Instructor’s Manual to accompany Anatomy and Physiology Sixth Edition
Rod R. Seeley Idaho State University
Trent D. Stephens Idaho State University
Philip Tate Phoenix College
Prepared by Amy Griffin Ouchley University of Louisiana at Monroe ii Instructor’s Manual to accompany ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, SIXTH EDITION SEELEY/STEPHENS/TATE
Published by McGraw-Hill Higher Education, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003, 2000, 1998. All rights reserved.
The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced in print form solely for classroom use with ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any other form or for any other purpose without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. www.mhhe.com
iii PREFACE
A solid foundation in anatomy and physiology is essential for students in all health-related curricula. This Instructor’s Manual (IM) serves as a teacher’s resource to help students learn concepts and information related to the study of anatomy and physiology and a guide to the sixth edition of Anatomy and Physiology by Seeley, Stephens, and Tate.
Resource information includes: Information for New Instructors, Suggested Course Outlines for Semesters and Quarters, Teaching Strategies for Success, Learning Strategies for Student Success in A & P, Sources on Learning, Sources for Instructional Media, and a List of Transparencies for the sixth edition.
The IM utilizes four organizing themes in the chapter guide. These include: the relationship of structure to function, homeostasis, cell theory and biochemistry, and changes through time. In general the IM follows the sequence of each chapter and refers to clinical information, figures, and tables that will enhance student comprehension. Also included are topics of interest for each chapter.
Be sure to visit the Seeley home page at http://www.mhhe.com/seeley6 for additional student and instructor resources.
An additional resource is the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS). This national organization was created for instructors of human anatomy and physiology. For more information about HAPS, contact the HAPS Hotline [1-800-448-4277] or visit the HAPS Homepage at http://www.hapsweb.org/.
I wish to acknowledge and thank previous contributors to this Instructor’s Manual. They are: Margaret A. Weck of the St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Barbara H. Wiggins of Delaware Technical and Community College, Dorothy R. Martin of Blackhawk College, and Sandra B. Larson of Blackhawk College.
I hope this manual helps you make your course the best it can be.
Amy Griffin Ouchley University of Louisiana at Monroe April 2002
iv CONTENTS
Preface iii Contents iv
INFORMATION FOR NEW INSTRUCTORS 1 SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINES 3 TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS 6 STRATEGIES FOR STUDENT SUCCESS IN A&P 9 ORGANIZING THEMES 10
TEXTBOOK CHAPTERS Chapter 1 The Human Organism 11 Chapter 2 The Chemical Basis of Life 13 Chapter 3 Structure and Function of the Cell 14 Chapter 4 Histology: The Study of Tissues 16 Chapter 5 Integumentary System 18 Chapter 6 Skeletal System: Bones and Bone Tissue 19 Chapter 7 Skeletal System: Gross Anatomy 19 Chapter 8 Articulations and Movements 21 Chapter 9 Muscular System: Histology and Physiology 22 Chapter 10 Muscular System: Gross Anatomy 22 Chapter 11 Functional Organization of Nervous Tissue 24 Chapter 12 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 25 Chapter 13 Brain and Cranial Nerves 26 Chapter 14 Integration of Nervous System Functions 27 Chapter 15 The Special Senses 29 Chapter 16 Autonomic Nervous System 30 Chapter 17 Functional Organization of the Endocrine System 32 Chapter 18 Endocrine Glands 32 Chapter 19 Cardiovascular System: Blood 34 Chapter 20 Cardiovascular System: The Heart 35 Chapter 21 Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and 37 Regulation Chapter 22 Lymphatic System and Immunity 39 Chapter 23 Respiratory System 41 Chapter 24 Digestive System 43 Chapter 25 Nutrition, Metabolism, and Temperature Regulation 44 Chapter 26 Urinary System 45 Chapter 27 Water, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance 47 Chapter 28 Reproductive System 48 Chapter 29 Development, Growth, Aging, and Genetics 50
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 51 LIST OF TRANSPARENCY ACETATES 54
v INFORMATION FOR NEW INSTRUCTORS
Anatomy and physiology are demanding subjects. Each discipline places different demands on the learner. Many students find it difficult to learn the terminology of anatomy, comprehend the concepts of physiology, and then use both to understand how the body works. The instructor’s job is to present the material in a clear and simple manner, to motivate students to gain as much knowledge as they can during the course, to help students discover how they learn best, and to assess student learning.
CLARITY AND SIMPLICITY The first steps are organization, planning, and preparation. Use all available resources to plan and prepare lectures. Become familiar with the textbook and use the Chapter Summaries at the end of the chapters to help organize and prepare lecture notes. Decide before class which figures will help students the most and then use these overhead transparencies or PowerPoint slides during the lecture.
Become familiar with other resource material that accompanies the sixth edition. The Digital Content Manager (DCM) is a powerful resource. This multimedia collection of visual resources allows instructors to utilize artwork from the text in multiple formats to create customized classroom presentations, visually based tests and quizzes, dynamic course website content, or attractive printed support materials. In addition to the content found within each chapter folder, the DCM contains multimedia instructional materials such as active art and animations.
Also visit the online instructor center at www.mhhe.com/seeley6. This repository for teaching aids houses downloadable and printable versions of traditional ancillaries plus a wealth of online content.
Students will need help to understand the complex material, so present the material in as clear and simple a manner as possible. Attempt to stay focused on the current topic in lecture, to cover the material for that day, and to not get sidetracked. Staying “on task” will help students stay “on task.” Animations help them to visualize processes involving molecules and cells.
Good rules of thumb are “Teach, don’t tell” and “Elicit, don’t lecture.” Encourage student response, questions, and interactions during class, but don’t let the students redirect the plan.
Watch student expressions and body language. This helps the instructor immediately assess student understanding of the material. If many of the students are frowning, this means they don’t understand. Cover the material again from a different perspective.
Constantly examine and evaluate teaching methods. If something doesn’t work, discard it and try something else. The best teachers are not afraid of change and new methods. Pay attention to student feedback.
Remember that teachers never stop learning.
1 MOTIVATION Communicate expectations to the students. Most students will work hard to achieve goals if they are given a clear path to follow. Prepare a clear, concise syllabus for the course. Include information about expectations, absences, course outline, test dates, grading scale, etc.
Encourage outside reading and research before the topic is covered in class. Clinical information will stimulate students’ interest in topics. Continually direct them to the textbook and textbook resources, because they contain a wealth of clinical information that illustrates application of basic knowledge.
HELPING STUDENTS LEARN Encourage students to use all resources available to them. The Anatomy and Physiology Online Learning Center (OLC) at www.mhhe.com/seeley6 offers access to a vast array of premium online content to fortify the learning and teaching experience. The Student Center of the OLC features quizzes, interactive learning games, and study tools tailored to coincide with each chapter of the text, as well as premium learning software like the Essential Study Partner and study help from an online tutoring service. Students will enjoy a visit to this site and it will help them learn.
Encourage students to make study cards from the excellent tables in the textbook. Also encourage them to create their own study tables from information in the textbook.
ASSESSMENT The sixth edition provides a Test Information File (TIF). It is a valuable resource for the construction of exams. The TIF is presented in an easy to use test generator program called Brownstone’s Diploma. This program allows the instructor to create tests according to subject and word cues, question type headings, and cognitive levels.
The TIF includes a variety of question types including multiple choice, matching (called short answer in Brownstone’s Diploma), fill-in-the-blank, and essay questions. The questions in each chapter generally follow the order of information and topics found in the book. Answers are provided at the end of each question. The cognitive level of each question is included.
2 SUGGESTED COURSE OUTLINES
The following are suggestions for ways to topically organize the text material into a 1-semester course, and sequences of 2 semesters or 3 quarters.
1-SEMESTER COURSE ((16 weeks/semester × 4 lecture hours/week) – 4 hours for exams) = 60 lecture hours
SUBJECT TIME ALLOTMENT The Human Organism & Chemical Basis of Life 1 lecture Histology: The Study of Tissues 2 lectures Integumentary System 3 lectures Skeletal System: Histology, Development and Gross Anatomy 3 lectures Articulations and Biomechanics of Body Movements 1 lecture Muscular System: Histology, Physiology, and Gross Anatomy 5 lectures Functional Organization of Nervous Tissue 3 lectures Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 2 lectures Brain and Cranial Nerves 4 lectures Integration of Nervous System Functions 3 lectures The Special Senses 2 lectures Autonomic Nervous System 2 lectures Functional Organization of the Endocrine System 2 lectures Endocrine Glands 2 lectures Cardiovascular System: Blood 2 lectures Cardiovascular System: The Heart 4 lectures Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and Regulation 4 lectures Lymphatic Organs and Immunity 2 lectures Respiratory System 4 lectures Digestive System, Nutrition, and Metabolism 3 lectures The Urinary System 2 lectures Water, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance 2 lectures Reproductive System, Growth, Aging and Genetics 2 lectures
3 2-SEMESTER SEQUENCE (16 weeks/semester × 3 lecture hours/week) – 4 hours for exams) × 2 semesters = 88 lecture hours total
SUBJECT TIME ALLOTMENT The Human Organism 2 lectures The Chemical Basis of Life 2 lectures Structure and Function of the Cell 2 lectures Histology: The Sturdy of Tissues 3 lectures Integumentary System 2 lectures Skeletal System: Histology and Development 1.5 lectures Skeletal System: Gross Anatomy 2 lectures Articulations and Biomechanics of Body Movements 3 lectures Muscular System: Histology and Physiology 3 lectures Muscular System: Gross Anatomy 1.5 lectures Functional Organization of Nervous Tissue 3 lectures Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 4 lectures Brain and Cranial Nerves 3 lectures Integration of Nervous System Functions 3 lectures The Special Senses 3 lectures Autonomic Nervous System 2 lectures Functional Organization of the Endocrine System 3 lectures Endocrine Glands 1 lecture Semester Break Cardiovascular System: Blood 3 lectures Cardiovascular System: The Heart 5 lectures Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and Regulation 5 lectures Lymphatic Organs and Immunity 4 lectures Respiratory System 5 lectures Digestive System 4 lectures Nutrition and Metabolism 3 lectures The Urinary System 3 lectures Water, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance 3 lectures Reproductive System 6 lectures Development, Growth, Aging, and Genetics 3 lectures
4 3-QUARTER SEQUENCE ((10 weeks/quarter × 3 lecture hours/week) – 3 hours for exams) × 3 quarters = 81 lecture hours total
SUBJECT TIME ALLOTMENT The Human Organism 1 lecture The Chemical Basis of Life 3 lectures Structure and Function of the Cell 2 lectures Histology: The Sturdy of Tissues 4 lectures Integumentary System 3 lectures Skeletal System: Histology and Development 5 lectures Skeletal System: Gross Anatomy 3 lectures Articulations and Biomechanics of Body Movements 1 lecture Muscular System: Histology and Physiology 4 lectures Muscular System: Gross Anatomy 3 lectures
Quarter Break Functional Organization of Nervous Tissue 3 lectures Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 4 lectures Brain and Cranial Nerves 3 lectures Integration of Nervous System Functions 3 lectures The Special Senses 2 lectures Autonomic Nervous System 2 lectures Functional Organization of the Endocrine System 3 lectures Endocrine Glands 2 lectures Cardiovascular System: Blood 4 lectures Cardiovascular System: The Heart 4 lectures Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and Regulation 3 lectures Quarter Break Lymphatic Organs and Immunity 4 lectures Respiratory System 5 lectures Digestive System 3 lectures Nutrition and Metabolism 3 lectures The Urinary System 4 lectures Water, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance 3 lectures Reproductive System 4 lectures Development, Growth, Aging, and Genetics 3 lectures
5 TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS
INTEGRATING LECTURE AND LABORATORY
Attempt to coordinate the materials presented in the anatomy and physiology (A&P) lecture as closely as possible with the A&P lab. A&P labs can provide time to repeat, reinforce, and elaborate on topics presented in the lecture. Anatomy is an appropriate topic for the laboratory setting, because students can spend time with hands-on manipulation of specimens, models and other visual aids. Additional lecture time can be freed up by covering gross anatomy topics in the laboratory.
Laboratory exercises play many different educational roles, including:
Demonstration of abstract concepts and theoretical models using concrete objects and visible reactions Presentation and reiteration of factual information Practice of careful observation, precise measurement, and thorough documentation Practice using specialized laboratory techniques and equipment Personal observation and investigation of real tissues Experience and hands-on manipulation of realistic anatomical models Practice of data analysis, problem-solving, and interpretation skills Exposure to clinical procedures, results, and analysis
Some laboratory exercises stress anatomy content, others laboratory procedures, or physiological processes. The more clearly the instructor defines the objectives for a particular lab the more easily the students can accomplish the purpose of the lab.
Students do not always immediately recognize lab exercises as specific examples of general principles introduced in the text and lectures. The lecture and lab instructor (or instructors) must help students make connections between what is happening in the lecture and what is happening in each week’s lab. The more these connections are stressed in both lab and lecture, the more students will benefit from both and transfer information from one to the other.
There are three traditional mechanisms for assessment of student performance in the laboratory: lab reports, lab quizzes, and practical exams. Design these assessment instruments to maximize the integration of material between the lecture and the laboratory. Having quizzes or reports that require students to draw on material from both lecture and lab sources will also help them integrate their experience in the lab with lecture material.
ACTIVE LEARNING Active learning strategies are designed to help students expand and become aware of their level of understanding of a subject as they are learning that subject matter. For this reason concepts, rather
6 than isolated factual content, provide the focus for well-constructed active learning tasks. Involving the student in the learning process as an active participant can foster understanding of the material and remove roadblocks that inhibit learning.
Almost any key concept can be used as a springboard for an active learning activity. There are many features of the sixth edition of Anatomy & Physiology that can be used as the basis for active learning exercises. All of the sidebars, clinical focus essays, systems pathology essays, predict questions, critical thinking questions, and homeostasis figures provide information and ideas for active learn activities
What follows are brief descriptions of some of the most common classroom activities that can be used to foster active learning.
Active learning strategies takes time and practice to determine which ones will best meet your classroom objectives. Instructors are finding that the changes in classroom climate and student attitudes toward the course are worth the extra effort. For additional techniques and more detailed suggestions on how to use them in the classroom, see the list of references at the end of this section.
Short Writes Description A question is presented to the class. Students have a short, but reasonable, amount of time to write ideas and answers to the question. The responses may or may not be collected.. The topic may or may not be discussed in class. The instructor’s objective determines whether the short write is used for discussion or assessment.
Benefits Any of the critical thinking or predict questions from the text can be used as models for the development of these short writing assignments. Short writes can be used to provide the instructor with a “snapshot” look of student mastery of content, thought processes, development and written expression of ideas.
Role-Plays Description Structural relationships, concepts, and processes can be enacted in the classroom with students playing the roles of all-important features from body parts to molecules. The role-play needs to have a definite beginning and end and should be tightly scripted. Involvement of all students is critical to the success of role-plays. This works best with small groups of 10 to 12. For larger classes groups can take turns doing “plays” for the entire class.
Benefits Role-plays have the distinct advantage of helping students to visualize microscopic structures and their interactions. Because role-plays require people moving through space and time, students may develop a better feel for the time and three-dimensionality of the phenomena being investigated. There are students who learn kinesthetically, by moving and doing things
7 themselves. For these students, a well-constructed role-play may be the best way for them to learn.
Group Quizzes or In-Class Activities Description Give one or more conceptual questions to groups of three to five students and have them prepare a common written response. Information recall questions can also be used, but to generate discussion the questions need to be more concept oriented. The goal of this technique is to stimulate student thinking and reasoning on the topic.
Benefits This activity provides a valuable pause in the lecture, encourages group participation and discussion, and stimulates students. Students will become animated defending their positions. This activity can help the instructor assess the student’s mastery of the material.
Concept Maps Description Students are given a central topic and several related terms. Students must arrange the terms on a page, draw lines that represent the relationships between the terms, and connect each term with all other terms to which it is related. The students are then asked to label or describe the nature of the relationship represented by each line. The resulting maps, which graphically display the students’ understanding of the subject area, will vary from individual to individual.
Benefits Concept maps are a means to assess the degree of interconnectedness among ideas that students can, or cannot, represent. Students can often see the benefits of the technique and may incorporate the building of concept maps into their regular study habits. The concept map is a useful tool especially for students who may be less verbal and more visual in their internal representations of ideas.
Sources on Learning and Active Learning Belenky, M.F.; Clinchy, B.M.; Goldberger, N.R. and Tarule, J.M. (1986) Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind. New York, NY: Basic Books. Bruffee, K.A. (1993) Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and the Authority of Knowledge. Baltimore, MD; Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Carroll, R.G. (1993) Evaluation of vignette-type examination items for testing medical physiology. Advances in Physiology Education. 9(1):S11-S16. Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P.G., and Simmons, D.C. (1997) Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: Making Classrooms More Responsive to Diversity. American Educational Research Journal. 34(1):174-206. Herreid, C.F. (1994) Case studies in science -- A novel method of science education. Journal of College Science Teaching. 23(4):221-229.
8 Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R. (1974) Instructional goal structure: Cooperative, competitive or individualistic. Review of Educational Research. 44:213-240. Lowman, J. (1984) Enhancing learning through classroom discussion. Chapter 6 of Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. pp. 119-145. San Francisco, CA: Josses-Bass, Inc. Publishers. McKinley, C.J. and Stoll, W.R. (1994) A method of improving student learning in physiology, the small group workshop. Advances in Physiology Education. 11(1):S16-S23. McMillan, J.H., ed. (1988) New Directions for Teaching and Learning, vol. 34: Assessing Student’s Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Publishers. Modell, H.I. and Michane, J.A. (1993) Promoting Active Learning in the Life Science Classroom: Annual of the New York Academy of Science, vol. 701. New York, NY; New York Academy of Science. Nisbett, R.E.; Fong, G.T.; Darrin, R.L. and Cheng, P.W. (1987) Teaching reasoning. Science. 238:625-631. Oelerich, R. W. (1992) Case Studies in Anatomy and Physiology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book, Inc. Perry, W. (1970) Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development During the College Years. New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart and Winston. Posner, H.B. and Markstein, J.A. (1994) Cooperative learning in introductory cell and molecular biology. Journal of College Science Teaching. 23(4):231-233. Reagan, C.R. and Menninger, R.P. (1994) Ten years of basic medical physiology in the Mercer problem-based curriculum. Advances in Physiology Education. 11(1):S24-S32. Tobin, K.; Tippins, D.J. and Gallard, A.J. (1994) Research on instructional strategies for teaching science. pp. 45-93 in D.L. Gabel, ed. Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company. Welty, W. M. (1989) Discussion method teaching: how to make it work. Change July/August 1989:41-49. Yinger, R. (1980) Can we really teach them to think? In New Directions for Teaching and Learning, vol. 3: Fostering Critical Thinking. pp. 11-31. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Publishers.
9 STRATEGIES FOR STUDENT SUCCESS IN A&P
The following is a handout developed for students in a 2-semester Anatomy and Physiology course.
KEYS FOR SUCCESS IN A&P
I. READ AND PREPARE II. ATTEND CLASS III. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES IV. REVIEW TO UNDERSTAND NOTES AND CONCEPTS V. USE ALL AVAILABLE RESOURCES VI. VISIT THE ONLINE LEARNING CENTER at www.mhhe.com/seeley6. VI. ASK FOR HELP IF YOU NEED IT VII. EVALUATE PERFORMANCE ON EXAMS
1. Read the chapters and other assignments before you come to class. 2. Be prepared for that day’s lecture. 3. Attending class is an important element of success in this course. 4. Organize your notes and place all handouts in the appropriate location. 5. Review your notes as soon as possible. 6. Study cards are helpful. Make them and use them. 7. Use the Summary Outline at the end of each chapter for study and review. 8. Do the Review and Comprehension Questions at the end of each chapter. 9. Practice using the information by trying the Predict Questions in each chapter. 10. There is a wealth of extra help at the Online Learning Center. Go there! 11. Use the interactive CD that may have been packaged with your book. 12. Take this rule to the bank: If I emphasize something (say it more than once), it’s important and you’d better understand it. 13. Don’t get behind and these methods will work. 14. If you don’t get something, remember this: I can usually clear up a roadblock in 5 minutes or less. Come see me. I don’t bite. 15. Don’t miss something twice. Come by and evaluate the questions you missed on the exam. 16. If my office hours don’t fit your schedule, call and make an appointment.
