ( on the board) “were” is used for all personal pronoun. (18 minutes for the presentation of wish). One mn to copy. Another way to express wishes is the conditional type 2. If+ past simple = conditional present. Ohatry ny ahoana izany conditional present zany. S : would + infinitive – to T : Example: I am poor, I don’t have car (on the board) S : If I were rich, I would have a car T : 26 give a sentence using the picture VIII

S : If I were rich I would have money T : 29 S : If I were rich I would have a house If I WERE rich I would buy a car. T : Now let’s go back to the fat girl in the pictures; 22 S : …………… T : So what is the situation here? I am fat, I am not fat, I am slim (on the board) number 5 S : If I were slim I would have practiced sport (not correct) T : verb anankiroa nga? 22 S : if I were ….. (she is stuck again) they are not concentrated . If I were slim, I would were slim jeans T : Fahasambarana. S : If I were fat, I would practise zumba. T : number 22 (students are noisy) ( practice) and productive (what is then the second way to express wishes ? S : conditional type 2 T : what is the stucture of conditional type 2? S : If+ past simple + conditional present (would+ verb –to) T : 1 minute to copy the lesson. S : copying T : Vita? Ao ary! That was about wishes now now LOOK AT THE picture S : Menatra ny namany izy, tsy tsara lay izy? T : Tsy misy idirany amin’y wishes , this is the present situation, the present situation is he had a bad mark. S : Ratsy ny notiny satria izy nanao sipa. T : Ok, so he ….. S : regrets T : you regrets something you do today or something you did in the past. S : we regret something in the past. T : good. (She wrote on the board REGRETS) what is the verb? S : to regret T : what is the noun? S : regrets T : This is used to express regrets (write the structure); when you regrets you use (on the board) I wish + past perfect); What is the structure of the past perfect? S : had + past participle T : This is an example: I have bad mark, I didn’t learn my lesson, so now express the regrets? S : I wish I had learnt my lesson T : Now look AT THE PICTURE AGAIN S : I WISH I had slept (negative problem) T : slept? S : I wish I hadn’t slept. T : yes everybody. 14 S : I WISH I HADN’T slept at school T : 34? S : missing T : 9 S : I wish I had send a message ( no correct) T : send? S : sent T : 38 look at this picture? Boyfriend S : I WISH I had not got out with my boyfriend T : Ok, what is to regrets in Malagasy. S : Fa maninona tsisy idirany regrets fa wish T : Hoatrany hoe tahak’izay aho nianantra ( not really sufficient as answer for the teacher) What is the the stucture to express with? S : I wish + past perfect. T : Yes can copy. Another way to express wishes is conditional type 3 (she is mistaken , she should have said regrets) Conditional type 3. (on the board) If + past perfect, conditional past, ty mbola tsy hitatsika. Zany hoe: If+ past perfect, would + have+ papa. For example I have bad mark, I did n’t learn my lessons. Ataovy ary ty.? S : If I had learnt my lesson, I would have had good mark. T : Let’s come back to our picture S : If I hadn’t slept at school, I would have had good mark T : ok Sonia S : If I had hadn’t sent sms at school, I would have had good marks. T : Now look at this picture a (pregnant woman) good elicitation, from the teacher IX

S : If I use a condom T : Past perfect S : If I had used a condom, I wouldn’t pregnant T : conditional past S : Have been pregnant T : yes, Gédéon S : I wish….. T : Past perfect S : I wish I hadn’t sexual intercourses T : Have ve lay izy, past perfectan’uzay? Ilay regret ve lay nanao rapport? S : I wish I …. T : I wish I inona? Hadn’t …. Ina lay temps, inona past participle ny to have? S : had T : I wish I hadn’d had. (strange for children). Raha if de ahoana? S : If I hadn’t practiced sexual intercourses I f would have been pregnant T : Would have ve? S : wouldn’t have been pregnant T : Ao an? Aiza ilay not no mipetraka? S : S: Eo amin’ny wouldn’t. (practise yes but no production yet). (How can we measure the fact that the students understood the lesson and know how to use them. T : vita? Ao ary exercises. Dictaction : Think of your dissatisfaction at the present time and express you wish (5 sentences) fahaoroa, thik of actions you did in the past that you regret (5 sentences) . 10 10 zany. 5 I wish dia 5 if..