REMEMBER THIS! I want you to succeed. I am here to help you.
10 ORGANIZING THEMES
The sixth edition of Anatomy & Physiology by Seeley, Stephens, and Tate is designed to help students develop a solid, basic understanding of anatomy and physiology without an encyclopedic presentation of detail. This Instructor’s Manual progresses through the chapters using four organizing themes: Structure and Function, Homeostasis, Cell Theory and Biochemistry, Changes through Time. Also included are topics of interest for each chapter.
Structure and Function The central theme of the interrelationship between structure and function of the parts of the body should be a part of every anatomy and physiology course. The basic recipe the authors have followed for six editions of this text is to combine clear and accurate descriptions of anatomy with precise explanations of how structures function and examples of how they work together to maintain life.
Homeostasis Homeostasis is another central theme of the study of the body. Homeostasis in the intact body relies on both neural and hormonal control mechanisms. Two important tools are found in the book to promote understanding of this topic: Process Figures and Homeostasis Figures. Process Figures break down physiological process into a series of smaller steps, allowing students to track the key occurrences and learn them as they go. Homeostasis Figures are specialized flowcharts that diagram the mechanisms body systems employ to maintain homeostasis. They are consistent representations of negative feedback mechanisms in the body throughout the text.
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Much physiology occurs at the plasma membrane and a structural and functional understanding of this structure is essential to A&P students. They also need a basic understanding of basic chemistry, organic molecules, the chemical reactions of cellular respiration, metabolism, membrane transport mechanisms, and cell biology.
Changes Through Time To emphasize the basic concepts of A&P, the authors have provided explanations of how the systems respond to aging, changes in physical activity, and disease, with a special focus on homeostasis and the regulatory mechanisms that maintain it. They have also included timely and interesting examples to demonstrate the application of knowledge in a clinical context.
11 CHAPTER 1 THE HUMAN ORGANISM
Topics Related to the Study of Anatomy and Physiology The use of animals in research is relevant, and the students may have strong opinions about the ethical issues involved. Discuss pros and cons (including financial considerations) for alternatives to animal experimentation, such as tissue culture and computer simulation.
The sidebar, p. 2, concerning anatomical anomalies can be used for discussion concerning the concept of normal. Anatomy and physiology are replete with references to normal and abnormal structures and values. Students will benefit from the clarification of the meaning of the word “normal" as it will be used within the context of the course.
Newspaper, magazine, or internet sources related to the new imaging technologies can help students appreciate the amount of knowledge of anatomy and physiology a diagnostician must possess in order to interpret those potentially meaningless images. Use the Clinical Focus: Anatomical Imaging, p. 3-4, as the starting point for a homework assignment to find out more information.
The advents of the electron microscope, patch-clamping, micro-electrodes, and radio- immunoassay have increased our ability to investigate cell structures and cell membrane transport. The newest scanning tunneling electron microscopes have taken resolution down to the level of individual molecules. Class discussion could focus on the intriguing area of cellular research. A Clinical Focus: Microscopic Imaging, p. 107, provides more information. The excellent photographs found on the first page of every chapter illustrate technological advances in imaging techniques.
12 Themes In Chapter 1 Structure and Function Medical Terminology “When in Rome…” is a concept that could be applied to knowing and using anatomical and medical terminology. Students must use their language in order to communicate with other scientists and healthcare professionals. Students need to learn that there is value in the precision of anatomical terminology. The notion that the body is a collection of interlocking parts is a concept foreign to many students, who view the body as a singular and solid entity. Students may not realize there is a connection between the words that are used in class and their own bodies. Point out the valuable list of prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms on the back cover of the book and the Glossary (pages G-1 to G-27) that will help them gain a mastery of this “new” language. Also useful is Table 1.1, Directional Terms for Humans, p. 15.
Homeostasis Feedback Spend time on the concepts of positive and negative feedback to ensure student understanding. Provide examples in addition to those provided in the text. Ask students to think about and then discuss examples of events that push the body out of homeostasis and how the body returns to homeostasis. Discuss ways the body can be helped to return to homeostasis in emergencies. Be sure students understand how to interpret the Homeostasis Figure 1.5 and Figure 1.6, because this format is used throughout the book and can be an invaluable tool in understanding complex body processes.
13 Cell Theory and Biochemistry Stress the pivotal position of cells and biochemistry in understanding higher levels of organization. Students must assimilate this foundational knowledge before they can grasp more complex physiological processes like cell membrane transport and cell-to-cell communication.
Changes through Time Students must grasp the difference between structures/parts and functions/processes. Introduce the element of time and the possibility of change through time (moment to moment, over the life span, and evolutionarily) in both structures and functions.
14 CHAPTER 2 THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
Topics Related to Levels of Organization and the Chemical Basis of Life Many people enter their first course in anatomy and physiology envisioning the body as a solid and singular entity that has teleological control of its internal functions. To increase student understanding develop a short written assignment that asks them to integrate the various levels of organization that are introduced here and in Chapter 1. Here’s an example: Choose any body part or organ, such as the hand or heart. Name all structural levels of the choice including molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, etc.
Introduce the production and uses of radioactive isotopes during the discussion of atomic structure. Use the Clinical Focus: Radioactive Isotopes and X Rays, p. 32, as a reading assignment and ask students to think about the possible damage to other macromolecules, such as the cellular DNA, and to weigh that risk against the potential therapeutic benefits of radiation therapy.
Many clinical tests have a chemical bases. For homework have students research diagnostic tests and procedures and determine the chemical foundation of each.
Engineering and biological problems are associated with the bioengineering of synthetic substances that replace body chemicals or tissues. Have the class discuss the chemical and biological considerations of such new technologies such as: Teflon hip replacements, synthetic hormones, artificial heart valves, and synthetic blood. There is a Clinical Focus: Genetic Engineering, p.98. Revisit this topic later during coverage of the immune system and the topic of organ and tissue rejection.
Themes In Chapter 2 Structure and Function Enzyme Specificity and Protein Functions Although there are many examples of structural and functional relationships with a chemical basis, perhaps the example that students can most readily grasp is the lock and key model of enzyme/substrate interactions. This metaphor easily expands to the next levels of organization, which are other functions of protein in the cell membrane, cell, tissues, and the body. Proteins have a complex structure and a variety of functions that depend on specific structural parameters. Ask students, “How does the structure of a protein affect its function?” (Examples: collagen, insulin, hemoglobin) Changing the structure of a protein will alter its functional capabilities. This theme recurs in the study of anatomy and physiology.
Functions of Organic Molecules The following tables are excellent resources about the function of the different organic molecules in the body: Table 2.4, Role of Carbohydrates in the Body, p. 43, Table 2.6, p. 44, Role of Lipids in the Body, Table 2.7, p. 48, Role of Proteins in the Body.
15 Homeostasis Chemical Equilibrium The concept of chemical equilibrium is, in essence, a simpler form of the dynamic equilibrium established and maintained by the body. Help students explore the similarities and differences between chemical equilibrium and biological homeostasis.
16 CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CELL
Topics Related to Cell Structure and Function Specialized structures within cells called organelles perform specific functions. The study of organelles is the perfect place to continue linking structure to function. Advanced technology and research are revealing more about the cell each year. For instance, lysosomes are being implicated in developmental processes, some diseases, and aging. Any further investigations about structure and functions of organelles will benefit students later.
Many diseases, such as sickle cell anemia and cystic fibrosis, involve the synthesis of abnormal and dysfunctional proteins. Have students find out about other diseases that involve faulty proteins to emphasize the vital cell functions that are accomplished by the presence of normal proteins.
There are “immortal” cell lines such as the HeLa cells, which can reproduce indefinitely as long as the proper nutrients are available. Have students investigate these cells, how they are different and what allows them to overcome the Hayflick limit and contact inhibition, processes that limit cell growth. This topic will reinforce the material on cell division.
Use the topic of genetic engineering as a starting point for a discussion of the gains and risks associated with controlling the internal processes of cells. Ask students, “Will humans ever develop a complete understanding of the complexity of the cell?” There is a Clinical Focus: Genetic Engineering, p. 98.
Themes In Chapter 3 Structure and Function Overview of the Cell The catalog of cell parts can be boring information. Use Table 3.1, p. 60, for a brief overview and use analogies to make the topic more interesting. The cell can be compared to a town with each organelle performing vital functions. For example, lysosomes can be compared to garbage disposal systems with mitochondria being the power plants of the town.
Homeostasis Plasma Membrane Emphasize the structural and functional characteristics of the plasma membrane and its transport mechanisms. Review the functions of proteins in the membrane. The membrane is the primary barrier between cells and the outside world and here’s where much physiology happens. Comprehension of the functions of the rest of the systems in the body depends on a good understanding of this topic.
17 Cell Theory and Biochemistry Membrane Transport Stress to students that the understanding of diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and active transport is essential to the understanding of membrane transport. Encourage them to use the excellent figures in their textbook.
Encourage students to identify the similarities and the differences among the various types of membrane transport mechanisms. Use Table 3.2, p. 76, for summary,, comparisons, and examples. Distinguish between active and passive processes. Which saves energy in the body? Explain terms such as, specificity, competition, and saturation. Also critical are terms like membrane channels, carrier proteins, and cotransport. Spending time here will save time later in the semester.
Overview of Cell Metabolism Briefly visit this topic and define glycolysis, aerobic respiration, and anaerobic respiration. Use Fig. 3.37, p. 87, to facilitate this discussion.
Protein Synthesis Cover this topic and use these analogies to simplify: DNA =recipe book for proteins, nucleus=recipe is kept here, transcription=copying the recipe, mRNA=recipe card, ribosome=kitchen, translation=making the recipe, tRNA=delivery boy, amino acids=ingredients.
Changes through Time Cell Life Cycle The cell life cycle has two phases: interphase and mitosis. Cover what happens during these phases: interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis.
Meiosis Briefly describe this process and how it is different from mitosis. Table 3.3, p. 97, provides a comparison of mitosis and meiosis.
Cellular Aspects of Aging Expose students to the fascinating topic of cellular aging. Major theories of aging focus on molecules within the cell, such as lipid, proteins, and nucleic acids. The textbook provides a good outline and a textbox describes apoptosis or programmed cell death in a sidebar, p. 97.
18 CHAPTER 4 HISTOLOGY: THE STUDY OF TISSUES
Topics Related to Tissues Have students design tissues to fit certain structural criteria. Ask how structure relates the to function of the new tissues. For example, one group of students can determine the functional characteristics of a connective tissue with only proteoglycan or hydroxyapatite in the matrix. Would this type of tissue be useful in the body? Another group of can be given a set of functional properties, such as membrane transport capability or high surface to volume ratio. Where would these tissues be found and what would be their purpose in the body?
Themes In Chapter 4 Structure and Function Epithelial Tissue Since all epithelial tissues are found as coverings, linings, or glands, stress features that facilitate these functions. Relate the location and function of epithelial tissues to cellular modifications. Use the excellent illustrations in the chapter to reinforce learning about structure and function of the tissues.
It is not too early to help students distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands. The study of glands is a good link to Chapter 4: The Integumentary System.
Connective Tissue The diversity of connective tissue is overwhelming to students. Stress the functions of the tissue and then be sure they understand the different types of cells and different components of the extracellular matrix. Here again the topic of structure and function can be addressed. Linking the chemical composition of the extracellular matrix to the type of function performed by the tissue (such as the liquid nature of the extracellular matrix of blood being associated with the transportation functions of the tissue) is a good way to help students understand the complexities of the tissue.
Membranes The functions of the membranes relate to their location. Terminology can overwhelm. Study cards can help learn the different membranes.
Homeostasis Inflammation and Tissue Repair Students enjoy learning about inflammation, because they know it relates directly to their careers in healthcare. Be sure they understand the difference between infection and inflammation. Stress physiological causes of the five major manifestations: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of function. Students can relate to this “visible” physiology.
The topic of tissue repair follows and this is another subject that will interest students.
Cancer
19 Cancer is a topic of concern in our society and many students have been exposed to the subject through family illnesses. The Clinical Focus: Cancer Tissue, p. 137, is a good introduction to the terminology and basics of cancer therapy. Internet sources, like American Cancer Society, will provide additional information.
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Cells and Tissues Reiterate the fact that tissues are collections of similar cells and the substances surrounding them. The function of the tissue will relate to the cell type and this is why a fundamental understanding of cells is necessary.
Changes through Time Embryonic Development of Tissues This chapter provides a brief introduction to embryonic tissue, but more detail is found in Chapter 29.
Tissues and Aging Relate cellular and molecular changes to the topic of tissue aging, because this will link it to previous discussions. Again this is something students can directly relate to, because they see it in their parents.
20 CHAPTER 5 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Topics Related to the Integumentary System Two items in the textbook, Clinical Focus: Burns, pages, 152-153, and Systems Pathology: Burns, pages 160-161, will help stimulate interest in the integumentary system.
The Clinical Focus: Clinical Disorders of the Integumentary System, pages 158-159, introduces some important clinical terminology. Use these for reading assignments and starting points for additional research.
Sun tanning and sun beds are a part of the life of some students. Be sure to discuss the effects of chronic exposure to the sun and ultraviolet light on the skin.
Discuss the differences between topical application and dietary supplement. Review lipid soluble versus water soluble during discussions of medications administered through the skin or dermal patches. A discussion of beauty aids will also be relevant to students. Have students describe reasonable expectations for persons using topical beauty aids containing proteins like collagen and elastin and mechanism of action of drugs like Retin-A, sidebar, p. 162.
21 Themes In Chapter 5 Structure and Function Functions of the Integumentary System Functions of the skin are: protection, sensation, temperature regulation, and vitamin D production. Link these topics to future subjects: protection – immune system, sensation – nervous system, temperature regulation – homeostasis and circulatory system, and vitamin D production – calcium balance and nutrition.
Utilize Table 5.1, p 149, to summarize and compare.
Homeostasis Temperature Regulation and Fluid and Electrolyte Balance An excellent summary of integumentary system functions is found on pages 156-157. Use it to reinforce these topics. Skin physiology provides some perfect examples of negative feedback and the ways the body maintains its homeostatic balance. Use the analogy of a thermostat in the home to illustrate. Figure 5.9, p. 157, shows heat exchange in the skin.
Use System Interactions, p. 161, to link dysfunction in the integumentary system to all other systems. Help students make connections.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System Certain changes occur in the integumentary system with increasing age. Use the changes in structure to understand the consequential changes in function.
22 CHAPTER 6 SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND BONE TISSUE
CHAPTER 7 SKELETAL SYSTEM: GROSS ANATOMY
Topics Related to the Skeleton and Bone Tissue Students may have experience with bone disorders like fractures and osteoporosis in their grandparents. The Clinical Focus: Bone Disorders, pages 184-185, and Systems Pathology: Osteoporosis, pages 190-191, provide a good introduction to these chapters. Students might assess the different causes and treatments of osteoporosis. This topic links to calcium homeostasis, an important topic concerning bone physiology.
The Clinical Focus: Classification of Bone Fractures, p. 188 can be used to jumpstart discussions on ossification and bone remodeling.
Anabolic steroids use by athletes is a relevant topic in a college classroom. Discuss pros and cons, long-term and short-term effects of these drugs. Be sure to discuss age-related factors and the dangers of young athletes using these drugs.
Have students who are interested in chiropractic medicine investigate the techniques of spinal adjustment and manipulations and report their findings.
Discuss the role of surface landmarks in medical diagnosis and surgery. Have students find out which internal organs are routinely located by first referring to skeletal landmarks.
Discuss other applications of knowledge of the human skeleton, such as anthropology and forensics. Have students investigate how knowledge of the skeleton is used to reconstruct pictures or deduce characteristics (age, sex, height, weight, etc.) of deceased individuals from fragments of their skeletal remains.
Themes In Chapters 6 And 7 Structure and Function Bones as Organs Students may not realize that bone is a dynamic tissue. Stress its vascularity, nerve supply, cell type, and matrix (mineral and organic). Also emphasize that the skeletal system is the site of blood cell production.
Most students will relate to the protective, support and movement functions of the skeletal system, however its ability to reserve minerals and produce blood cells will be new information. Students often think that tissues are static structures and discussions of bone physiology are excellent times to dispel these misconceptions.
Review the other types of connective tissue associated with the skeletal system. Recall this Rule: Review and Repetition help students Remember.
23 Bone Development and Bone Growth These topics reemphasize bone’s dynamic nature. Be sure students understand the difference in bone development, bone growth, and bone repair. Utilize the Process Figure 6.13, Endochondral Ossification, pages 178-179.
The control of bone growth is complex, involving the interactions of nutrition, genetics, hormones, and mechanical stress on bones.
Axial and Appendicular Skeleton Terminology can be a roadblock in the skeletal system. Remind students of the importance of root words, because they will be seeing these roots again. Many of the root words introduced here will be used again in the naming of muscles, nerves, and other organs.
Remind students to use the excellent tables in the book for study and review. Table 6.1, p. 170, and Table 6.2, p. 175, are good tools.
Tell students to use their own bodies to find anatomic features of the bones. Finding the medial malleolus on their tibia and the lateral malleolus on their fibula will give them instant reference points.
All the sidebars in Chapter 7 will interest the students. Encourage them to read and do additional research on topics of interest.
Stress the differences between the male and female pelvis, because once again this points to structural and functional relationships.
24 Homeostasis Calcium Homeostasis The functions of calcium are varied and important in the body. Calcium homeostasis is a topic that will be covered during the study of several organ systems: skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular. There is a Process Figure: 6.20: Calcium Homeostasis, p. 187. There is a Homeostasis Figure 27.7: Regulation of Calcium Ions in the Extracellular Fluid, p. 999. Encourage students to use the Homeostasis Figures throughout the book.
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Bone Cells Bone cells are categorized as osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which have different functions and origins. Students must understand the dynamic nature of these cells and their importance to bone health and calcium homeostasis.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System The most significant age-related changes in the skeletal system affect the quality and quantity of bone matrix. Ask students to think about these changes and predict what will happen to the weight-bearing capabilities and flexibility of the bone. What are the outcomes of these changes? How does age and nutrition affect the outcomes?
Use the Systems Interactions Table on p. 191 to connect the changes of the skeletal system to other organ systems.
25 CHAPTER 8 ARTICULATIONS AND MOVEMENTS
Topics Related to Joints and Body Movements Have students do joint movements to learn terminology. Have them list muscles and bones involved in each movement.
The topic of hip or knee replacement will interest students because of experience with parents and grandparents. Assign short research projects on hip or knee injuries and joint replacement.
Use the sidebars throughout Chapter 8 to initiate discussions or research.
Many injuries sustained during athletics involve damage to a joint. Discuss the different kinds of connective tissue involved in the injuries. Discuss the vascularity and healing capabilities of the different kinds of connective tissue. Use the Clinical Focus: Knee Injuries and Disorders, p. 261, to jumpstart these discussions.
Discuss benefits of exercise on joint health. Emphasize the importance of range of motion exercises for bedridden patients and ask why these are needed. Use the Clinical Focus: Joint Disorders, pages 264-266, to stimulate interest and discussion.
26 CHAPTER 9 MUSCULAR SYSTEM: HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10 MUSCULAR SYSTEM: GROSS ANATOMY
Topics Related to Muscles and Effects of Exercise Fitness and nutrition are important topics for students and learning how muscles work will interest them. Students can research how exercise affects muscle. There are sidebars throughout Chapter 9 that discuss different aspects of exercise. The chapters focus on skeletal muscle.
Discuss bodybuilding and how muscles change. There is a Clinical Focus: Bodybuilding, p. 359, that will stimulate their interest in muscle physiology. Revisit the topic of the use of anabolic steroids by athletes to build muscle mass. Include the side effects and long-term effects of these drugs.
Emphasize the relationship between the nervous system and the muscular system. Reinforce their understanding of the excitation-contraction coupling mechanism and the role of Ca2+ in cross- bridge formation with review and repetition.
Discuss disorders of muscle tissue. Use the Clinical Focus: Disorders of Muscle Tissue, p. 304. Relate these disorders to the prior studies of the skeletal system, joints, and articulations.
Themes For Chapters 9 and 10 Structure and Function Muscle Types Use Table 9.1, Comparison of Muscle Types, p. 273, to discuss the differences and similarities of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Inform students that although these chapters focus on skeletal muscle they will be learning more about cardiac and smooth muscle later in the course. Familiarize them with the locations of smooth muscle in the body.
Structure of a Muscle A complete understanding of the histological detail of skeletal muscles and the neuromuscular junction is crucial in understanding excitation-contraction coupling and the sliding filament model. Help students visualize structure by building a muscle from the smallest component, the microfilaments, up to the connective tissue connections to the bone. Use Figure 9.3, Parts of a Muscle, p. 275. Continue to emphasize the importance of the arrangement of the microfilaments. Have them draw these structures in their notes or as a homework assignment.
Membrane Potentials, Ion Channels, Action Potentials Stress the fact that muscles are excitable tissue and have resting membrane potentials that can be altered. Students must understand the resting membrane potential (RMP) and the electrochemical forces at work in the cell. Review the plasma membrane and how molecules are transported across it. Emphasize gated and non-gated channels and the concentration of ions in the intracellular and extracellular fluid of the cell. Be sure they under-stand RMP
27 before advancing to action potentials. Tell students they will see more of this topic in Chapter 11.
Neuromuscular Junction Nerves stimulate muscles. Cover the structure and function of the neuromuscular junction in good detail. Use Fig. 9.11, Neuromuscular Junction and Process, p. 283, and Fig. 9.12, Functions of the Neuromuscular Junction, p. 284, in the descriptions. Encourage students to study these diagrams for better understanding.
Excitation/Contraction Coupling, Sliding Filament Model Now put it together for the students and contract the muscle. All these topics build on each other.
Muscle Physiology Use Table 9.2, Events That Occur During Each Phase of a Muscle Twitch, p. 289, to walk students through this subject.
Types of Muscle Contractions and Fatigue Use Table 9.3, Types of Muscle Contractions, p. 293, as a reference and study tool. Be sure to cover different types of fatigue and physiological causes. Also cover the cause of rigor mortis.
Energy Sources Cover this topic completely. Use Fig. 3.37, Overview of Cell Metabolism, p. 87, from Chapter 3. Review sources of energy. Contrast the efficiency of aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Discuss oxygen debt and what the body does to repay it.
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers This topic relates to athletics, exercise, and fitness. A good summary is provided in Table 9.4, p. 298.
Homeostasis Oxygen Debt and Temperature Regulation Discuss how the body repays the oxygen debt and gets rid of excess lactic acid. Review negative feedback and how the muscular system helps the body regulate temperature. How does calcium homeostasis affect muscle function?
The Systems Pathology: Duchenne’s Muscular Dystrophy, pages 305-306 is a good reading assignment. Use the System Interactions, p. 306, to relate a disease in the muscular system to other systems. Help students make connections.
28 CHAPTER 11 FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
Topics Related to Neuronal Function and Nerve Transmission Use Table 11.5, Substances that are Neurotransmitters or Neuromodulators (or both), pages 389- 390, to initiate a discussion of the subtle distinctions between the two types of chemicals. Have students predict and explain the effects of each type of compound on normal and abnormal functioning of the nervous system. Also many drugs affect the nervous system and this provides a good area for outside research.
When a nerve is cut, either healing or permanent interruption of the neural pathways occurs. The final outcome depends on the severity of the injury and its treatment. Use the Clinical Focus: Nervous Tissue Response to Injury, p. 385, and have students research this topic and discuss changes that occur in an injured nerve fiber. This topic will relate to the next chapter and spinal cord injuries.
29 Themes In Chapter 11 Structure and Function Divisions of the Nervous System Present the divisions of the Nervous System in outline form so students can see the relationships. Be sure they understand the divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Use Fig. 11.2, p. 365. Now is a good time to mention the reflex arc.
Electric Signals Reiterate that muscles and nerves are excitable tissues and exhibit resting membrane potentials. The body uses electric signals (action potentials) for communication, processing, and integration of information. A fundamental understanding of resting membrane potentials is necessary. First cover the concentration differences that exist between intracellular and extracellular fluid. Describe how the resting membrane potential is established and how it can be changed. Explain the production of action potentials and their propagation along axons. The book contains good figures for all this information. Fig. 11.4, Membrane Permeability and Ion Channels, p. 373, is excellent. Also the tables that list sequential steps are good. Use Table 11.2, Characteristics Responsible for the Resting Membrane Potential, p. 375; Table 11.3, Characteristics of Local Potentials, p. 377; Table 11.4, Characteristics of the Action Potential, p. 378 to help students understand these processes.
The Synapse This topic was introduced in the muscular system, so cover it in more depth now. Emphasize that students must spend time studying figures to gain full understanding. Some drug action occurs in the synapse. A sidebar on p. 387 describes the action of amphetamines.
The Summary on pages 394-396 gives an excellent study outline for this chapter. Encourage students to use the summaries.
Homeostasis Neurons and Homeostasis The return of the cell’s resting membrane potential after an action potential is a good example of a cellular homeostasis. Use the Clinical Focus: Examples of Abnormal Membrane Potentials, p. 381, to discuss abnormal ion concentrations and the effect this has on the cells resting state. More information and Homeostasis Figures can be found in Chapter 27.
30 CHAPTER 12 SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
Topics Related to the Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves Humans use a variety of reflexes to survive every day. Also autonomic reflexes keep organ systems operating smoothly. Have students make a list of all the somatic and autonomic reflexes that occur in their bodies during an average day. For example, what reflexes are used to drive a standard transmission car? This exercise can be a revelation to students.
Discuss the use of reflexes as a diagnostic tool for assessment of nervous system function.
When famous people sustain a spinal cord injury, it becomes a newsworthy event. Use the Clinical Focus: Spinal Cord Injury, p. 412, to jumpstart this discussion.
Coverage on this topic is continued in the Clinical Focus: Nerve Replacement, p 427. Have students discuss the differences in regeneration potential in epithelial tissues, connective tissues and neural tissue. Review the principles of inflammation and wound healing from Chapter 4 and the process of bone repair from Chapter 6.
Themes In Chapter 12 Structure and Function Spinal Cord Cover the anatomy of the spinal cord with special attention on the meninges. A good understanding of the cross section histology will lend understanding to the topics of reflexes and neural pathways. Use the sidebar, Introduction of Needles into the Subarachnoid Space, p. 403, for clinical information.
Reflexes Since the reflex arc is the basic functional unit of the nervous system, it needs to be well covered. Use all the figures and sidebars, pages 405-410, in this chapter to provide understanding. Discuss diagnostic uses and protective functions of reflexes.
Homeostasis Peripheral Nerves Use the sidebars to discuss the impact of nerve damage and loss of function. There is clinical information on phrenic nerve damage, radial nerve damage, ulnar nerve damage, median nerve damage, ischiadic nerve damage. Also covered is pudendal nerve anesthesia.
Changes through Time PNS Disorders A Clinical Focus: Peripheral Nervous System Disorders – Spinal Nerves, p. 428, is a good overview of this topic. Encourage use of summary for study and review.
31 CHAPTER 13 BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Topics Related to the Brain and Cranial Nerves Students might investigate the blood-brain barrier. The permeability characteristics of this barrier must be considered when developing drugs designed to affect the CNS. (This is a good time to review cellular transport mechanisms covered in Chapter 3.) See sidebar, p. 448.
The assessment of brain function in the living body is a challenge. Have students explore the advantages and limitations of the use of X-ray photographs, EEGs, CAT scans, MRI, PET scans, spinal taps, biopsy, and other measuring and imaging techniques.
January, 2002, a five part series aired on public television (PBS) called “The Secret Life of the Brain.” The series covers everything from the developing brain to the maturing brain. For more information about this series log on to www.pbs.org/brain. Also check the local library for copies of this series.
“ Brain: The World Inside Your Head,” an interactive exhibit that debuted July, 2001, at the Smithsonian, is touring the country through January, 2007. To check locations, log on to www.pfizer.com/brain.
32 Themes In Chapter 13 Structure and Function The Brain The brain is a complex and interesting organ, but its complexity can overwhelm students. Use the Summary, pages 459-460, as an excellent lecture outline and study tool. Try to bring outside resources, like those mentioned above, to introduce this topic. Table 13.1, Divisions and Functions of the Brain, p. 435, provides a good, concise overview.
Stress vital functions of the brainstem and tell students that it is important in cardiovascular and respiratory function.
Cover meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and focus on the functions. Production and circulation of CSF is an important topic. A sidebar about hydrocephalus is found on p. 448. Homeostasis Hypothalamus The hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis. It regulates many endocrine functions and also regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, satiety, swallowing, and emotions. Use Table 13.2, Hypothalamic Functions, p. 441, to stress its importance and function.
Cranial Nerves Many of the body’s functions, especially those involved in maintaining homeostasis, involve reflexes that are integrated within the brain. For example, control of heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration are integrated in the brainstem and many involve cranial nerve X (vagus nerve).
Point out that cranial nerves perform sensory, somatic motor, proprioceptive, and parasympathetic functions. Refer to Table 13.5, Cranial Nerves and Their Functions, pages 452-457, during these discussions.
The Clinical Focus: Peripheral Nervous System Disorders – Cranial Nerves, p. 459, provides clinical information.
33 CHAPTER 14 INTEGRATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Topics Related to Integration of Nervous System Functions Have students research clinical conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s chorea, schizophrenia, and epilepsy. Discuss the symptoms of these clinical conditions. Contrast the characteristics of these conditions to the clinically defined states of depression, mania, and senility. The Clinical Focus: Dyskinesias, p. 485, provides some clinical information.
Pain is a topic that will interest students. Use the Clinical Focus: Pain, pages 476-477, as a reading assignment and then discuss in class. This will help them understand sensory receptors and sensory nerve tracts.
Awareness, proprioception, and projection are new topics for most students. Two simple tricks will amaze students: The “dead finger trick” and “hand-in-space trick” can be used. First, have two students put the tips of their index fingers together. Then each can take a turn rubbing the fingers with the thumb and index finger of the opposite hand. The brain perceives two fingers, but since only one finger is relaying sensory information the other finger feels numb. Have students write a short essay about what is happening. Second, have student close their eyes and move their hand in space. The proprioceptors tell the brain where the hand is without looking at it.
Themes For Chapter 14 Structure and Function Sensation Explain differences in somatic, visceral, and special senses. Review neural pathway of sensory reception. Do overview of general types of sensory receptors. Ask students to place specific types of receptors into the general categories: mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, nociceptors.
Track a sensation to the brain. Then track the response to the sensation through the CNS to the PNS. Attempt to make this topic relevant to the students.
Discuss sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex and be sure to show them a sensory and motor homunculus. These are found in Fig. 14.10, p. 478, and Fig. 14.11, p. 479.
Other Brain Functions Speech, right and left cerebral cortex, brain waves and sleep, and memory are topics that will intrigue and interest students. Try to cover them all.
Homeostasis Brainstem Functions Discuss importance of brainstem again and stress that many of the important reflexes, some of which are critical to survival, are controlled in the brainstem.
34 Limbic System This system controls visceral functions through the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system and is also involved in emotions and memory.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the Nervous System This topic concerns everyone and can be related to other systems. Use the Clinical Focus: General CNS Disorders, pages 491-493, and Systems Pathology: Stroke, pages 494-495, as reading assignments and then discuss this topic. Be sure to include a discussion on System Interactions: Effect of Stroke on Other Systems. p. 495.
35 CHAPTER 15 THE SPECIAL SENSES
Topics Related to the Special Senses There is a variety of clinical information in the sidebars in this chapter. Have students pick a sidebar and find out more information on the topic. Assign short (2 paragraph) essays that provide one or two new pieces of information.
Discuss deafness and the recent advances that have been made in helping people with hearing losses, such as the cochlear implant. The Clinical Focus: Deafness and Functional Replacement of the Ear, p. 536, provides basic information and a figure. Discuss the differences between conduction deafness and nerve deafness. Ask students why one type of hearing loss might be harder to treat than the other.
Ask students how the condition of weightlessness (as experienced by astronauts) might affect the senses and especially the functions of equilibrium, balance, spatial location, and proprioception.
Ask students to predict what might happen if the neuronal pathways leading from the retina were rewired to arrive at the auditory cortex. (Or use any other crossed sensation example in which sensory information gets delivered to an abnormal portion of the cortex.) Have students discuss what would be different and why.
36 Themes For Chapter 15 Structure and Function Special Senses Special senses are defined as those senses with highly localized receptors that provide specific information about the environment. Have student categorize the receptor cells into the general categories: mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, nociceptors. Relate structure to function of the receptor.
Compare the chemoreception of taste and smell and how the two senses interact. Contrast the sensitivity of taste and smell and relate it to the greater variety of sensory receptors present in olfactory epithelium as compared to the taste buds.
Spend time on review of the physical characteristics of light and sound. This will help students understand how the eyes and the ears work. Visual Image Inversion is covered in a sidebar on p. 515.
Table 15.2, Steps Involved in Hearing, p.532, provides a good overview of this complex process.
Stress that the inner ear functions in balance as well as in hearing.
Review the neural pathways of all the senses.
Homeostasis Importance of Sensory Information Ask students how the special senses relate to the somatic reflexes? Another interesting topic is how people with disabilities compensate with increased acuity of another sense. People who are blind have an acute sense of touch.
Changes through Time Disorders and the Effects of Aging on the Special Senses There are distinctive losses in the special senses over time. These are reviewed at the end of the chapter. A Clinical Focus: Eye Disorders, pages 524-526, provides clinical information that can provide basics for further research. A Clinical Focus: Ear Disorders, p. 541, does the same for the ear.
37 CHAPTER 16 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Topics Related to the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) The Clinical Focus: The Influence of Drugs on the Autonomic Nervous System, pages 558- 559, is a good introduction to this chapter. This will reinforce the topic of receptors. It is also relevant because chemicals that affect the ANS are also found in medically hazardous substances such as tobacco and insecticides.
Many of the adverse effects of smoking (aside from lung cancer) are related to the presence of nicotine in the inhaled smoke. Ask students to explain the peripheral vasoconstriction and increased heart rate associated with smoking based on possible interactions between the incoming nicotine and the autonomic nervous system.
Use the Clinical Focus: Biofeedback, Meditation, and the Fight or Flight Response, p. 562, to stimulate discussion about mechanisms regulated by the ANS.
Normal function of all components of the ANS is not required to maintain life, as long as environmental conditions are constant and optimal. Abnormal autonomic functions, however, markedly affect an individual’s ability to respond to changing conditions. Use the Clinical Focus: Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System, p. 565, to discuss this topic.
Themes For Chapter 16 Structure and Function Importance of ANS This will be new material for most students. The ANS helps the body to maintain homeostasis. A functional knowledge of the ANS will help students to predict general responses to a variety of stimuli, explain responses to changes in environmental conditions, comprehend symptoms that result from abnormal autonomic functions, and understand how drugs affect the ANS.
Contrasting the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System Contrast and compare the structural and functional differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Use the excellent Table 16.1, Comparisons of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems, p. 549, to facilitate this discussion.
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Compare the structural differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Use Table 16.2, Comparison of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions, p. 552, to facilitate this discussion.
Ask students to write a brief description of the enteric nervous system. Discuss interactions between this system and the CNS.
Briefly describe how sympathetic and parasympathetic axons are distributed to all organs. Use Fig. 16.5, Distribution of Autonomic Nerve Fibers, p. 554, for this discussion.
38 Homeostasis Autonomic Nervous System Review the concept of reflexes and describe the importance of the autonomic reflexes in the maintenance of homeostasis. Ask students to predict what changes will occur in an organ or tissue if it is stimulated by sympathetic or parasympathetic neurons. Use Table 16.3, Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions on Various Tissues, p. 557, and Fig. 16.9, Innervation of Organs by the ANS, p. 563, for this review.
Remember autonomic reflexes will be important in future discussions of systems such as the cardiovascular system. Fig. 16.7, Autonomic Reflexes, p. 560, will help students understand future discussions of the relationship between heart rate and blood pressure.
Point out the relationship between the higher brain centers and autonomic reflexes. Discuss the changes in autonomic nervous system activity which may occur as a result of strong emotional states, such as fear, anxiety, anger, euphoria, etc
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Neurotransmitter Substances and Receptors The differences in tissue and organ response to the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS depends on the type of neurotransmitter released by the neuron and the type of receptor that is present in the membranes of the target tissue. Students may need to review these concepts. Use Fig. 16.6, Location of ANS Receptors, p. 556, for this review.
Functional Generalizations about the ANS Generalizations can be made about the function of the ANS on effector organs, but most of the generalizations have exceptions. Go over these topics: stimulatory vs. inhibitory effects, dual innervation, opposite effects, cooperative effects, general vs. localized effects, functions at rest vs. functions during activity.
Use the flight-or-fight response and the acronym SLUDD to describe the responses produced by the ANS. SLUDD stands for: Salivation, Lacrimation (tear production), Urination, Digestion, Defecation.
39 CHAPTER 17 FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
CHAPTER 18 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Topics Related to the Endocrine System Stress to the students that they will see many things they have studied before during the study of the endocrine system. Now is a good time to review basics like negative feedback, the difference between lipid-soluble and water-soluble, membrane permeability, membrane transport, receptors on the plasma membrane, specificity, ligands, ligand-gated channels.
The nervous and endocrine systems are the two major regulatory systems of the body, and together they regulate and coordinate the activity of all body structures. Compare and contrast the electrochemical signals of the nervous system and the chemical signals of the endocrine system. Discuss frequency-modulated signals versus amplitude-modulated signals. Discuss onset and duration of both kinds of signals.
There are good examples of interaction between the endocrine and nervous system. These include the relationship of the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland and the relationship of the sympathetic nervous system to the adrenal cortex. Use these to highlight the functional interrelationship of the two systems.
The discovery of hormones and their actions is an interesting topic. Have the students research various hormones. The story about the discovery of insulin during the twentieth century is fascinating. A reading of the Clinical Focus: Diabetes Mellitus, p. 623, and Systems Pathology: Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, pages 631-632, might provide a stimulus for further investigations.
Another intriguing topic is hormonelike substances. Table 18.13, Other Hormones and Hormonelike Substances, p. 629, provides a good overview of this subject. Further research about chemicals like the endorphins and enkephalins, the body’s naturally occurring opiates, and prostaglandins, mediators of the inflammatory response, could provide material for discussion.
For Chapter 18 have students construct their own study table as a homework assignment. Tell them to include these columns: endocrine gland, hormone secreted, the means of regulation of hormone, target tissue of hormone, response of target tissue to the hormone. Also include consequences and causes of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of the hormones. Study cards are also helpful and can be created from the table.
Themes For Chapter 17 And 18 Structure and Function General Characteristics of the Endocrine System Good coverage of the general information in Chapter 17 will help students understand the more specific information in Chapter 18.
40 Table 17.1, Functional Classification if Intercellular Chemical Signals, p. 574, is a good tool because it provides a written description and a simple illustration showing the action of intercellular chemical signals.
Table 17.2, Structural Categories of Hormones, p. 575, will help students learn which hormones use membrane-bound receptors and which ones use intracellular receptors.
Table 17.4, Overview of Responses of Cells to Hormones Binding to Their Receptors, p. 584, is an excellent tool to help students organize and learn this information.
Encourage students to spend time studying all the figures in this chapter to help them understand complex information and processes.
Control of Secretion Rate Most hormones are not secreted at a constant rate. Negative-feedback mechanisms that function to maintain homeostasis control most hormone secretions. Review general concept of a negative-feedback mechanism. Regulation of secretion can be by one or more of three mechanisms: a nonhormone substance like glucose, stimulation of the nervous system, or a hormone from another endocrine tissue such as thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This illustrates overlap and interaction of other systems.
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus The pituitary gland secretes at least nine hormones that regulate numerous body functions and other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity through neurohormones and action potentials. Excellent figures in the book (Fig. 18.3, p. 600, and Fig. 18.4, p. 602) and (Table 18.1, p. 601, Hormones of the Hypothalamus, Table 18.2, p. 603, Hormones of the Pituitary Gland) will help students understand the relationship of the brain and the pituitary gland.
41 Homeostasis Functions of the Endocrine System Main regulatory functions include water balance, uterine contractions and milk release, metabolism and tissue maturation, ion regulation, heart rate and blood pressure, control of blood glucose and other nutrients, immune system regulation, and control of reproductive functions. Have students brainstorm processes that the endocrine system helps keep homeostatic. Use the Homeostasis Figures, pages 614 and 625, to illustrate the topic. Have students create homeostasis figures for other hormones.