Appendix 6: Observations 3

Observation N°3

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D2 Duration : 2h45 Date : 3 March Number of students : 56 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets The teacher starts the row calling and explains that thee lesson has a bit of relationship with the last lesson

T : I’m going to show you a nice picture. (picture of sexy girl) S : Ahhhh ahhhh (very exited T : can someone help me stick this. How do you describe the girl here? S : sexy, nice sportive , mpanao film. T : our last lesson was about what? S : Thin. T : would you like to be like the girl? S : no., yes. T : what is this? S : Pizza X

T : Do you like pizza? S : yes T : Let’s have pizza after class (the class is too noisy) What is this? S : Hamburger? T : Would you describe all this? This is a pizza and this is a hamburger. Now I give you the choice. Pizza or ham? S : Hamburger, hamburger. T : (The teacher shows the picture of a sexy girl. A bit big. )How do you describe the girl here S : Big bottom, beautiful, nice and big. T : The last picture. ( a picture of a very hu ge and big girl in sexy clothes ) S : oh T : Can you describe this girl? S : She is overweight. T : Ok Do you like this girl (very big) ? S : No. T : This the most important of what you are doing here? You don’t like this girl. S : She is overweight. T : BEFORE you are like this now, you are like this (50 and 250 kilos) How do you feel here (very big) S : I would regret. T : girl like this. Would you like to have a beautiful girl like this? What do you think you would like to do in this care. THIS REGRETS. Here we have a very beautiful S : Yes T : What is the ver? Do you have a girl like this? S : No. T : Would you like to have a girl like this? S : yes. T : The reality is Maxim doesn’t have a beautiful girl. The title of the lesson is W and regrets. YOU write it. Example: reality: I have an ugly girl. Wish: I wish I had a beautiful girl. Reality: I ate pizzas and hamburger. Now I am overweight. what does she regrets here? S : Eating pizzas. T : Don’t’ eat pizza, otherwise you will become overweight. S : No T : Do you understand the difference between wishes and regrets? S : (they are silent) T : Please stand up (the teacher ask a students to stand up) You are not tall. If I say I wish I was tall. Is it wish or regrets? S : wish. T : You didn’t learn you learn lesson. What is the consequence of that? S : I fail. T : If I say I wish I had learnt my lesson it mean I regrets, but if I say I wish you had learnt you lesson, it is regrets. S : hum T : (deals out a hand out) (wishes or regrets) no instructions were given) Now take the hand out. Read the sentence ; for one sentence say it is a wish or a regrets. When it is a wish and when it is regrets WISH or REGRET • I have bellyache now; I wish I hadn’t eaten the green mangoes yesterday. • My parents wish I were a pilot, not a driver. • Jessie is always complaining that she has to wear bras; if only she were a girl. • If only Madagascar were a British colony; we would be very developed now. • It is raining; I wish I had bought an umbrella. • I failed my exam. I only I had learnt my lessons ad finished more exercises. • You don’t like your boyish hair, Helen. Surely you wish you hadn’t cut it.

S : action nataonao dia action tsy nataonao T : students were allocated. 4 minutes to finish the . YOU CAN ASK me in case of vocab. Check the dictionary or ask me. Let’s correct. Number 1 S : It’s a regrets, it is regrets. T : Is that correct? S : yes T : number 2? S : It is a wish T : Because? Jessie a girl, she is complaining S : Do you understand complaining? T : Ex I’m sorry to tell you this. The class complains to me that you with you would change you teacher of PHYSICS XI

S : se plaindre T : so it is a wish. ( Jessie) Number 4 (sentence) S : it is a wish. T : Because it is not mada fault to become a colony. S : Regrets T : number 5 S : (sky) wish. T : Do you understand? Wish is for birds. Do you know R KELLY, I BELIEVE I can fly. number 7. S : Regrets. T : Do you agree with her? Repeat again what you said. S : regrets. T : yes. Last only. S : Regrets T : What is the action she regrets here? S : To have cut his hair. T : Now you know the difference between wishes and regrets. I advise you to have here to use a new page because I t will be very large. The teacher write on the board form in 1er you learn conditional. T I ask you a question. What is you object in terminal. What o you do if you want to get you back. Learn the lesson and do the exercise. (he writes) If I learnt my lesson, I will succeed in my bac. I is possible to succeed because it is possible. I wish I would succeed in my exam. WOULD + v –to.For present now. What is the Beyoncé song. If I were a boy. When we come to conditional. She wants to become a boy. If I were a boy, I would chase after girls. Is it possible for Beyoncé to chase a Girl; THE EPRESENT WISH NOW IS TO BE ABOY; and here we have past simple and would chase. This is conditional. S : The past is something present, and just mean it is wish and it is impossible conditional. She wishes she spoke Malagasy. So the past here is not a reference to the present. T : For regrets it is different. Example (related to the present): you remember I had dyed my hair, I didn’t like it so I had red hair, I regrets because it is my fault. I preferred it would be blue. Wish a regrets, have the same verb form. Past simple. Reality I am fat because I ate a lot of pizzas. Fta is now anf ate a pizza is in the past. S : nefa izy no matavy T : The consequence you are a victim, you regrets because you did it. I’m sorry. This is for a university level let’s take another example. I drank alcohol. What is the consequence, I had a, accident. This is the reality. : If I hadn’t drink alcohol I ‘wouldn’t have had an accident. The structure is I +PAST PERFECT+ would have + past participle. It is this example a regrets. S : regrets T : Do you understand? S : They say nothing (they are totally lost) T : Copy the lesson. Do you understand? At the same time the teacher gave the handout. S : Practice: Continue the following sentences. Use WISH or IF ONLY Future: • We are having an English test next week. I wish______• Tomorrow I will have a job interview; I wish______• I forgot my umbrella at home; I wish______• My father has been hospitalized; I wish he______• Due to a car problem we couldn’t go to Mahajanga; I wish tomorrow______