Hyposecretion and Hypersecretion What happens when the endocrine system gets out of balance? The disorders associated with hyposecretion and hypersecretion of hormones can help students find out the answer. Use Clinical Focus: Growth Hormone and Growth Disorders, p. 606, Clinical Focus: Hormone Pathologies of the Adrenal Cortex, p. 620, Clinical Focus: Diabetes Mellitus, p. 623, as reading assignments. Students could research other disorders. Also helpful are tables in Chapter 18 that describes symptoms.
Stress Use the Clinical Focus: Stress, p. 621, to discuss this important topic. Students need to realize the negative impacts of stress on their body and how they can minimize this impact.
Hormonal Regulation of Nutrients and Metabolism Understanding hormonal regulation of nutrients will help students understand the body’s metabolic processes. Be sure to cover how hormones regulate blood nutrient levels after a meal and during exercise. Use Fig. 18.17, Regulation of Blood Nutrient Levels After A Meal, p. 626, to discuss this topic.
Hormone Levels Table E.4, p. A-7, in Appendix E at the back of the book list normal values for hormone levels.
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Hormone Action Hormones represent a variety of molecules: proteins, glycoproteins, polypepetides, derivatives of amino acids, and lipids. The study of the endocrine system is the classic example of physiology happening on the plasma membrane. If students have a good understanding of the basics, then they will be able to grasp the complexity of the specifics of this system.
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
Ask students to list and describe the hormones that decrease their secretions as people age.
42 CHAPTER 19 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD
Topics Related to Blood Cells and Functions Students will enjoy the study of blood. The image found on p. 639 shows red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets trapped in a net of fibrin. It illustrates the biconcave disc shape of the RBCs, the fragmental nature of platelets, and the fibrous nature of fibrin. Use it to introduce this chapter.
Students can visit blood donation centers and clinics to see procedures. Have them investigate sterile procedures, storage methods, and precautions used in blood collection. This could lead into the discussions about blood typing and blood transfusions. Ask students to predict what happens in the body after a person donates blood.
Have students investigate aspirin’s affect on blood viscosity and clotting time. Have students speculate as to why aspirin is currently being prescribed for patients recuperating from heart attacks and for patients at risk for future heart attacks. Find out current thinking on this topic. Use the sidebar, p. 651, for information about aspirin.
Have students list all diagnostic blood tests and what they accomplish. What is the diagnostic benefit of assessing blood chemistry? List the parameters. See Table E.1 in Appendix E, p. A-3, which lists normal values and clinical significance of blood, plasma, and serum. Table E.2, p. A- 5, lists normal blood count values and their clinical significance.
Themes For Chapter 19 Structure and Function Blood Components and Functions Here’s another great place to emphasize the relationship of structure and function. All parts of the blood accomplish certain functions. Continually ask students to make these connections. Table 19.1, p. 641, and Table 19.2, p. 642, will enhance and facilitate this discussion. Study cards are good tools for learning this information.
Homeostasis Hemostasis Hemostasis is important to the maintenance of homeostasis. All the sidebars in this chapter can help students understand this relationship. Cover platelet plug formation and coagulation in good detail. Be sure to include how the body dissolves clots and prevents clotting. This, of course, will link to the next chapters on the heart and peripheral circulation.
Blood Disorders The Clinical Focus: Disorders of the Blood, pages 660-661, is a good reading assignment and starting point for further research.
43 CHAPTER 20 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART
Topics Related to the Heart “Heart attack, CPR, bypass surgery” are terms that will be familiar to students. Students must recognize the fact that they must grasp heart anatomy, blood flow through the heart and to the heart, and heart physiology before they can begin to understand heart dysfunction. It is also important for students to realize how lifestyle (even at their age) can influence heart and vascular health.
Early in the Chapter 20 is a Clinical Focus: Angina, Infarctions, and Treatment of Blocked Coronary Arteries, p. 677, introduces dysfunctions. Discuss current treatment options for each condition. Have the students outline the pros and cons of each treatment.. Discuss preventative measures.
Use Table 20-1, Major Cardiac Arrhythmias, p. 684, to begin a class discussion of the causes, and consequences to cardiovascular function. Relate these irregularities to myocardial cell dysfunction or in disorders in the conduction system of the heart.
Ask students to find articles about heart transplants, heart/lung transplants, and artificial hearts in the media or on the Internet. Have students discuss the problems and technical difficulties associated with these operations and the long-term prognosis for the patients after the surgery.
Have students discuss the differences between a stroke and a heart attack. Ask students to explain why cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) must be administered within the first few minutes after a heart attack, but why defibrillation is usually an additional requirement for successfully reviving a person. Discuss new technologies, such as portable easy-to-use defibrillators.
Themes From Chapter 20 Structure and Function Basic Anatomy of the Heart This is essential knowledge for future courses related to the healthcare professions. Most professional courses assume this basic knowledge and move directly into clinical information. After a general lecture on this topic, assign this homework: Draw a detailed diagram of internal heart anatomy and the heart’s connection to systemic and pulmonary circulation. Use blue and red arrows to show the blood flow through the heart, pulmonary circulation, and systemic circulation. Refer to Fig. 20.1, p. 668, Fig. 20.7, p. 675, Fig. 20.10, p. 678.
Histology and Electrical Properties of Cardiac Muscle Here’s where the detailed discussion of cardiac muscle is presented. Be sure to distinguish between the cardiac muscle cells that do the work of the heart and the modified cardiac muscle cells that are the electrical conduction system of the heart. Discuss their interrelationship.
Refresh student memory about the topic of resting membrane potential, so they can understand similarities and differences in electrical properties of skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Introduce them to the voltage-gated calcium channels that participate in the action potential.
44 Use the sidebar, p. 683, to stress their importance.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) Define this and be sure they understand what this measures. Then discuss clinical implications and inferences that can be made from the ECG. Use Table 20.1, Major Cardiac Arrhythmias, p. 684, to facilitate this discussion.
Cardiac Cycle Fig. 20.18, The Cardiac Cycle, p.687, and Fig. 20.19, Events Occurring During the Cardiac Cycle, p. 688, and Table 20.2, Summary of the Events of the Cardiac Cycle, pages 690-691, are invaluable tools for this discussion. Walk them through it, quiz them on it, and be sure they understand it. Use the Clinical Focus: Abnormal Heart Sounds, p. 692, to wrap it up.
Homeostasis Mean Arterial Pressure Blood pressure is responsible for blood movement and, therefore, is critical to the maintenance of homeostasis in the body. Use Fig.20.21, p. 693, to help students understand this important concept. This will provide a link to the next chapter.
Regulation of the Heart To maintain homeostasis, the amount of blood pumped by the heart must vary dramatically. For example, during exercise cardiac output can increase several times over resting values. Either intrinsic or extrinsic regulatory mechanisms control cardiac output. Make good distinctions between the two mechanisms.
Use the Process Fig. 20.22, p. 695, to explain the baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes. A similar figure will appear in Chapter 21. Stress interrelationships among, cardiovascular, nervous and endocrine systems here.
Heart and Homeostasis Students should be able to predict and explain changes in heart rate and/or force of contraction that will follow changes in; blood pressure, pH, oxygen content of the blood, carbon dioxide content of the blood, body temperature, and/or extracellular ion concentrations. Use the Homeostasis Figures on pages 697 and 698. Discuss what effect temperature has on heart rate.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the Heart Aging results in gradual changes in the function of the heart, which are minor under resting conditions, but become more significant in response to exercise and age-related diseases develop. The Clinical Focus: Conditions and Diseases Affecting the Heart, pages 700-701, is a good tool for this discussion. Also an in depth look at heart attack is found in Systems Pathology: Myocardial Infarction, pages 702-703. Be sure to review Systems Interactions on page 703.
45 CHAPTER 21 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION AND REGULATION
Topics Related to Peripheral Circulation and Regulation The heart is the pump that provides the major force causing blood to circulate, and the blood vessels are the pipes that carry blood to tissues of the body and back to the heart. Additionally, blood vessels participate in the regulation of blood pressure and help to direct blood flow to tissues that are most active.
Clinical topics will stimulate interest in the physiology of peripheral circulation. The Clinical Focus: Hypertension, p. 751, will provide basic information of this subject. Encourage student investigation of the causes and treatments for essential and chronic hypertension. As they learn about the physiology of systemic circulation, students will begin to realize the number of factors that can contribute to hypertension and why it can be difficult to “cure”.
There will be lots of interest in exercise and cardiovascular health. Use Clinical Focus: Blood Flow Through Tissues During Exercise, p. 754, as a starting point and have students determine what forms of exercise are associated with cardiovascular fitness.
The Clinical Focus: Shock, pages 760-761, can be used to develop a class discussion around this important phenomenon. Have students research different first aid procedures that relate to the different kinds of shock.
Themes From Chapter 21 Structure and Function General Features of Blood Vessel Structure Be sure to cover structure and function of capillaries adequately so students can understand gas exchange, nutrient absorption, and functions in the urinary system.
The concepts of vasoconstriction and vasodilation are very important and must be related to muscular layer of vessel walls and nerve supply to vessels. Stress that vessels are supplied only by sympathetic nerve fibers and mention the vasomotor center at this time.
Aging of Arteries Distinguish carefully between the terms arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis.
Arrangement of Vessels in the Body Help students understand these circulations: pulmonary circulation, coronary circulation, and systemic circulation. The importance of safety belt and air bags is discussed in a sidebar on p. 717.
An interesting homework assignment is to have students trace the circulation of a red blood cell from one specific location in the body to another. Be sure to include the heart and lungs in the path. This will help students learn the circulatory pathways. They can also include the
46 functions of the RBCs in different areas.
Homeostasis Dynamics of Blood Circulation Students must be able to describe the significance of these physical factors on circulation of blood: viscosity, laminar and turbulent flow, blood pressure, rate of blood flow, Poiseuille’s law, critical closing pressure, Laplace’s law, and vascular compliance.
Blood Pressure Measurement It is important for students to understand the equipment, the physical, and the physiological factors used to measure blood pressure before they learn the clinical technique. After the description of how blood pressure is measured, discuss the different factors that can cause variations in blood pressure such as sex, age, body size, health and fitness.
Pulse The pulse is important clinically because one can determine heart rate, rhythmicity, and other characteristics by feeling it. Use the Clinical Focus: Pulse, p. 746, to provide information.
Capillary Exchange and Regulation of Interstitial Fluid Volume The Process Figure 21.32, Fluid Exchange Across the Wall of Capillaries, p. 747, can help students understand this. Edema is an important health topic and a sidebar on p. 748 provides information.
Control of Blood Flow in Tissues Table 21.15, Homeostasis: Local Control of Blood Flow, p. 750, is a good tool to help students understand this topic. This shows regulations by metabolic need of tissues, nervous mechanisms, hormonal mechanisms, autoregulation, and long-term local blood flow.
Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is proportional to cardiac output times peripheral resistance. The Homeostasis Fig. 21.37, Baroreceptor Effects of Blood Pressure, p. 756, and Homeostasis Figure 21.39, Effects of pH and Gases on Blood Pressure, p. 758, will help students understand this topic. Remind students that the Process Fig. 21.35, Baroreceptor Reflex Control of Blood Pressure, p. 754, is similar to the process figure in Chapter 20. Added are the sympathetic nerves to the blood vessels. The Homeostasis Fig. 21.42, Control of Blood Pressure Long- Term (Slow-Acting) Mechanisms, p. 763, illustrates the kidney’s and the heart’s function in long-term control.
47 CHAPTER 22 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
Topics Related to Immune System Function Students will have a limited knowledge of the lymphatic system and immunity, but they will be interested in it. Almost any clinical topic will further stimulate this interest. Have students scan through this chapter and read all the sidebars before tackling its complexities.
It’s not surprising that many infectious diseases produce symptoms associated with the lymphatic system. Use the Clinical Focus: Disorders of the Lymphatic System, p. 780, to introduce these. Students might research other lymphatic system disorders.
AIDS is a topic of concern in our society. Any student planning a career in the healthcare needs to be familiar with this disease. Use the Clinical Focus: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, pages 802-803, to begin this discussion. Have students search the Internet for more literature on the subject.
Have students discuss vaccines and their relationship to immunity in terms of the advantages and disadvantages associated with active and passive immunity.
Themes For Chapter 22 Structure and Function Functions of the Lymphatic System Students may not know this system helps maintain fluid balance in tissues and absorbs fats from the digestive tract in addition to the defense functions. This system is open-ended and begins as small, dead-end tubes. Remind students about the relationship of these tubes to the fluid that leaves the capillaries. Refer back to Process Fig. 21.32, p. 747, in Chapter 21. Describe other structures such as lymph nodes and tonsils. Emphasize lymph drainage into the circulatory system.
Immunity Immunity is the ability to resist the harmful effects of microorganisms and other foreign substances. Define the two major categories of immunity: innate or nonspecific immunity and adaptive or specific immunity. Be sure to clearly distinguish the two and define terms like specificity and memory.
Innate Immunity or Non-Specific Resistance Students may not recognize the normal physical, chemical, and cellular barriers, which prevent entry of foreign materials into their bodies. Table 22.1, Chemicals of Innate Immunity and Their Functions, p.781, will familiarize them with this group of chemicals.
Table 22.2, Immune System Cells and Their Primary Functions, p. 783, is an invaluable study tool. Study cards can be created from this table.
Inflammatory Response The inflammatory response is a complex sequence of events involving many of the chemical mediators and cells of innate immunity. This was covered during study of the integumentary
48 system, and physiological causes of the major symptoms can be covered in more detail now. Use Fig. 22.10, Inflammatory Response, p. 785, as a flow chart. Distinguish between local inflammation and systemic inflammation. Discuss the action of pyrogens in fever production.
Adaptive Immunity or Specific Response Adaptive immunity involves the ability to recognize, respond to, and remember a particular substance. Define the term antigen and where they are found. Antigens were mentioned during the study of blood typing and students may get confused. Table 22.3, Comparison of Innate Immunity, Antibody-Mediated Immunity, and Cell-Mediated Immunity, p. 786, will help students learn the characteristics of each kind of immunity. The Summary on pages 808- 809 provides a good overview of this topic.
Students may ask about allergies and the use of antihistamines in the control of allergic symptoms. The role of basophils and mast cells in allergies may be covered here or after the discussion of antigens, specific antigen/antibody reactions, and hypersensitivity T-cells.
Make sure students can separate the functions of B-lymphocytes from those of T-lymphocytes. Emphasize the involvement of the thymus in the maturation of T-cell functions.
Homeostasis Immune Interactions Innate immunity, antibody-mediated immunity, and cell-mediated immunity can function together to eliminate an antigen.
Use the Clinical Focus: Immune System Problems of Clinical Significance, pages 794-795, to discuss autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies, tumor control, and transplantation. There is an in-depth look at an autoimmune disease in the Systems Pathology: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, pages 806-807. This also details interactions with other systems.
Acquired Immunity Compare the different ways humans can acquire immunity. Use Fig. 22.23, Ways to Acquire Adaptive Immunity, p. 804, to facilitate the discussion.
Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System and Aging
Aging has little effect on the ability of the lymphatic system to remove fluid from tissues, absorb fats from the digestive tract, or remove defective RBCs from the blood. Primary and secondary antibody responses decrease with age. The ability to resist infections and develop immunity decreases, and therefore vaccinations become important after the age of 60.
49 CHAPTER 23 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Topics Related to Respiratory System Function Respiration is more than breathing. Other functions that most students do not know about include: gas exchange between air in lungs and the blood (external respiration), transportation of the gases, and gas exchange between the blood and the tissues (internal respiration). Also mention in the introduction that cellular respiration is also used in reference to cellular metabolism.
Smoking is an issue of concern to students. Students can research and write an essay about the effects of cigarette smoke on the lungs and respiratory passages. Tell them to include the effects of second-hand smoke. Compare this with the effects of smoke inhalation experienced by fire fighters and victims in building fires.
Discuss why the respiratory system has protective mechanisms that usually prevent foreign matter from getting into the alveoli. Ask students to predict the consequences when these defenses are compromised.
Use the Clinical Focus: Cough and Sneeze Reflexes, p. 828, to initiate a discussion of these reflexes. Have students explain the protective value of these reflexes.
Use the Clinical Focus: Disorders of the Respiratory System, pages 850-851, to focus student attention on the ways in which alveolar ventilation can be reduced. Students should know how each condition reduces ventilation and the consequences of the reduction.
Themes For Chapter 23 Structure and Function Structure and Organization of the Respiratory System Compare the differences in wall structure among the parts of the respiratory system to the specific functions performed by each part. Emphasize the protective features of the pharyngeal epithelium, the ciliated, mucus producing epithelium of the trachea which helps remove foreign particles, the smooth muscle of the terminal bronchioles which help regulate airflow, and the simple squamous epithelium of the alveoli which allows gas exchange.
Maintenance of the functional separation between the digestive and respiratory tracts at the pharynx involves reflexes and complex muscular coordination. Explain how the events of swallowing manipulate the structures of the pharynx to functionally direct food to the esophagus and keep it out of the trachea.
Review pulmonary circulation. Emphasize the independence of the air and blood supply to each lobe and lobule of the lungs. This explains how surgical removal of parts of the lungs is possible without disrupting the function of neighboring units.
Understanding of the arrangement of the pleural membranes is essential to an understanding of pulmonary ventilation. Cover the roles of the pleural fluid as both lubricant and sealant between the parietal and visceral pleura. The analogy of two sheets of plastic wrap stuck
50 together by a thin film of water can be used as a visual image.
Use Fig. 23.8, Alveolus and the Respiratory Membrane, p. 823, to show the layers the gases must cross.
Use Fig. 23.10, Effect of the Muscles of Respiration on Thoracic Volume, p. 825, to facilitate this discussion. A sidebar on page 826 further covers the role of abdominal muscles in breathing.
An understanding of the relationship between pressure and volume is essential in the understanding of ventilation. Use Process Figure 23.13, Alveolar Pressure Changes During Inspiration and Expiration, p. 830, to facilitate this discussion.
Stress the value of pulmonary volumes and capacities in diagnosis of pulmonary disease. Point out that restrictive types of pulmonary disease are characterized by a decreased vital capacity, whereas obstructive respiratory diseases reduce airflow through the lungs, but do not generally change the vital capacity. Use Fig. 23.15, p. 834, to explain lung volumes and capacities.
The summary at the end of the chapter is a valuable tool here.
51 Homeostasis Physical Principles of Gas Exchange Cover these topics well: partial pressure, diffusion of gases through liquids, diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane, and the relationship between ventilation and pulmonary capillary blood flow.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood Students must understand the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli, lung capillaries, tissue capillaries, and tissues to understand gas exchange. Use Process Fig. 23.16, p. 839, to explain these different values. Cover all gradients and be sure they understand the heart’s relationship to the lungs in this figure.
Cover hemoglobin and oxygen transport in the blood and transport of carbon dioxide. Students will get confused about the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve and the chloride shift if it is not simplified for them.
Control of Respiration Students usually have significant difficulties understanding the complete reflexes involved in ventilation. Cover respiratory areas in the brainstem and generation of rhythmic ventilation to help students understand. Use Fig. 23.21, p. 845, to help students understand reflex pathways.
Students don’t know that carbon dioxide is the major regulator of respiration. Students must understand the chemical equation that combines carbon dioxide and water to understand how pH can change with changes in ventilation. Understanding this equation will also help them understand the chloride shift, buffering, and production of HCl in the stomach. Use Homeostasis Figure 23.23, p. 847, to help students understand the effect of pH on ventilation. A sidebar, p. 848, covers the importance of reduced oxygen.
Respiratory Adaptations to Exercise Tidal volume, respiratory rate, minute ventilation, and gas exchange between the alveoli and blood remain unchanged or slightly lower at rest or during at low levels of exercise but increase at maximal levels of exercise.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the Respiratory System Use the Clinical Focus: Disorders of the Respiratory System, pages 850-851 to begin this discussion. Also the Systems Pathology: Asthma, page 852-853, will interest students. Systems Interactions, p. 853, relates this problem to the other systems.
52 CHAPTER 24 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Topics Related to Digestive System Function All clinical sidebars in this chapter will interest the students. Have them read these before discussion of this system starts. Students will be familiar with processes in the digestive system, but there will be some misconceptions that will need to be changed.
The Clinical Focus: Intestinal Disorders, pages 902-903 also provide topics for discussion.
The effects of a stressful lifestyle and diet on the digestive system are topics of concern to students in this society. Have students use outside resources to discover more information on these subjects. Use Clinical Focus: Peptic Ulcer, p. 879, to illuminate this topic.
53 Themes For Chapter 24 Structure and Function Anatomy of the Digestive System General anatomy will be familiar to most students, but cover it carefully to dispel misconceptions. Also cover the variety of general functions of this system. Use Table 24.1, p. 861, to facilitate this discussion.
Histology of the Digestive Tract The digestive tract is composed of four tunics: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa or adventitia. Use Fig. 24.4, p. 863, to show tunics and discuss function.
Regulation of the Digestive System Discuss how nerves, hormones, and local chemical mechanisms regulate digestion. Use Table 24.2, Functions of Major Digestive Secretions, p. 871, to help students learn this material. It makes a good reference for study cards.
Digestive Organs The chapter follows the digestive system from the mouth to the anus. These topics are covered for each organ: anatomy, histology, secretions, and movement. Use the chapter summary for a lecture outline. It is well organized and links structure to function all the way through the digestive system.
Homeostasis Digestion, Absorption, and Transport The chapter goes through the digestion, absorption, and transport of each kind of organic molecule, water, and ions. Discuss how digestive system helps regulate water balance and ion balance. Point out that proteins and carbohydrates are absorbed into the hepatic portal system and routed through the liver. Lipids are absorbed into the lymphatic system through lacteals. Cover functions of each nutrient. Use the summary as an outline. It is excellent.
Use the Systems Pathology: Diarrhea, pages 904-905, to point out dangers of water loss through digestive system. The Systems Interactions, p. 905, shows effect on other systems.
Changes through Time Effect of Aging on the Digestive System The mucus layer, the connective tissue, the muscles, and the secretions all tend to decrease as a person ages. These changes make an older person more open to infections and toxic agents.
54 CHAPTER 25 NUTRITION, METABOLISM, AND TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Topics Related to Metabolism and Energy Balance Knowing about nutrition is important, because we literally are what we eat. This chapter complements chapter 24.
Fitness and nutrition are important to students. Have students keep track of food intake for several days and analyze their eating habits. Point out various strengths and weaknesses of some of the fad diets.
Many students (usually women) suffer from eating disorders such as bulimia or anorexia nervosa. Initiate a class discussion of these disorders. Have students discuss the psychological causes of these disorders and explore the physiological repercussion associated with each disorder. Include the topic of laxative abuse.
Use the Clinical Focus: Obesity, pages 936-937, to enhance discussion of this topic. Discuss the consequences of excessive obesity and contrast these to the consequences of starvation.
Have students differentiate among heat fatigue, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Ask students to explain the causes of the symptoms of each based on knowledge of fluid and electrolyte loss. Use Clinical Focus: Hyperthermia and Hypothermia, p. 940, for information on this topic.
Themes For Chapter 25 Structure and Function Nutrition The chapter does a thorough survey of nutrition. It progresses through the definition of nutrients and essential nutrients, kilocalories and then covers the metabolism of each organic nutrient and the functions of vitamins and minerals and water in the metabolic processes. Daily Values are covered. Use the chapter summary as a lecture outline. Table 25.2, p. 917, summarizes principal vitamins and Table 25.3, p. 919, summarizes minerals.
Homeostasis
55 Metabolism Review definitions of metabolism, anabolism, catabolism and their relationship to energy consumption or production. Use Fig. 25.3, ATP Coupling of Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions, to show relationship.
Carbohydrate Metabolism Review these topics that were covered at the beginning of the book: glycoloysis, anaerobic respiration, aerobic respiration.
Lipid and Protein Metabolism Review metabolic pathways for these organic molecules. Stress interconversion of nutrient molecules by the liver.
Metabolic Rate Metabolic rate is the total energy expenditure per unit of time and has three components: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), Thermic Effect of Food, Muscular Activity. Students will be interested calculating their metabolic rate. Have them do it as a homework assignment.
Body Temperature Regulation This topic relates metabolism to homeostasis in the body. Body temperature is a balance between heat gain and heat loss. Discuss ways the body gains heat and loses heat. Discuss the effects of differences between body temperature and the environment. Also review homeostatic functions of the hypothalamus. Use the Homeostasis Fig. 25.17, Temperature Regulation, p. 939, to discuss this topic. Also useful is the Clinical Focus: Hyperthermia and Hypothermia, p. 940. CHAPTER 26 URINARY SYSTEM
Topics Related to Renal Function The kidneys make up the body’s main purification system. They also help control the composition of blood and blood volume and therefore are linked to blood pressure regulation. Only one-third of one kidney is needed to maintain homeostasis, but humans cannot live without it.
Kidney transplants are one of the most common and successful of the transplant operations. As homework students can research recent advances in transplant techniques, the characteristics of patients and donors needed for a successful transplant, and the possible complications following the transplant.
Use the Clinical Focus: Kidney Dialysis, p. 966, to jumpstart class discussion on functions of the kidneys. Identify how this procedure artificially replicates kidney function.
Diuretic abuse is common among female students. Use Clinical Focus: Diuretics, p. 974, to highlight dangers and benefits of diuretics. Explain how diuretics and antidiuretics are related to blood pressure. Cover the complex combination of factors that contribute to hypertension and the importance of diet, water consumption, and healthy lifestyle.
56 Themes For Chapter 26 Structure and Function Functions of the Urinary System Functions include: elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume, ion concentration, and pH, involvement in RBC and vitamin D production.
Help students organize information by relating the structure and histology of the organs of the urinary system to the specific functions performed there. Discuss the structural features of the nephron and point out the physical relationships of the different parts of the nephron to the kidney as a whole. Remind students that all of the structures of the urinary system are retroperitoneal. Use excellent text figures to discuss the nephron in class.
Perhaps the single most challenging aspect of kidney function is to teach students how the structure of the loop of Henle is directly/indirectly responsible for the concentrating ability of the kidney. Without this structure the kidney would not be able to produce hypertonic urine. Point out that the fluid leaving the ascending limb of the loop is isotonic to the blood. Fig. 26.14, Filtrate Concentration and the Medullary Concentration Gradient, p. 965, will help facilitate this discussion. Also use Process Fig. 26.16, Urine Concentrating Mechanism, p. 968.
Homeostasis Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume Cover all hormonal mechanisms, autoregulation, and nervous system functions that regulate urine concentration and volume.
Discuss clinical significance of urine values. Use Table E.3, p. A-6, of the appendix as a reference.
Water-soluble wastes are more easily removed than are lipid-soluble molecules. Remind students that one of the roles of the liver is detoxification and conjugation of toxic and potentially toxic wastes.
Help students to view the kidney as an organ that helps maintain homeostasis rather than just a set of tubes used for excretion. This viewpoint will help students learn that the composition of the urine changes in response to changes in blood volume, blood composition, and blood pressure.
Blood pressure is the driving force in filtrate formation. Students should be able to predict how changes in glomerular capillary pressure affect urine formation.
Help students identify the modifications in regions of the nephron that are associated with filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Discuss which substances are actively transported and which move passively.
Have students predict the changes in urine composition expected with varying states of hydration and dehydration.
57 The concepts of clearance are important for those entering clinical professions.
Discuss the micturition reflex. Also discuss potty training in children.
Effects of Aging on the Kidneys There is a gradual decrease in the size of the kidneys and this is associated with a decrease in renal blood flow. Cover how this relates to blood pressure. There is a decrease in numbers of functional nephrons, renin secretion, and vit. D synthesis. The ability of the nephron to secrete and absorb declines. Use the Clinical Focus: Renal Pathologies, p. 977, and Systems Pathology: Acute Renal Failure, pages 978-979, to find out more information.
58 CHAPTER 27 WATER, ELECTROLYTES, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE
Topics Related to Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Water, acid, bases, and electrolyte levels are maintained within a narrow range of concentrations. The urinary, respiratory, gastrointestinal, integumentary, nervous, and endocrine systems play a role in maintaining fluid, electrolyte, and pH balance.
This chapter can help unite reinforce themes in the previous chapters and provides an excellent overview and review of physiological processes in the body. This chapter contains many Homeostasis Figures. Use them and remind students they have studied these before in other systems. Help them synthesize and correlate information they have learned during the course with this chapter.
Use Clinical Focus: Acidosis and Alkalosis, p. 1008-1009, to investigate these conditions. An excellent Table A, p. 1009, gives characteristics of respiratory acidosis, metabolic acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, and metabolic alkalosis.
Ask students to explain how buffers work to resist changes in pH. Have students explain why blood pH values are maintained within a narrow range under normal conditions. This relates to prior discussions of protein functions and denaturation of proteins.
Themes For Chapter 27 Homeostasis Body Fluids Be sure to review the fluid compartments and movement between the compartments with a review of membrane transport, diffusion, and osmosis.
Regulation of Body Fluid Concentration and Volume Use Fig. 27.1, Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Concentration, p. 987, to discuss how osmolality and blood pressure influence water intake and balance. Use Homeostasis Fig. 27.2, p. 989, to review hormonal regulation of blood osmolality. Use Homeostasis Fig. 27.3, p. 991, to review hormonal regulation of blood volume.
Use Process Fig. 27.5 to discuss this topic.
Table 27.5, pages 994-995, provides a good overview of mechanisms that regulate blood sodium.
Tables 27.6, 27.7, 27.8, 27.9, 27.10 are good tools to learn about the symptoms of abnormal ion concentrations.
Homeostasis Fig. 27.6, 27.7, 27.8, 27.9 depict how the body regulates ion concentrations in extracellular fluid.
The summary provides good overview of all the above topics.
59 Regulation of Acid-Base Balance Remind students that acids release hydrogen ions into solution and bases remove them. Appendix D, p. A-2, gives more information about pH.
Describe the body’s buffering systems. Review the chemical equation that combines carbon dioxide and water in the body. Use Table 27.1, Buffer Systems, p.1003, to review this topic.
Homeostasis Figure 27.11, p. 1005, provides the perfect summary for review of how buffers, the lungs, and the kidney work to regulate the homeostasis of pH in the body. Review what functions are altered or stopped when pH of the blood moves out of the normal range. CHAPTER 28 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Topics Related to Reproductive Function Humans as a species could not survive without the reproductive system, but humans as individuals can survive without reproductive systems. This is one subject area that students may think they know about, but they usually don’t have much specific knowledge about it.
Contrast and compare mitosis and meiosis. Use the Clinical Focus: Meiosis, pages 1022-1023, to facilitate this discussion. This will lead to a discussion of genetic variation and diversity in Chapter 29.
Male and female infertility are topics of interest. Use Clinical Focus: Male Infertility, p. 1029, and Clinical Focus: Causes of Female Infertility, p. 1051, to jumpstart these discussions.
Use the Clinical Focus: Controls of Pregnancy, pages 1048-1050, for information about the topic of birth control.
The Clinical Focus: Infectious Diseases, pages 1052-1053, provides information about this important issue and continues the discussion about acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
An excellent NOVA program called “The Miracle of Life” follows the journey of the sperm and the egg to the moment of conception. For more information or to order call this number (800-949- 8670).
Themes For Chapter 28 Structure and Function Male Reproductive System Cover general anatomy first. Then cover specifics of puberty, hormones, and sperm cell development. Use the Process Figure 28.4, Spermatogenesis, p. 1021.
As a homework assignment have students trace the path taken by a sperm cell from the site of spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of the testis to the spongy urethra and the outside of the body. Include different actions that move the spermatozoa and the origins of the components of semen.
60 Physiology of the Male Reproductive System Review basic hormonal mechanisms and the relationships among the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes.
Discuss hormones, puberty, and secondary sexual characteristics. Discuss male sexual behavior and the male sex act.
Describe the neural reflexes involved in the male sex act and erection, emission and ejaculation.
Female Reproductive System Cover all parts of the female reproductive system so students can understand the physiology.
Use the Process Figure 28.12, Maturation of the Follicle and Oocyte, p. 1035, to discuss this topic. Also use Fig. 28.13, Maturation and Fertilization of the Oocyte, p. 1036.
Note the differences in gametogenesis between males and females. Stress the fact that there is no mitotic division of germ cells in the females following birth and the second meiotic division in oocytes is not completed until after fertilization.
Have students locate the site of fertilization within the female reproductive tract and discuss the timing issues associated with successful fertilization.
Physiology of the Female Reproductive System Compare and contrast the hormonal control of reproductive function in females with that in males. Have students discuss the cyclic nature of the female system, and be sure that students understand how both positive and negative feedback mechanisms contribute to the regulation of reproduction in females.
Distinguish between the events of the uterine cycle and the events of the ovarian cycle. Make students aware of the interrelationship between the two and stress the control of uterine events by ovarian steroids. Highlight the synergistic effects of estrogen on tissue sensitivity to progesterone and relate this action to the cell receptors for progesterone. Use Fig. 28.17, The Menstrual Cycle, p. 1041, that depicts the changes in blood hormone levels, the development of the follicles, and the changes in the endometrium during the cycle. Also refer to Table 28.2, p. 1042, for this discussion.
Discuss the female sexual behavior and the female sex act.
Changes through Time Effects of Aging on the on the Reproductive System Discuss age-related changes in males and females. Table 28.3, p. 1051, describes possible changes caused by decreased ovarian hormone secretion in postmenopausal women.
61 CHAPTER 29 DEVELOPMENT, GROWTH, AGING, AND GENETICS
Topics Related to Development A topic in the news is stem cell research. Use the sidebar, p. 1064, to open this discussion.
Use the Clinical Focus: In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer, p. 1065, to continue the class discussion of fertility and infertility.
Use sidebar on p. 1076 to discuss effects of alcohol and cigarette smoke on prenatal development. The Clinical Focus: Fetal Monitoring, p. 1084, can begin a class discussion on the advantages, disadvantages, and potential health risks to both mother and fetus associated with each method of monitoring. Have students speculate on the social and ethical dilemmas associated with knowledge of birth defects and other possible undesirable traits.
Use the Clinical Focus: The Human Genome Project, p. 1100-1101, for information about mapping the human genome. Discuss the benefits of this project.
Use the summary to cover this chapter quickly if time is an issue.
Themes For Chapter 29 Structure and Function Prenatal Development The many changes in structure that are characteristic of development are directly related to the changes in function that are also associated with development. As structure changes, new functions emerge which in turn influence future structures. The summary contains a good overview of prenatal development. Table 29.1, p. 1069, provides a synopsis of germ layer derivatives.
Homeostasis
62 Respiratory and Circulatory Changes in the Newborn Use these changes as topics of discussion about how the newborn adapts to the outside environment.
Cell Theory and Biochemistry Genetics and Inheritance For some students this will be their only exposure to these topics. Help them understand the fundamental principles of genetic control of all cell functions and the random nature of the recombination mechanisms through which the genetic composition of the next generation is decided.
Use Table 29.4, Genetic Disorders, p. 1099, to discuss this topic.
Changes through Time Review all stages of human life: prenatal development, first year after birth, life stages, aging, and death.
63 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
Instructional technology is a fast-growing field. Instructors today face a bewildering range of choices in possible materials to supplement printed materials and didactic classroom presentations. With each advance in electronic communications come new technologies that can be incorporated into the classroom and laboratory (laser disks, HyperCard programming, CD-ROM, computer interfaces for laboratory data gathering, the Internet, etc.). The more recent the technological advance, the less well developed the commercially available applications will be. If you wish to incorporate cutting-edge technology in your classroom, the more time you can expect to invest in learning how to trouble-shoot both the hardware and the software involved. As time passes the available applications increase in their complexity, specialization, ease of use and affordability. A medium that was of no use to you last week may become highly valuable to you and your students next month.
Just as you would never adopt a textbook sight unseen, so should you not expect to successfully incorporate new media without previewing it. Instructional media, like all other materials available to us, is not of uniform quality. Nothing should be incorporated simply for the sake of novelty, but rather because it helps to serve a specific educational end. Some familiarity with each type of medium is required before you will be able to decide how it might best fit with your course and best aid your students. Inappropriately used instructional media can lead to a less satisfying outcome, for both instructors and students, than reliance on more standard information presentation methods.
The following pages contain the names and addresses of some instructional media suppliers. This is by no means an exhaustive list, nor should it be taken as an endorsement of the specific products offered for sale or rental by these vendors. Suppliers of anatomical charts and models are included here for completeness of the range of non-text media available.