Present: • I am a barman and I don’t like my job; ______• Malagasy politicians are selfish;______• My sister can’t get the job because she doesn’t speak English;______• Jimmy is sad that he is an orphan. • I can’t participate in the TV show because I am very old;______

Past: • John didn’t learn his lesson and he had a bad mark in Maths;______• I forgot to close our house; now it is raining;______• I was always missing in English classes at school. Now, I am in trouble with my job______• You refused to go on a diet; now you are fat;______• Jenny used Chinese shampoo; now her hair is greasy;______

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Appendix 7: Observations 4

Observation N°4

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D5 Duration : 1h Date : 24 April 2015 Number of students : 45 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

All explanation of the lesson were provided in Malagasy T : Te, maniry ny ho dia filazana inona? S : Ny hoavy T : Maniry lasa ho mpitandrina aho saingy tsy mahazaka fitsapana. Maniry zavatra ao anaty saina. Milaza zavatra tiana vita @fotoana ankehitriny na nantenaina hisy @ fotoana lasa. Zavatra tokony ho natao t@ fotoana lasa dia lazaina @ ho asiana tovona n-. @teny anglisy dia atao hoe Frriday 24 April 2015 S : (students laugh because of the unexpected shifting to date) T : (The teacher writes on the board) WISHES AND REGRETS Ireny faniriana tsotra di any present time tsy filazam-potoana ankehitriny akory an! Fa @izaofotoana izao. Ex: • I want to be a priest • I’d like to become a priest • I wish S : I wish you a merry Christmas and a happy new year. (singing in class) T : Yeah, we wish you a merry Christmas dia firariantsoa fa tsy mitovy @ firariana fotsiny. • I wish you a quick recovery. • I wish you to come through (miala sakana, na mivily na misaoty) Firariantsoa raha atao mariazy: • May you be happy! Ampfamadihana ny modal sy ny sujet • May you succeed in your exam Misy fomba hafa ahafahana milaza “wish” di any “If clause type 2” izay atao aorian’ny if, dia if fehezan-kevitra iankinana no atao hhoe “if”. Raha zavatra tsy fantatra na ho tanteraka na tsia: UNPROBABLE CONDITION. Ex: raha mba nana’elatra aho dia tonga tany @tanana misy andry. Faniriana izay tsy ho tanateraka mihitsy @ izao fotoana izao=improbable condition. If clause Type 2 : unprobable conditions If clause; Raha mba iza o no miliardera S : Raha mba iza o no miliardera, manakarena mpanambolabe T : Saomela: Si j’étais Président par hazard. S : Si j’étais Président par hazard. (singing) T : Ary mahazo lesona ny ankizy androany an! Main clause : • If I had a car, I I wouldn’t fight for a seat in buses. Inty ilay antsoina hoe : UNREALPAST. XIII

Raha izao zao no manambola, dia ….. Dia IANONA no ataoko an’izao dia ianona ataoko an’izao. Inty no atao unreal past. Dia raha izao nomanambola dia nividianako tsirairay ianareo. Izay ilayhoe unprobable condition Inty no antsoina hoe if clause, dia inty no antsoina hoe main clause. Had I a car,………………. Mitovy ny dikan’ireo.