Anatomical Chart Company phone: 1-(800) 334-5551 8221 Kimball Ave. fax: 1-(910) 584-3399 Skokie, IL 60076-2956 phone: 1-(800) 621-7500 Chapman & Hall, Publishers fax: 1-(847) 674-0211 Scientific Data Division www.antomical.com One Penn Plaza, 41st Floor New York, New York 10119 Altshul Group Corp. phone: 1-(212) 564-1060 1560 Sherman Ave. Suite 100 fax: 1-(212) 5641505 Evanston, IL 60201 [email protected] phone: 1-(800) 421-2363 fax: 1-(708) 328-6706 COMPress, A Div. of Queue Inc. Carolina Biological Supply Comp. 338 Commerce Drive 2700 York Road Fairfield, CT 06430 Burlington, NC 27215 phone: 1-(800) 232-2224
64 fax: 1-(203) 336-2481 Moraga, CA 94556 phone: 1-(800) 795-4325 Coronet/MTI Film & Video fax: 1-(510) 631 6735 108 Wilmot Road Deerfield, IL 60015 Human Relations Media (HRM) phone: 1-(800) 777-8100 175 Tompkins Avenue fax: 1-(708) 940-3640 Pleasantville, NY 10570-3156 phone: 1-(800) 431-2050 Cross Educational Software fax: 1-(914) 747-1744 508 E. Kentucky Avenue P. O. Box 1536 Insight Media Ruston, LA 71279 2162 Broadway phone: 1-(800) 768-1969 New York, NY 10024-6620 phone: 1-(212) 721-6316 Denoyer-Geppert fax: 1-(212) 799-5309 5225 Ravenswood Avenue Chicago, IL 606-2028 Instructional Support Services phone: 1-(800) 621-1014 Indiana University fax: 1-(312) 561-4160 Franklin Hall 001 [email protected] Bloomington, IN 47405-5901 phone: 1-(800) 552-8620 fax: 1-(812) 855-8404 [email protected]
Educational Images Ltd. Instructional Video P. O. Box 3456 P. O. Box 21 West Side Station Maumee, OH 43537 Elmira, NY 14905 phone: 1-(419) 863-7670 phone: 1-(800) 527-4264 fax: 1-(419) 867-3813 fax: 1-(607) 732-1183
Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Inc. Box 20253 Princeton , NJ 08540-2053 Intelitool phone: 1-(800) 257-5126 P. O. Box 459 fax: 1-(609) 275-3767 Batavia, IL 60510-0459 [email protected] phone: 1-(800) 227-3805 fax: 1-(708) 227-3805 Guidance Associates The Center for Humanities JLM Visuals P. O. Box 1000 1208 Bridge Street Mount Kisco, NY 10549-0010 Grafton, WI 53024-1946 phone: 1-(800) 431-1242 phone: 1-(414) 377-7775 fax: 1-(914) 666-5319 fax: 1-(414) 377-7688
HealthSoft Lafayette Instrument c/o Great Bear Technology, Inc. 3700 Sagamore Parkway North 1100 Moraga Way P. O. Box 5729
65 Lafayette, IN 47903 Pulse Metric, Inc. phone: 1-(800) 428-7545 10225 Barnes Canyon Road fax: 1-(317) 432-4111 Suite A100 San Diego, CA 92121-2735 March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation phone: 1-(800) 927-8573 P. O. Box 1657 fax: 1-(619) 546-9470 Wilkes-Barre, PA 18703 phone: 1-(800) 367-6630 Pyramid Film & Video fax: 1-(717) 825-1987 P.O. Box 1048 Santa Monica, CA 90406 Media Design Associates, Inc. phone: 1-(800) 421-2304 Dept. BE fax: 1-(310) 454-9083 P.O. Box 3189 Boulder , CO 80307-3189 Ripon Microslides phone: 1-(800) 228-8854 P.O. Box 262 fax: 1- (303) 443-2882 Ripon, WI 54971 phone: 1-(800) 541-7077 NASCO Science fax: 1-(800) 541-7077 901 Janesville Avenue Fort Atkinson, WI 53538-0901 Software Marketing Corp. phone: 1-(800) 558-9595 9830 South 51st Street fax: 1-(414) 563-8296 Building A-31 Phoenix, AZ 85044 NIMCO, Inc. phone: 1-(800) 336-0182 117 Hwy. 815 fax: 1-(602) 893-2042 P.O. Box 9 Calhoun, KY 42327 phone: 1-(800) 962-6662 fax: 1-(502) 273-5844
Pro Anatomy P.O. Box 950 211 Atlantic Street Stanford, CT 06901-0950 phone: 1-(800) 242-2449 fax: 1-(203) 975-7748
Projected Learning Programs, Inc. P.O. Box 3008 Paradise, CA 95967-3008 phone: 1-(800) 248-0757 fax: 1-(916) 877-0573
66 Sunburst Communications 39 Washington Avenue P.O. Box 40 Pleasantville, NY 10570-0040 phone: 1-(800) 431-1934 fax: 1-(914) 769-2109
University of California Extension Center for Media & Independent Learning 2000 Center St., Fourth Floor Berkley, CA 94704 phone: 1-(510) 642-0460 fax: 1-(510) 643-9271
WARD’S Natural Science Establishment, Inc. P.O. Box 92912 Rochester, NY 14692-9012 phone: 1-(800) 962-2660 fax: 1-(800) 635-8439 [email protected]
Wyeth - Ayerst 350 No. Pennsylvania Ave. P.O. Box 7600 Wilkes - Barre, PA 18773-7600 phone: 1-(717) 822-8110
67 LIST OF TRANSPARENCY ACETATES
1 Figure 1.1 Levels of Organization 2 Figure 1.2 Organs of the Body 3 Figure 1.2 Organs of the Body (Unlabeled) 4 Figure 1.3a-c Organ Systems of the Body 5 Figure 1.3d-f Organ Systems of the Body 6 Figure 1.3g-i Organ Systems of the Body 7 Figure 1.3j-l Organ Systems of the Body 8 Figure 1.4 Homeostasis 9 Figure 1.5 Mechanism of Negative Feedback 10 Figure 1.6 Example of Negative Feedback 11 Figure 1.7 Changes in Blood Pressure During Exercise 12 Figure 1.8 Positive Feedback 13 Figure 1.9 Example of Harmful Positive Feedback 14 Figure 1.10a Directional Terms, Anterior View 15 Figure 1.10a Directional Terms, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 16 Figure 1.10b Directional Terms, Lateral View 17 Figure 1.10b Directional Terms, Lateral View (Unlabeled) 18 Figure 1.11a Body Parts and Regions, Anterior View 19 Figure 1.11a Body Parts and Regions, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 20 Figure 1.11b Body Parts and Regions, Posterior View 21 Figure 1.11b Body Parts and Regions, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 22 Figure 1.12 Subdivisions of the Abdomen 23 Figure 1.13 Planes of Section of the Body 24 Figure 1.14 Planes of Section Through an Organ 25 Figure 1.15 Trunk Cavities 26 Figure 1.16 Serous Membranes 27 Figure 1.17a,b Location of Serous Membranes, Pericardium and Pleura 28 Figure 1.17c Location of Serous Membranes, Peritoneum 29 Figure 2.1 Model of an Atom 30 Figure 2.2 Hydrogen, Carbon, and Oxygen Atoms 31 Figure 2.3 Isotopes of Hydrogen 32 Figure 2.4a,b Ionic Bonding 33 Figure 2.5 Covalent Bonding 34 Figure 2.6 Polar Covalent Bonds 35 Figure 2.7 Hydrogen Bonds 36 Figure 2.8 Dissociation 37 Figure 2.9 Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions 38 Figure 2.10 Synthesis (Dehydration) and Decomposition (Hydrolysis) Reactions 39 Figure 2.11 Energy and Chemical Reactions 40 Figure 2.12 Activation Energy and Enzymes 41 Figure 2.13 The pH Scale 42 Figure 2.14 Monosaccharides 43 Figure 2.15 Disaccharide and Polysaccharide
68 44 Figure 2.16 Triglyceride 45 Figure 2.17 Fatty Acids 46 Figure 2.18 Phospholipids 47 Figure 2.19 Steroids 48 Figure 2.20 Amino Acids 49 Figure 2.21 Peptide Bonds 50 Figure 2.22 Protein Structure 51 Figure 2.23 Enzyme Action 52 Figure 2.24 Components of Nucleotides 53 Figure 2.25 Nitrogenous Organic Bases 54 Figure 2.26 Structure of DNA 55 Figure 2.27 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Molecule 56 Figure 3.1 The Cell 57 Figure 3.1 The Cell (Unlabeled) 58 Figure 3.2a Plasma Membrane 59 Figure 3.2a Plasma Membrane (Unlabeled) 60 Figure 3.3 Globular Proteins in the Plasma Membrane 61 Figure 3.4 Cell Surface Marker 62 Figure 3.5 Attachment Sites 63 Figure 3.6 Channel Protein 64 Figure 3.7 Receptor Protein 65 Figure 3.8 Receptors Linked to a Channel Protein 66 Figure 3.9 A Receptor Linked to a G Protein 67 Figure 3.10 Enzyme in the Plasma Membrane 68 Figure 3.11 Carrier Protein 69 Figure 3.12 Diffusion 70 Figure 3.13 Intracellular Receptor 71 Figure 3.14 Osmosis 72 Figure 3.15 Hypotonic, Isotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions 73 Figure 3.16 Mediated Transport: Specificity and Competition 74 Figure 3.17 Saturation of a Carrier Protein 75 Figure 3.18 Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump 76 Figure 3.19 Secondary Active Transport 77 Figure 3.20 Endocytosis 78 Figure 3.21 Pinocytosis 79 Figure 3.22 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis 80 Figure 3.23a Exocytosis 81 Figure 3.24 Cytoskeleton 82 Figure 3.25 Centriole 83 Figure 3.26 Cilia and Flagella 84 Figure 3.27 Ciliary Movement 85 Figure 3.28 Microvillus 86 Figure 3.29 Production of Ribosomes 87 Figure 3.30 The Endoplasmic Reticulum 88 Figure 3.31 Golgi Apparatus 89 Figure 3.32 Function of the Golgi Apparatus 90 Figure 3.33 Action of Lysosomes
69 91 Figure 3.34 Mitochondrion 92 Figure 3.35 The Nucleus 93 Figure 3.36 Chromosome Structure 94 Figure 3.37 Overview of Cell Metabolism 95 Figure 3.38 Overview of Protein Synthesis 96 Figure 3.39 Formation of mRNA by Transcription of DNA 97 Figure 3.40 Posttranscriptional Change in mRNA 98 Figure 3.41 Translation of mRNA to Produce a Protein 99 Figure 3.42 Cell Cycle 100 Figure 3.43 Replication of DNA 101 Figure 3.44 1-3 Mitosis 102 Figure 3.44 4-6 Mitosis 103 Figure 3.45 First Division (Meiosis I) 104 Figure 3.45 Second Division (Meiosis II) 105 Figure 3.46 Crossing-Over 106 Figure 4.1 Characteristics of Epithelium 107 Figure 4.1 Characteristics of Epithelium (Unlabeled) 108 Figure 4.2a,b Simple Squamous Epithelium; Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 109 Figure 4.2c,d Simple Columnar Epithelium; Stratified Squamous Epithelium 110 Figure 4.2e,f Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium; Stratified Columnar Epithelium 111 Figure 4.2g,h Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium; Transitional Epithelium 112 Figure 4.3 Cell Connections 113 Figure 4.4 Structure of Exocrine Glands 114 Figure 4.5 Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types 115 Figure 4.6a,b Mesenchyme; Mucous Connective Tissue 116 Figure 4.7a,b Loose Connective Tissue; Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue 117 Figure 4.7c,d Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue; Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue 118 Figure 4.7e,f Dense Irregular Elastic Connective Tissue; Adipose Tissue 119 Figure 4.7g,h Reticular Tissue; Hyaline Cartilage 120 Figure 4.7i,j Fibrocartilage; Elastic Cartilage 121 Figure 4.7k,l Cancellous Bone; Compact Bone 122 Figure 4.7m,n Blood; Bone Marrow 123 Figure 4.8a,b Skeletal Muscle; Cardiac Muscle 124 Figure 4.8c Smooth Muscle 125 Figures 4.9, 4.10 Multipolar Neuron; Unipolar Neuron; Neuroglia 126 Figure 4.11 Membranes 127 Figure 4.12 Inflammation 128 Figure 4.13 Tissue Repair 129 Figure 5.1 Skin and Hypodermis 130 Figure 5.1 Skin and Hypodermis (Unlabeled) 131 Figure 5.2 Dermis and Epidermis 132 Figure 5.2 Dermis and Epidermis (Unlabeled) 133 Figure 5.3 Cleavage Lines 134 Figure 5.4 Epidermal Layers and Keratinization 135 Figure 5.4 Epidermal Layers and Keratinization (Unlabeled) 136 Figure 5.5 Melanin Transfer from Melanocyte to Keratinocytes
70 137 Figure 5.6 Hair Follicle 138 Figure 5.6 Hair Follicle (Unlabeled) 139 Figure 5.7 Glands of the Skin 140 Figure 5.7 Glands of the Skin (Unlabeled) 141 Figure 5.8 Nail 142 Figure 5.8 Nail (Unlabeled) 143 Figure 5.9 Heat Exchange in the Skin 144 Figure 5.A The Rule of Nines 145 Figure 5.B Burns 146 Figure 6.1 Hyaline Cartilage 147 Figure 6.2 Bone Shapes 148 Figure 6.3a,b Long Bone, Young and Adult 149 Figure 6.3c Long Bone, Internal Features 150 Figure 6.3c Long Bone, Internal Features (Unlabeled) 151 Figure 6.4 Bone Marrow Distribution 152 Figure 6.5 Structure of a Flat Bone 153 Figure 6.6 Effects of Changing the Bone Matrix 154 Figure 6.7 Ossification 155 Figure 6.8 Cancellous Bone 156 Figure 6.9 Lines of Stress 157 Figure 6.10a Compact Bone 158 Figure 6.10a Compact Bone (Unlabeled) 159 Figure 6.10b Compact Bone, Osteon 160 Figure 6.11 Intramembranous Ossification 161 Figure 6.12 Bone Formation 162 Figure 6.13 1,2 Endochondral Ossification 163 Figure 6.13 3,4 Endochondral Ossification 164 Figure 6.13 5-7 Endochondral Ossification 165 Figure 6.14 Epiphyseal Plate 166 Figure 6.15 Bone Growth in Length at the Epiphyseal Plate 167 Figure 6.16 Fracture of the Epiphyseal Plate 168 Figure 6.17 Bone Growth in Width 169 Figure 6.18 Remodeling of a Long Bone 170 Figure 6.19 Bone Repair 171 Figure 6.20 Calcium Homeostasis 172 Figure 6.B Bone Fractures 173 Figure 6.C Osteoporosis 174 Figure 7.1a The Complete Skeleton, Anterior View 175 Figure 7.1a The Complete Skeleton, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 176 Figure 7.1b The Complete Skeleton, Posterior View 177 Figure 7.1b The Complete Skeleton, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 178 Figure 7.2 Skull, Superior View 179 Figure 7.2 Skull, Superior View (Unlabeled) 180 Figure 7.3 Skull, Posterior View 181 Figure 7.3 Skull, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 182 Figure 7.4 Skull, Lateral View from the Right Side 183 Figure 7.4 Skull, Lateral View from the Right Side (Unlabeled)
71 184 Figures 7.5, 7.7 Bony Landmarks of the Face, Lateral and Anterior Views 185 Figure 7.6 Skull, Frontal View 186 Figure 7.6 Skull, Frontal View (Unlabeled) 187 Figure 7.8 Bones of the Right Orbit 188 Figure 7.8 Bones of the Right Orbit (Unlabeled) 189 Figure 7.9 Bones of the Nasal Cavity 190 Figure 7.9 Bones of the Nasal Cavity (Unlabeled) 191 Figure 7.10 Paranasal Sinuses 192 Figure 7.11 Floor of the Cranial Cavity 193 Figure 7.11 Floor of the Cranial Cavity (Unlabeled) 194 Figure 7.12 Skull, Inferior View 195 Figure 7.12 Skull, Inferior View (Unlabeled) 196 Figure 7.13a-c Skull Bones—Parietal, Temporal, Frontal 197 Figure 7.13d,e Skull Bones—Sphenoid, Occipital 198 Figure 7.13f,g Skull Bones—Ethmoid, Zygomatic 199 Figure 7.13h,i Skull Bones—Maxilla, Palatine 200 Figure 7.13j,k Skull Bones—Lacrimal, Nasal 201 Figure 7.13l,m Skull Bones—Mandible, Vomer 202 Figure 7.14 Hyoid Bone 203 Figure 7.15 Vertebral Column 204 Figure 7.15 Vertebral Column (Unlabeled) 205 Figure 7.17 Intervertebral Disk 206 Figure 7.17 Intervertebral Disk (Unlabeled) 207 Figures 7.18, Herniated Disk; Spina Bifida 7.20 208 Figure 7.19 Vertebra 209 Figure 7.19 Vertebra (Unlabeled) 210 Figure 7.21 Surface Anatomy—The Back 211 Figure 7.22 Cervical Vertebrae 212 Figure 7.22 Cervical Vertebrae (Unlabeled) 213 Figure 7.23 Thoracic Vertebrae 214 Figure 7.23 Thoracic Vertebrae (Unlabeled) 215 Figure 7.24 Lumbar Vertebrae 216 Figure 7.24 Lumbar Vertebrae (Unlabeled) 217 Figure 7.25 Sacrum 218 Figure 7.25 Sacrum (Unlabeled) 219 Figure 7.26a,b Thoracic Cage and Rib 220 Figure 7.26a,b Thoracic Cage and Rib (Unlabeled) 221 Figure 7.26c Relationship of Vertebra and Rib 222 Figure 7.27 Surface Anatomy—Upper Thorax 223 Figure 7.28 Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb 224 Figure 7.28 Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb (Unlabeled) 225 Figure 7.29a,b Right Scapula, Anterior and Posterior Views 226 Figure 7.29a,b Right Scapula, Anterior and Posterior Views (Unlabeled) 227 Figure 7.29c,d Clavicle and Right Scapula 228 Figure 7.30 Right Humerus 229 Figure 7.30 Right Humerus (Unlabeled)
72 230 Figure 7.31 Right Ulna and Radius 231 Figure 7.31 Right Ulna and Radius (Unlabeled) 232 Figure 7.32 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand 233 Figure 7.32 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand (Unlabeled) 234 Figure 7.33 Surface Anatomy—Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb 235 Figure 7.34 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 236 Figure 7.34 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb (Unlabeled) 237 Figure 7.35 The Complete Pelvis, Anterior View 238 Figure 7.35 The Complete Pelvis, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 239 Figure 7.36b,c Right Coxa 240 Figure 7.36b,c Right Coxa (Unlabeled) 241 Figures 7.37, Surface Anatomy—Hipbones, Bones of the Lower Limb 7.42 242 Figure 7.38 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelvis 243 Figure 7.39 Right Femur 244 Figure 7.39 Right Femur (Unlabeled) 245 Figure 7.40 Right Patella 246 Figure 7.41 Right Tibia and Fibula, Anterior View 247 Figure 7.41 Right Tibia and Fibula, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 248 Figure 7.43 Bones of the Right Foot 249 Figure 7.43 Bones of the Right Foot (Unlabeled) 250 Figure 7.44 Arches of the Right Foot 251 Figure 7.44 Arches of the Right Foot (Unlabeled) 252 Figure 8.1 Sutures 253 Figure 8.2 Fetal Skull Showing Fontanels and Sutures 254 Figure 8.3 Syndesmosis 255 Figure 8.4 Gomphosis 256 Figure 8.5 Synchondroses 257 Figure 8.6 Symphysis Pubis 258 Figure 8.7 Structure of a Synovial Joint 259 Figure 8.7 Structure of a Synovial Joint (Unlabeled) 260 Figures 8.8-8.10 Types of Synovial Joints 261 Figures 8.11- Types of Synovial Joints 8.13 262 Figures 8.14, Flexion/Extension of Elbow and Knee; Dorsiflexion/Plantar Flexion of 8.16, 8.17 Foot 263 Figure 8.15 Flexion and Extension Defined According to the Coronal Plane 264 Figures 8.18, Abduction and Adduction; Elevation and Depression 8.22 265 Figures 8.19, Medial and Lateral Rotation; Pronation and Supination; Circumduction 8.20, 8.21 266 Figures 8.23, Protraction, Retraction, and Excursion of the Mandible 8.24 267 Figures 8.25, Opposition and Reposition; Inversion and Eversion 8.26 268 Figure 8.27 Right Temporomandibular Joint, Lateral View 269 Figure 8.27 Right Temporomandibular Joint, Lateral View (Unlabeled)
73 270 Figure 8.28a Right Shoulder Joint, Anterior View 271 Figure 8.28a Right Shoulder Joint, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 272 Figure 8.28b Right Shoulder Joint, Frontal Section 273 Figure 8.28b Right Shoulder Joint, Frontal Section (Unlabeled) 274 Figure 8.29a,b Right Elbow Joint, Sagittal Section and Lateral (cut) View 275 Figure 8.29a,b Right Elbow Joint, Sagittal Section and Lateral (cut) View (Unlabeled) 276 Figure 8.29c,d Right Elbow Joint, Medial and Lateral Sides 277 Figure 8.29c,d Right Elbow Joint, Medial and Lateral Sides (Unlabeled) 278 Figure 8.30 Right Hip Joint 279 Figure 8.30 Right Hip Joint (Unlabeled) 280 Figure 8.31a,b Right Knee Joint, Anterior Superficial and Deep Views 281 Figure 8.31a,b Right Knee Joint, Anterior Superficial and Deep Views (Unlabeled) 282 Figure 8.31c,d Right Knee Joint, Posterior Superficial and Deep Views 283 Figure 8.31c,d Right Knee Joint, Posterior Superficial and Deep Views (Unlabeled) 284 Figure 8.31e,f Right Knee Joint, Photograph of Anterior View and Sagittal Section 285 Figure 8.31e,f Right Knee Joint, Photograph of Anterior View and Sagittal Section (Unlabeled) 286 Figure 8.32 Ligaments of the Right Ankle Joint 287 Figure 8.32 Ligaments of the Right Ankle Joint (Unlabeled) 288 Figure 8.A Injury to the Right Knee 289 Figure 9.1 Skeletal Muscle Fibers 290 Figure 9.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure 291 Figure 9.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure (Unlabeled) 292 Figure 9.3 Parts of a Muscle 293 Figure 9.3 Parts of a Muscle (Unlabeled) 294 Figure 9.4 Structure of Actin and Myosin 295 Figure 9.5 Components of Sarcomeres 296 Figure 9.6 Sarcomere Shortening 297 Figure 9.7 Measuring the Resting Membrane Potential 298 Figure 9.8 Depolarization and the Action Potential 299 Figure 9.9 Gated Ion Channels and the Action Potential 300 Figure 9.10 Action Potential Propagation 301 Figure 9.11 Neuromuscular Junction 302 Figure 9.11 Neuromuscular Junction (Unlabeled) 303 Figure 9.12a Function of the Neuromuscular Junction—Release of ACh 304 Figure 9.12b Function of the Neuromuscular Junction—Breakdown of ACh 305 Figure 9.13 T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 306 Figure 9.13 T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (Unlabeled) 307 Figure 9.14 Action Potentials and Muscle Contraction 308 Figure 9.15 Breakdown of ATP and Cross-Bridge Movement 309 Figure 9.16 Phases of a Muscle Twitch 310 Figure 9.17 The Motor Unit 311 Figure 9.17 The Motor Unit (Unlabeled) 312 Figure 9.18 Multiple Motor Unit Summation 313 Figure 9.19 Multiple-Wave Summation 314 Figure 9.20 Treppe 315 Figure 9.21 Muscle Length and Tension
74 316 Figure 9.22 Smooth Muscle Histology 317 Figure 9.23 Contractile Proteins in a Smooth Muscle Cell 318 Figure 9.24 Smooth Muscle Contraction 319 Figure 9.25 Membrane Potential from a Smooth Muscle Preparation 320 Figures Examples of Muscle Types and Shapes 10.1,10.2 321 Figure 10.3 Lever Classes 322 Figure 10.4a Superficial Body Musculature, Anterior View 323 Figure 10.4a Superficial Body Musculature, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 324 Figure 10.4b Superficial Body Musculature, Posterior View 325 Figure 10.4b Superficial Body Musculature, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 326 Figure 10.5a,b Muscles of the Neck, Superficial 327 Figure 10.5a,b Muscles of the Neck, Superficial (Unlabeled) 328 Figure 10.5c Muscles of the Neck, Deep 329 Figure 10.5c Muscles of the Neck, Deep (Unlabeled) 330 Figure 10.6 Surface Anatomy—Muscles of the Neck 331 Figure 10.7a Muscles of Facial Expression, Lateral View 332 Figure 10.7a Muscles of Facial Expression, Lateral View (Unlabeled) 333 Figure 10.7b Muscles of Facial Expression, Anterior View 334 Figure 10.7b Muscles of Facial Expression, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 335 Figure 10.8 Surface Anatomy—Muscles of Facial Expression 336 Figure 10.9 Muscles of Mastication 337 Figure 10.9 Muscles of Mastication (Unlabeled) 338 Figure 10.10 Hyoid Muscles 339 Figure 10.10 Hyoid Muscles (Unlabeled) 340 Figure 10.11 Muscles of the Tongue 341 Figure 10.11 Muscles of the Tongue (Unlabeled) 342 Figure 10.12a Inferior View of the Palate 343 Figure 10.12a Inferior View of the Palate (Unlabeled) 344 Figure 10.12b Lateral View of the Palate, Pharynx, and Larynx 345 Figure 10.12b Lateral View of the Palate, Pharynx, and Larynx (Unlabeled) 346 Figure 10.13 Muscles Moving the Eyeball 347 Figure 10.13 Muscles Moving the Eyeball (Unlabeled) 348 Figure 10.14 Deep Back Muscles 349 Figure 10.14 Deep Back Muscles (Unlabeled) 350 Figure 10.15 Muscles of Respiration 351 Figure 10.15 Muscles of Respiration (Unlabeled) 352 Figure 10.16 Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall 353 Figure 10.16 Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall (Unlabeled) 354 Figure 10.17 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, Cross Section and Lateral View 355 Figure 10.17 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, Cross Section and Lateral View (Unlabeled) 356 Figure 10.18 Surface Anatomy—Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall 357 Figure 10.19 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum 358 Figure 10.19 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum (Unlabeled) 359 Figure 10.20a Muscles Acting on the Scapula, Posterior View 360 Figure 10.20a Muscles Acting on the Scapula, Posterior View (Unlabeled)
75 361 Figure 10.20b Muscles Acting on the Scapula, Anterior View 362 Figure 10.20b Muscles Acting on the Scapula, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 363 Figure 10.21a Muscles Attaching Upper Limb to Body, Anterior View 364 Figure 10.21a Muscles Attaching Upper Limb to Body, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 365 Figure 10.21b,c Muscles Attaching Upper Limb to Body, Posterior View; Rotator Cuff, Anterior View 366 Figure 10.21b,c Muscles Attaching Upper Limb to Body, Posterior View; Rotator Cuff, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 367 Figure 10.22a,b Shoulder—Surface Anatomy and Dissection, Anterior View 368 Figure 10.22a,b Shoulder—Surface Anatomy and Dissection, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 369 Figure 10.22c,d Shoulder—Surface Anatomy and Dissection, Posterior View 370 Figure 10.22c,d Shoulder—Surface Anatomy and Dissection, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 371 Figure 10.23a,c Muscles of the Arm, Lateral View 372 Figure 10.23a,c Muscles of the Arm, Lateral View (Unlabeled) 373 Figure 10.23b Muscles of the Arm, Anterior Deep View 374 Figure 10.23b Muscles of the Arm, Anterior Deep View (Unlabeled) 375 Figure 10.24a,b Muscles of the Forearm, Anterior View 376 Figure 10.24a,b Muscles of the Forearm, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 377 Figure 10.24c,d Muscles of the Forearm, Anterior Deep and Posterior Deep Views 378 Figure 10.24c,d Muscles of the Forearm, Anterior Deep and Posterior Deep Views (Unlabeled) 379 Figure 10.24e Muscles of the Forearm—Dissection, Posterior View 380 Figure 10.24e Muscles of the Forearm—Dissection, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 381 Figure 10.25a Hand, Anterior Superficial View 382 Figure 10.25a Hand, Anterior Superficial View (Unlabeled) 383 Figure 10.25b Hand, Anterior Deep View 384 Figure 10.25b Hand, Anterior Deep View (Unlabeled) 385 Figure 10.26 Surface Anatomy—Muscles of the Upper Limb 386 Figure 10.27 Muscles of the Posterior Hip 387 Figure 10.27 Muscles of the Posterior Hip (Unlabeled) 388 Figure 10.28a,b Muscles of the Anterior Thigh 389 Figure 10.28a,b Muscles of the Anterior Thigh (Unlabeled) 390 Figure 10.28c Muscles of the Anterior Thigh—Dissection 391 Figure 10.28c Muscles of the Anterior Thigh—Dissection (Unlabeled) 392 Figure 10.29 Posterior Muscles of the Right Thigh 393 Figure 10.29 Posterior Muscles of the Right Thigh (Unlabeled) 394 Figure 10.30a,b Muscles of the Leg, Anterior and Lateral Views 395 Figure 10.30a,b Muscles of the Leg, Anterior and Lateral Views (Unlabeled) 396 Figure 10.30c,d Muscles of the Leg, Posterior View 397 Figure 10.30c,d Muscles of the Leg, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 398 Figure 10.30e Muscles of the Leg—Dissection 399 Figure 10.30e Muscles of the Leg—Dissection (Unlabeled) 400 Figure 10.31 Surface Anatomy—Muscles of the Lower Limb 401 Figure 10.32 Cross Section Through the Right Leg 402 Figure 10.33 Muscles of the Foot 403 Figure 10.33 Muscles of the Foot (Unlabeled) 404 Figure 11.1 The Nervous System
76 405 Figure 11.2 Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System 406 Figure 11.3 Organization of the Nervous System 407 Figure 11.4 Neuron 408 Figure 11.4 Neuron (Unlabeled) 409 Figure 11.5 Types of Neurons 410 Figures Astrocytes; Ependymal Cells 11.6,11.7 411 Figures 11.8, Microglia; Oligodendrocyte 11.9 412 Figures 11.10, Schwann Cell; Satellite Cells 11.11 413 Figure 11.12 Comparison of Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons 414 Figure 11.13 The Sodium–Potassium Exchange Pump 415 Figure 11.14 Membrane Permeability and Ion Channels 416 Figure 11.15 Ligand-Gated Ion Channel 417 Figure 11.16 Measuring the Resting Membrane Potential 418 Figure 11.17 Potassium Ions and the Resting Membrane Potential 419 Figure 11.18 Changes in Extracellular K+ Concentration and Resting Membrane Potential 420 Figure 11.19 Local Potentials 421 Figure 11.20 The Action Potential 422 Figure 11.21 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels and the Action Potential 423 Figure 11.22 Refractory Period 424 Figure 11.23 Stimuli, Local Potentials, and Action Potentials 425 Figure 11.24 Action Potential Propagation in an Unmyelinated Axon 426 Figure 11.25 Saltatory Conduction 427 Figure 11.26 Electrical Synapse 428 Figure 11.27 Chemical Synapse 429 Figure 11.28 Removal of Neurotransmitter from the Synaptic Cleft 430 Figure 11.29 Postsynaptic Potentials 431 Figure 11.30 Presynaptic Inhibition at an Axoaxonic Synapse 432 Figure 11.31 Summation 433 Figure 11.32 Convergent and Divergent Pathways 434 Figure 11.33 Oscillating Circuits 435 Figure 11.A Changes That Occur in an Injured Nerve Fiber 436 Figure 12.1 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerve Roots 437 Figure 12.1 Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerve Roots (Unlabeled) 438 Figure 12.2 Meningeal Membranes Surrounding the Spinal Cord 439 Figure 12.2 Meningeal Membranes Surrounding the Spinal Cord (Unlabeled) 440 Figure 12.3a Cross Section of the Spinal Cord 441 Figure 12.3a Cross Section of the Spinal Cord (Unlabeled) 442 Figure 12.3b Cross Section of the Spinal Cord, Photograph 443 Figure 12.3b Cross Section of the Spinal Cord, Photograph (Unlabeled) 444 Figure 12.3c Relationship of Sensory and Motor Neurons to Spinal Cord 445 Figure 12.4 Reflex Arc 446 Figure 12.4 Reflex Arc (Unlabeled) 447 Figure 12.5 Stretch Reflex
77 448 Figure 12.6 Golgi Tendon Reflex 449 Figure 12.7 Withdrawal Reflex 450 Figure 12.8 Withdrawal Reflex with Reciprocal Innervation 451 Figure 12.9 Withdrawal Reflex with Crossed Extensor Reflex 452 Figure 12.10 Spinal Reflex, Ascending and Descending Axons 453 Figure 12.11 Cross Section of Spinal Cord Depicting Pathways 454 Figure 12.12 Structure of a Peripheral Nerve 455 Figure 12.12 Structure of a Peripheral Nerve (Unlabeled) 456 Figure 12.13a Spinal Nerves, Plexuses, and Branches 457 Figure 12.13a Spinal Nerves, Plexuses, and Branches (Unlabeled) 458 Figure 12.13b Spinal Cord Regions and Their General Functions 459 Figure 12.13b Spinal Cord Regions and Their General Functions (Unlabeled) 460 Figure 12.14 Dermatomal Map 461 Figure 12.15a Typical Thoracic Spinal Nerves 462 Figure 12.15a Typical Thoracic Spinal Nerves (Unlabeled) 463 Figure 12.15b Spinal Nerves—Dissection 464 Figure 12.16 Cervical Plexus 465 Figure 12.17 Brachial Plexus 466 Figure 12.18 Axillary Nerve 467 Figure 12.19 Radial Nerve 468 Figure 12.20 Musculocutaneous Nerve 469 Figure 12.21 Ulnar Nerve 470 Figure 12.22 Median Nerve 471 Figure 12.23 Lumbosacral Plexus 472 Figure 12.24 Obturator Nerve 473 Figure 12.25 Femoral Nerve 474 Figure 12.26 Tibial Nerve 475 Figure 12.27 Fibular Nerve 476 Figure 13.1 Regions of the Right Half of the Brain 477 Figure 13.1 Regions of the Right Half of the Brain (Unlabeled) 478 Figure 13.2a Brainstem and Diencephalon, Anterior View 479 Figure 13.2a Brainstem and Diencephalon, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 480 Figure 13.2b Brainstem and Diencephalon, Posterolateral View 481 Figure 13.2c Brainstem Nuclei 482 Figure 13.3 Cross Section Through the Midbrain 483 Figure 13.4 Cerebellum 484 Figure 13.5a Diencephalon—General Overview, Midsagittal Section 485 Figure 13.5a Diencephalon—General Overview, Midsagittal Section (Unlabeled) 486 Figure 13.5b Thalamus 487 Figure 13.5c Hypothalamus 488 Figure 13.6a The Brain, Superior View 488 Figure 13.6a The Brain, Superior View (Unlabeled) 490 Figure 13.6b The Brain, Lateral View 491 Figure 13.6b The Brain, Lateral View (Unlabeled) 492 Figure 13.7 Cerebral Medullary Tracts 493 Figure 13.8a Basal Nuclei (Ganglia) of the Left Hemisphere 494 Figure 13.8a Basal Nuclei (Ganglia) of the Left Hemisphere (Unlabeled)
78 495 Figure 13.8b Frontal Section of the Brain 496 Figure 13.9 Limbic System and Associated Structures 497 Figure 13.9 Limbic System and Associated Structures (Unlabeled) 498 Figure 13.10a Meninges 499 Figure 13.10a Meninges (Unlabeled) 500 Figure 13.10b Meninges as Seen in Frontal Section 501 Figure 13.10b Meninges as Seen in Frontal Section (Unlabeled) 502 Figure 13.11 Ventricles of the Brain 503 Figure 13.11 Ventricles of the Brain (Unlabeled) 504 Figure 13.12 Flow of CSF 505 Figure 13.13 Formation of the Neural Tube 506 Figure 13.14 Development of the Brain Segments and Ventricles 507 Figure 13.15 Origin of the Cranial Nerves 508 Figure 13.15 Origin of the Cranial Nerves (Unlabeled) 509 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerves I and II—Olfactory and Optic 510 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerves III and IV—Oculomotor and Trochlear 511 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve V—Trigeminal 512 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve VI—Abducens 513 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve VII—Facial 514 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve VIII—Vestibulocochlear 515 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve IX—Glossopharyngeal 516 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve X—Vagus 517 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve XI—Accessory 518 Table 13.5 Cranial Nerve XII—Hypoglossal 519 Figure 14.1 Sensory Nerve Endings in the Skin 520 Figure 14.2 Two-Point Discrimination 521 Figure 14.3 Muscle Spindle 522 Figure 14.4 Golgi Tendon Organ 523 Figure 14.5 Cross Section of Spinal Cord—Ascending Pathways 524 Figure 14.6a Spinothalamic System—Lateral Tract 525 Figure 14.6b Spinothalamic System—Anterior Tract 526 Figure 14.7 Dorsal-Column/Medial-Lemniscal System 527 Figure 14.8 Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract 528 Figure 14.9 Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex 529 Figure 14.9 Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex (Unlabeled) 530 Figure 14.10 Topography of the Somatic Sensory Cortex 531 Figure 14.11 Topography of the Primary Motor Cortex 532 Figure 14.12 Cross Section of Spinal Cord—Descending Pathways 533 Figure 14.13 Descending Pathways 534 Figure 14.14 Direct Pathways 535 Figure 14.15 Indirect Pathways 536 Figure 14.16 Cerebellar Comparator Function 537 Figure 14.17 Cortical Activities During Speech 538 Figure 14.18 EEGs Showing Brain Waves 539 Figure 14.19 Memory Processing 540 Figure 14.20 Cellular Mechanisms of Long-Term Potentiation 541 Figure 14.A Areas of Referred Pain
79 542 Figure 15.1a Olfactory Recess and Olfactory Bulb 543 Figure 15.1b Olfactory Epithelium 544 Figure 15.2 Olfactory Neuronal Pathways and Cortex 545 Figure 15.3a-f Papillae and Taste Buds 546 Figure 15.4 Actions of the Major Tastants 547 Figure 15.5 Pathways for the Sense of Taste 548 Figure 15.6 Right Eye and Accessory Structures 549 Figure 15.7 Eye and Accessory Structures, Sagittal Section 550 Figure 15.7 Eye and Accessory Structures, Sagittal Section (Unlabeled) 551 Figure 15.8 Lacrimal Apparatus 552 Figure 15.9 Extrinsic Muscles of the Eye 553 Figure 15.10 Eye and Associated Structures—Dissection, Superior View 554 Figure 15.11 Layers of the Eye, Sagittal Section 555 Figure 15.11 Layers of the Eye, Sagittal Section (Unlabeled) 556 Figure 15.12 Lens, Cornea, Iris, and Ciliary Body 557 Figure 15.13a Ophthalmoscopic View of the Left Retina 558 Figure 15.14 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 559 Figure 15.15 Focus and Accommodation by the Eye 560 Figure 15.16 Retina 561 Figure 15.16 Retina (Unlabeled) 562 Figure 15.17 Sensory Receptor Cells of the Retina 563 Figure 15.18 Rhodopsin Cycle 564 Figure 15.19 Rod Cell Hyperpolarization 565 Figure 15.20 Blue, Green, and Red Wavelengths 566 Figure 15.21a-c Visual Pathways 567 Figure 15.21d Visual Nerves, Tracts, and Pathways—Dissection, Inferior View 568 Figure 15.22 External, Middle, and Inner Ear 569 Figure 15.22 External, Middle, and Inner Ear (Unlabeled) 570 Figure 15.23 Structures of the Auricle 571 Figure 15.24 Bony and Membranous Labyrinths of Inner Ear 572 Figure 15.25 Structure of the Cochlea 573 Figure 15.27 Sound Waves 574 Figure 15.28 Effect of Sound Waves on Cochlear Structures 575 Figure 15.29 Muscles of the Middle Ear 576 Figure 15.30 Effect of Sound Waves Along the Basilar Membrane 577 Figure 15.31 Central Nervous System Pathways for Hearing 578 Figure 15.32 Structure of the Macula 579 Figure 15.33 Function of the Vestibule in Maintaining Balance 580 Figure 15.34 Semicircular Canals 581 Figure 15.35a Function of the Semicircular Canals 582 Figure 15.36 Central Nervous System Pathways for Balance 583 Figure 15.A Visual Disorders and Their Correction by Various Lenses 584 Figure 15.D Cochlear Implant 585 Figure 16.1 Organization of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System Neurons 586 Figure 16.2 Sympathetic Division 587 Figure 16.3a,b Routes Taken by Sympathetic Axons 588 Figure 16.3c,d Routes Taken by Sympathetic Axons
80 589 Figure 16.4 Parasympathetic Division 590 Figure 16.5 Distribution of Autonomic Nerve Fibers 591 Figure 16.6 Location of ANS Receptors 592 Figure 16.7 Autonomic Reflexes 593 Figure 16.8 Influence of Higher Parts of the Brain on Autonomic Functions 594 Figure 16.9 Innervation of Organs by the ANS 595 Figure 17.1 Endocrine Glands 596 Figure 17.1 Endocrine Glands (Unlabeled) 597 Figure 17.2 Regulatory Systems 598 Figure 17.3 Chemical Structure of Hormones 599 Figure 17.4 Nonhormonal Regulation of Hormone Secretion 600 Figure 17.5 Nervous System Regulation of Hormone Secretion 601 Figure 17.6 Hormonal Regulation of Hormone Secretion 602 Figure 17.7 Positive and Negative Feedback 603 Figure 17.8 Changes in Hormone Secretion Through Time 604 Figure 17.9 Hormone Concentrations at the Target Cell 605 Figure 17.10 Plasma Protein Effects on Concentration of Free Hormone 606 Figure 17.11 Specificity of Receptors for Ligands 607 Figure 17.12 Response of Target Cells to Hormones 608 Figure 17.13 Down-Regulation and Up-Regulation 609 Figure 17.14 Membrane-Bound and Intracellular Receptors 610 Figure 17.15 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Directly Control Membrane Channels 611 Figure 17.16 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Activate G Proteins 612 Figure 17.17 Membrane-Bound Receptors, G Proteins, and Ca2+ Channels 613 Figure 17.18 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Activate G Proteins and Increase Synthesis of cAMP 614 Figure 17.19 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Activate G Proteins and Increase Synthesis of IP3 and DAG 615 Figure 17.20 Membrane-Bound Receptor That Directly Synthesizes an Intracellular Mediator 616 Figure 17.21 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Phosphorylate Intracellular Proteins 617 Figure 17.22 The Cascade Effect 618 Figure 17.23 Intracellular Receptor Model 619 Figure 17.24 Combined Membrane-Bound and Intracellular Receptor Mechanism 620 Figure 18.1 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 621 Figure 18.1 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland (Unlabeled) 622 Figure 18.2 Subdivisions of the Pituitary Gland 623 Figure 18.2 Subdivisions of the Pituitary Gland (Unlabeled) 624 Figure 18.3 Hypothalamus, Anterior Pituitary, and Target Tissues 625 Figure 18.4 Hypothalamus, Posterior Pituitary, and Target Tissues 626 Figure 18.5 Control of ADH Secretion 627 Figure 18.6 Control of GH Secretion 628 Figure 18.7 Anatomy and Histology of the Thyroid Gland 629 Figure 18.8 Biosynthesis of Thyroid Hormones 630 Figure 18.9 Regulation of T3 and T4 Secretion 631 Figure 18.10 Anatomy and Histology of the Parathyroid Glands 632 Figure 18.11 Regulation of PTH Secretion