2) REGRETS (PAST TIME) Tokony ho niseho na tsia t@fotoana ho avy. I wish I had waited for her. (past perfect)= asa anankiroa t@ lasa, dia iay iray niseho voaaloany no atao am past perfect, ilay faharoa ato simple past. Fanirina t@ lasa fa tsy tanteraka Ra mba nihaino ny teniko dia ho tsy toy izao Asiana tovona no na ho. • Tsy tian’y sipa izao nataonao izao. Rehafa zavatra nirina na nanenenana t@ fotoana lasa. TO (voatsipika ny lasa+ past perfect) If Type 3: IMPOSSIBLE SITUATION. If you had listened to me, (if clause), none of these, would have happened. Would have happened ( past condition) = rehafa misy nanenenana, tokony natao nefa tsy natao, efa t@ fotoana lasa fa tsy natao. If I were the president, I WOULD let pupils not to go to school. Averiko: fanirina tsotra : if type 2 Faniriana = inversion of the subject.

Appendix 8: Observations 5

Observation N°5

School : Lycée Moderne Ampefiloha Level : Terminale D6 Duration : 1h Date : 25 April 2015 Number of students : 45 Objectives : Students will be able to express wishes and regrets

Teacher : Take your language function exercises and copy the lesson Student :Yes teacher T : copy the dialogue Dialogue : Peter: What do you want to be later, Jack? Jack: I want to be a pilot. I wish I got my degree. Peter: Would you like to visit many countries? Jack: Yes, I would and I hope to learn more foreign languages Peter: I think you dream of travelling round the world! Jack: Sure. If only I have a private plane. Peter: Then would you buy one if you were rich? Jack: Yes, of course. T : Finished? XIV

S : No teacher T : You stand up and practice the dialogue. They are asked to read the dialogue and the teacher corrects as the dialogue goes on Now repeat the dialogue once again and take account of the correction. The students repeat the dialogue T Right, thank you. Two other people to read the dialogues Students read the dialogue T What is the title of the lesson? S wishes T Yes wishes , what is the verb S souhaiter Yes souhaiter, to wish , to make a wish, to express a wish , wish: dissatisfaction with present situation , what are the expression of wish you have? we have the conditional sentence type 2

I) wish +modal past, do you remember what is the value of the modal past, it has the same form as the simple past. Do you remember, a simple value, modal past is not reality but just imagination. Another example, do you know all the lesson of all Terminale? S no no T I wish I knew all my lessons. 2) the second expression is the conditional sentence Type 2 (If+ past simple) Can you play the violin? What can you say then? I wish I could play the violin. There are the expressions of wishes Ex If I were rich I would buy a house.

3) If +only (the structure is not complete) If only he arrived on times If only he would marry me (the sentence is false) (no structure was given ) 4) To dream of+v+ing I dream of travelling round the world.

5) Verb to want to She wants to buy a new phone He wants to visit the USA

6) would like to +V I’d like to travel round the world. They would like to be on holiday.

7) to hope to+ V/for +V+ing. He hopes for getting a scholarship next year. She hopes to meet interesting people at the party.

Take you exercise copybook Exercise: * Use ‘wish’ in the following situations) 1) George is poor______2) Catherina can’t play the guitar______3) I am very bad at maths______4)His parentsrecieve a low salary______5) I don’tspeak Spanish______6) My uncle don’t live in America (the sentence contain a mistake) 7) My brother isn’t a pilot. 8) Mum always come home late. 9) My parents never listen to me. 10) I don’t spend the holiday at the seaside.

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Appendix 9: Some board games

UNIVERSITE D’ANTANANARIVO

ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE DEPARTEMENT FORMATION INITIALE ET LITERATURE CER Langues et Lettres Anglaises

Title: Using Snakes and Ladders Board Games With Dice to Teach Wishes and Regrets to Malagasy Students

Author: TOMARIELSON Christian Espérant

ABSTRACT

This present research aims at bringing innovative improvements to the teaching of Conditional type 2 and 3 mainly to express wishes and regrets for Malagasy students knowing that these Conditional types remain one of the most complex grammatical forms in English Language Learning.

Moreover, grammarians do not have the same perceptions of the meaning of each Conditional type. Therefore, many teachers have issues understanding and transmitting the meaning of the Conditional type 2 and 3. That misunderstanding impacts on the learners and this is proved by the Class observation we had.

To remedy all this, we propose, in this current research, a very simplified way to deals with the teaching of the 2 structures in theory and in practice. We suggest the use of snakes and ladders board games with dice for fun, less stressful, more communicative and easy to use both for the teacher and the learners. This will foster a group works and interactions as the learners express wishes and regrets in real life situations.

Our experimentation the high schools allowed us to assert that using snakes and ladders board games with dices encourage learners to speak. They were motivated, dynamic to work, creative and less shy. Finally, improvement in the teaching of Conditional type 2 and type 3 combines with snakes and ladders board games with dice is put forward to help teachers who are willing to use them.

Key words: conditionals, wishes and regrets, complex, structures, form, meaning,snakes and ladders, communicative, board games, dice, fun.