81 633 Figure 18.12 Anatomy and Histology of the Adrenal Gland 634 Figure 18.13 Regulation of Adrenal Medullary Secretions 635 Figure 18.14 Regulation of Cortisol Secretion 636 Figure 18.15 Histology of the Pancreatic Islets 637 Figure 18.16 Regulation of Insulin Secretion 638 Figure 18.17 Regulation of Blood Nutrient Levels After a Meal 639 Figure 18.18 Regulation of Blood Nutrient Levels During Exercise 640 Figure 18.19 Regulation of Melatonin Secretion from the Pineal Body 641 Figure 19.1 Composition of Blood 642 Table 19.2 Formed Elements of the Blood 643 Figure 19.2 Hematopoiesis 644 Figure 19.3 Red Blood Cells and White Blood Cells 645 Figure 19.4 Hemoglobin 646 Figure 19.5 Red Blood Cell Production 647 Figure 19.6 Hemoglobin Breakdown 648 Figure 19.7 Standard Blood Smear 649 Figure 19.8 Identification of Leukocytes 650 Figure 19.9 Platelet Plug Formation 651 Figure 19.10 Blood Clot 652 Figure 19.11 Clot Formation 653 Figure 19.12 Fibrinolysis 654 Figure 19.13 ABO Blood Groups 655 Figure 19.14 Agglutination Reaction 656 Figure 19.15 Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) 657 Figure 19.16 Hematocrit 658 Figure 20.1 Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation 659 Figure 20.2a Location of the Heart in the Thorax 660 Figure 20.2a Location of the Heart in the Thorax (Unlabeled) 661 Figure 20.2b Location of the Heart in the Thorax, Cross Section 662 Figure 20.2b Location of the Heart in the Thorax, Cross Section (Unlabeled) 663 Figure 20.3 Heart in the Pericardium 664 Figure 20.4 Heart Wall 665 Figure 20.5a Surface of the Heart, Anterior View 666 Figure 20.5a Surface of the Heart, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 667 Figure 20.5b Surface of the Heart—Dissection, Anterior View 668 Figure 20.5b Surface of the Heart—Dissection, Anterior View (Unlabeled) 669 Figure 20.5c Surface of the Heart, Posterior View 670 Figure 20.5c Surface of the Heart, Posterior View (Unlabeled) 671 Figure 20.6 Coronary Circulation 672 Figure 20.7 Internal Anatomy of the Heart 673 Figure 20.7 Internal Anatomy of the Heart (Unlabeled) 674 Figure 20.8 Heart Valves 675 Figure 20.8 Heart Valves (Unlabeled) 676 Figure 20.9 Function of the Heart Valves 677 Figure 20.10a Blood Flow Through the Heart 678 Figure 20.10a Blood Flow Through the Heart (Unlabeled) 679 Figure 20.10b Blood Flow Through the Heart—Flowchart
82 680 Figure 20.10b Blood Flow Through the Heart—Flowchart (Unlabeled) 681 Figure 20.11 Skeleton of the Heart 682 Figure 20.12 Histology of the Heart 683 Figure 20.13 Conducting System of the Heart 684 Figure 20.14 Comparison of Action Potentials in Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle 685 Figure 20.15 SA Node Action Potential 686 Figure 20.16 Electrocardiogram 687 Figure 20.17 Alterations in the Electrocardiogram 688 Figure 20.18 The Cardiac Cycle 689 Figure 20.19 Events Occurring During the Cardiac Cycle 690 Figure 20.20 Location of the Heart Valves in the Thorax 691 Figure 20.21 Factors Affecting Mean Arterial Pressure 692 Figure 20.22 Baroreceptor and Chemoreceptor Reflexes 693 Figure 20.23 Baroreceptor Reflex 694 Figure 20.24 Chemoreceptor Reflex-pH 695 Figure 20.A Angiogram 696 Figure 21.1 Capillary 697 Figure 21.2 Capillary Network 698 Figure 21.3 Histology of a Blood Vessel 699 Figure 21.3 Histology of a Blood Vessel (Unlabeled) 700 Figure 21.4 Structural Comparison of Blood Vessel Types 701 Figure 21.5 Atherosclerotic Plaque in an Artery 702 Figure 21.6 The Major Arteries 703 Figure 21.6 The Major Arteries (Unlabeled) 704 Figure 21.7 Arteries of the Head and Neck 705 Figure 21.7 Arteries of the Head and Neck (Unlabeled) 706 Figure 21.8 Arteries of the Brain 707 Figure 21.8 Arteries of the Brain (Unlabeled) 708 Figure 21.9 Major Arteries of the Head and Thorax—Flowchart 709 Figure 21.10 Arteries of the Upper Limb 710 Figure 21.10 Arteries of the Upper Limb (Unlabeled) 711 Figure 21.11 Major Arteries of the Shoulder and Upper Limb--Flowchart 712 Figure 21.12a Branches of the Aorta 713 Figure 21.12a Branches of the Aorta (Unlabeled) 714 Figure 21.12b,c Thoracic and Abdominal Aorta 715 Figure 21.12b,c Thoracic and Abdominal Aorta (Unlabeled) 716 Figure 21.13 Major Arteries of the Abdomen and Pelvis—Flowchart 717 Figure 21.14 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limb 718 Figure 21.14 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limb (Unlabeled) 719 Figure 21.15 Major Arteries of the Lower Limb—Flowchart 720 Figure 21.16 The Major Veins 721 Figure 21.16 The Major Veins (Unlabeled) 722 Figure 21.17 Venous Sinuses Associated with the Brain 723 Figure 21.17 Venous Sinuses Associated with the Brain (Unlabeled) 724 Figure 21.18 Veins of the Head and Neck 725 Figure 21.18 Veins of the Head and Neck (Unlabeled) 726 Figure 21.19 Major Veins of the Head and Thorax—Flowchart
83 727 Figure 21.20 Veins of the Upper Limb 728 Figure 21.20 Veins of the Upper Limb (Unlabeled) 729 Figure 21.21 Major Veins of the Shoulder and Upper Limb—Flowchart 730 Figure 21.22 Veins of the Thorax 731 Figure 21.22 Veins of the Thorax (Unlabeled) 732 Figure 21.23 Inferior Vena Cava and Its Tributaries 733 Figure 21.23 Inferior Vena Cava and Its Tributaries (Unlabeled) 734 Figure 21.24 Hepatic Portal System 735 Figure 21.24 Hepatic Portal System (Unlabeled) 736 Figure 21.25 Major Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis—Flowchart 737 Figure 21.26 Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limb 738 Figure 21.26 Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limb (Unlabeled) 739 Figure 21.27 Major Veins of the Lower Limb—Flowchart 740 Figure 21.28 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 741 Figure 21.29 Blood Pressure Measurement 742 Figure 21.30 Blood Vessel Types and Velocity of Blood Flow 743 Figure 21.31 Blood Pressure in Major Blood Vessel Types 744 Figure 21.32 Fluid Exchange Across Capillary Walls 745 Figure 21.33 Control of Local Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds 746 Figure 21.34 Nervous Regulation of Blood Vessels 747 Figure 21.35 Baroreceptor Reflex Control of Blood Pressure 748 Figure 21.36 The Adrenal Medullary Mechanism 749 Figure 21.37 Baroreceptor Effects on Blood Pressure 750 Figure 21.38 Chemoreceptor Reflex Control of Blood Pressure 751 Figure 21.39 Effects of pH and Gases on Blood Pressure 752 Figure 21.40 The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism 753 Figure 21.41 The Vasopressin (ADH) Mechanism 754 Figure 21.42 Control of Blood Pressure Long-Term (Slow-Acting) Mechanisms 755 Figure 21.A Location of Major Pulse Points 756 Figure 21.A Location of Major Pulse Points (Unlabeled) 757 Figure 22.1 Lymphatic System 758 Figure 22.1 Lymphatic System (Unlabeled) 759 Figure 22.2 Lymph Formation and Movement 760 Figure 22.3a Major Lymphatic Vessels in the Thorax and Abdomen 761 Figure 22.3a Major Lymphatic Vessels in the Thorax and Abdomen (Unlabeled) 762 Figure 22.3b,c Lymph Drainage into Veins 763 Figure 22.4 Diffuse Lymphatic Tissue and Lymphatic Nodule 764 Figure 22.5 Location of the Tonsils 765 Figure 22.6 Lymph Node 766 Figure 22.7a,b Spleen 767 Figure 22.7c,d Blood Flow and Histology of Spleen 768 Figure 22.8 Thymus 769 Figure 22.9 Complement Cascade 770 Figure 22.10 Inflammatory Response 771 Figure 22.11 Origin and Processing of B and T Cells 772 Figure 22.12 Antigenic Determinants 773 Figure 22.13 The T-Cell Receptor
84 774 Figure 22.14a Antigen Processing 775 Figure 22.14b Antigen Processing 776 Figure 22.15 Costimulation 777 Figure 22.16 Proliferation of Helper T Cells 778 Figure 22.17 Proliferation of B Cells 779 Figure 22.18 Structure of an Antibody 780 Figure 22.19 Actions of Antibodies 781 Figure 22.20 Antibody Production 782 Figure 22.21 Stimulation and Effects of T Cells 783 Figure 22.22 Major Interactions and Responses of Innate and Adaptive Immunity to an Antigen 784 Figure 22.22 Major Interactions and Responses of Innate and Adaptive Immunity to an Antigen, continued 785 Figure 22.23 Ways to Acquire Adaptive Immunity 786 Figure 23.1 The Respiratory System 787 Figure 23.1 The Respiratory System (Unlabeled) 788 Figure 23.2a Nasal Cavity and Pharynx 789 Figure 23.2a Nasal Cavity and Pharynx (Unlabeled) 790 Figure 23.2b Nasal Cavity and Pharynx—Dissection 791 Figure 23.3 Anatomy of the Larynx 792 Figure 23.4 Vocal Folds 793 Figure 23.5 Trachea 794 Figure 23.6a Tracheobronchial Tree 795 Figure 23.6a Tracheobronchial Tree (Unlabeled) 796 Figure 23.6b Bronchogram 797 Figure 23.7a Bronchioles and Alveoli 798 Figure 23.7a Bronchioles and Alveoli (Unlabeled) 799 Figure 23.7b Photomicrograph of Lung Tissue 800 Figure 23.8 Alveolus and the Respiratory Membrane 801 Figure 23.9a Lobes and Bronchopulmonary Segments of the Lungs 802 Figure 23.9a Lobes and Bronchopulmonary Segments of the Lungs (Unlabeled) 803 Figure 23.9b Lungs and Bronchi—Dissection 804 Figure 23.9b Lungs and Bronchi—Dissection (Unlabeled) 805 Figure 23.10 Effect of the Muscles of Respiration on Thoracic Volume 806 Figure 23.11 Effect of Rib and Sternum Movement on Thoracic Volume 807 Figure 23.12 Pleural Cavities and Membranes 808 Figure 23.12 Pleural Cavities and Membranes (Unlabeled) 809 Figure 23.13 1-2 Alveolar Pressure Changes During Inspiration 810 Figure 23.13 3-4 Alveolar Pressure Changes During Expiration 811 Figure 23.14 Dynamics of a Normal Breathing Cycle 812 Figure 23.15b Lung Volumes and Capacities 813 Figure 23.16 Changes in Partial Pressures of O2 and CO2 814 Figure 23.17 Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve at Rest 815 Figure 23.18 Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve During Exercise 816 Figure 23.19 Effects of Shifting Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve 817 Figure 23.20 Carbon Dioxide Transport and Chloride Movement 818 Figure 23.21 Respiratory Structures in the Brainstem
85 819 Figure 23.22 Modifying Respiration 820 Figure 23.23 Regulation of Blood pH and Gases 821 Figure 24.1 The Digestive System 822 Figure 24.1 The Digestive System (Unlabeled) 823 Figure 24.2 Peristalsis 824 Figure 24.3 Segmental Contractions 825 Figure 24.4 Digestive Tract Histology 826 Figure 24.4 Digestive Tract Histology (Unlabeled) 827 Figure 24.5a Peritoneum and Mesenteries 828 Figure 24.5a Peritoneum and Mesenteries (Unlabeled) 829 Figure 24.5b Abdomen with Greater Omentum in Place—Dissection 830 Figure 24.5b Abdomen with Greater Omentum in Place—Dissection (Unlabeled) 831 Figure 24.5c Abdomen with Greater Omentum Removed—Dissection 832 Figure 24.5c Abdomen with Greater Omentum Removed—Dissection (Unlabeled) 833 Figure 24.6 Oral Cavity 834 Figure 24.7 Permanent and Deciduous Teeth 835 Figure 24.7 Permanent and Deciduous Teeth (Unlabeled) 836 Figure 24.8 Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar Bone 837 Figure 24.8 Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar Bone (Unlabeled) 838 Figure 24.9a,b Salivary Glands 839 Figure 24.9c Photomicrograph of Parotid Gland 840 Figure 24.10 Three Phases of Swallowing 841 Figure 24.11a Anatomy of the Stomach 842 Figure 24.11a Anatomy of the Stomach (Unlabeled) 843 Figure 24.11b,c Histology of the Stomach 844 Figure 24.12 Hydrochloric Acid Production 845 Figure 24.13a Cephalic Phase of Gastric Secretion 846 Figure 24.13b Gastric Phase of Gastric Secretion 847 Figure 24.13c Intestinal Phase of Gastric Secretion 848 Figure 24.14 Movements in the Stomach 849 Figure 24.15 The Small Intestine 850 Figure 24.15 The Small Intestine (Unlabeled) 851 Figure 24.16 Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum and Pancreas 852 Figure 24.17a,b Wall of Duodenum and Villi 853 Figure 24.17a,b Wall of Duodenum and Villi (Unlabeled) 854 Figure 24.17c,d Villus and Microvilli 855 Figure 24.18a,b Liver, Anterior and Inferior Views 856 Figure 24.18a,b Liver, Anterior and Inferior Views (Unlabeled) 857 Figure 24.18c,d Liver, Superior View; Liver Lobules 858 Figure 24.18c,d Liver, Superior View; Liver Lobules (Unlabeled) 859 Figure 24.19 Blood and Bile Flow Through the Liver 860 Figure 24.20 Liver Gallbladder, Pancreas, and Duct System 861 Figure 24.20 Liver Gallbladder, Pancreas, and Duct System (Unlabeled) 862 Figure 24.21 Control of Bile Secretion and Release 863 Figure 24.22 Bicarbonate Ion Production in the Pancreas 864 Figure 24.23 Control of Pancreatic Secretion 865 Figure 24.24a The Large Intestine
86 866 Figure 24.24a The Large Intestine (Unlabeled) 867 Figure 24.25 Histology of the Large Intestine 868 Figure 24.26 Reflexes in the Colon and Rectum 869 Figure 24.27 Monosaccharide Transport 870 Figure 24.28 Lipid Transport 871 Figure 24.29 Lipoproteins 872 Figure 24.30 Transport of LDL into Cells 873 Figure 24.31 Amino Acid Transport 874 Figure 24.32 Fluid Volumes in the Digestive Tract 875 Figure 25.1 Food Guide Pyramid 876 Figure 25.2 Food Label 877 Figure 25.3 ATP Coupling of Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions 878 Figure 25.4 Cellular Metabolism 879 Figure 25.5 1-2 Glycolysis 880 Figure 25.5 3-4 Glycolysis, continued 881 Figure 25.6 Anaerobic Respiration 882 Figure 25.7 Aerobic Respiration 883 Figure 25.8 Electron-Transport Chain 884 Figure 25.9 Lipid Metabolism 885 Figure 25.10 Amino Acid Metabolism 886 Figure 25.11 General Formulas of Amino and Keto Acids 887 Figure 25.12 Amino Acid Reactions 888 Figure 25.13 Interconversion of Nutrient Molecules 889 Figure 25.14 Events of the Absorptive State 890 Figure 25.15 Events of the Postabsorptive State 891 Figure 25.16 Heat Exchange 892 Figure 25.17 Temperature Regulation 893 Figure 26.1a Anatomy of the Urinary System 894 Figure 26.1a Anatomy of the Urinary System (Unlabeled) 895 Figure 26.1b Anatomy of the Urinary System, Cross Section 896 Figure 26.1b Anatomy of the Urinary System, Cross Section (Unlabeled) 897 Figure 26.2a Longitudinal Section of the Kidney and Ureter 898 Figure 26.2a Longitudinal Section of the Kidney and Ureter (Unlabeled) 899 Figure 26.2b Longitudinal Section of the Kidney and Ureter—Dissection 900 Figure 26.2b Longitudinal Section of the Kidney and Ureter—Dissection (Unlabeled) 901 Figure 26.3 The Nephron 902 Figure 26.3 The Nephron (Unlabeled) 903 Figure 26.4a,b Renal Corpuscle—Glomerulus 904 Figure 26.4c,d Renal Corpuscle—Podocyte and Filtration Membrane 905 Figure 26.5a-c Histology of Nephron—Proximal Tubule, Loop of Henle 906 Figure 26.5a,d,e Histology of Nephron—Distal Tubule, Collecting Duct 907 Figure 26.6 Blood Flow Through the Kidney 908 Figure 26.7 Ureters and Urinary Bladder 909 Figure 26.8 Urine Formation 910 Figure 26.9 Filtration Pressure 911 Figure 26.10 Reabsorption of Solutes in the Proximal Nephron 912 Figure 26.11 Reabsorption in the Thin Segment of the Loop of Henle
87 913 Figure 26.12 Reabsorption in the Thick Segment of the Loop of Henle 914 Figure 26.13 Secretion of Hydrogen and Potassium Ions into the Nephron 915 Figure 26.14a,b Filtrate Concentration and Medullary Concentration Gradient 916 Figure 26.14c,d Filtrate Concentration and Medullary Concentration Gradient, ctd. 917 Figure 26.15 Medullary Concentration Gradient and Urea Cycling 918 Figure 26.16 Urine Concentrating Mechanism 919 Figure 26.17 Effect of ADH on the Nephron 920 Figure 26.18 Effect of Aldosterone on the Distal Tubule 921 Figure 26.19 Tubular Maximum for Glucose 922 Figure 26.20 Micturition Reflex 923 Figure 26.A Kidney Dialysis 924 Figure 27.1 Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Concentration 925 Figure 27.2 Hormonal Regulation of Blood Osmolality 926 Figure 27.3a Hormonal Regulation of Blood Volume 927 Figure 27.3b Hormonal Regulation of Blood Volume, continued 928 Figure 27.4 Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Volume 929 Figure 27.5 Regulation of Water and Solute Distribution 930 Figure 27.6 Regulation of Potassium Ions in Extracellular Fluid 931 Figure 27.7 Regulation of Calcium Ions in Extracellular Fluid 932 Figure 27.8 Regulation of Blood Magnesium Concentration in Extracellular Fluid 933 Figure 27.9 Regulation of Blood Phosphate Concentration in Extracellular Fluid 934 Figure 27.10 Comparison of Strong and Weak Acids 935 Figure 27.11a Regulation of Acid-Base Balance 936 Figure 27.11b Regulation of Acid-Base Balance, continued 937 Figure 27.12 Respiratory Regulation of Body Fluid Acid-Base Balance 938 Figure 27.13 Kidney Regulation of Body Fluid Acid-Base Balance 939 Figure 27.14 Hydrogen Ion Buffering in the Filtrate 940 Figure 28.1a Male Pelvis, Sagittal Section 941 Figure 28.1a Male Pelvis, Sagittal Section (Unlabeled) 942 Figure 28.1b Male Perineum, Inferior View 943 Figure 28.2 Histology of the Testis 944 Figure 28.3 Descent of the Testes 945 Figure 28.4a Meiosis During Spermatogenesis 946 Figure 28.4b Blood-Testis Barrier 947 Figure 28.5 Male Reproductive Structures 948 Figure 28.5 Male Reproductive Structures (Unlabeled) 949 Figure 28.6 Penis 950 Figure 28.7 Regulation of Reproductive Hormone Secretion in Males 951 Figure 28.8 Neural Control of Erection 952 Figure 28.9 Female Pelvis, Sagittal Section 953 Figure 28.9 Female Pelvis, Sagittal Section (Unlabeled) 954 Figure 28.10 Uterus, Vagina, Uterine Tubes, Ovaries, and Supporting Ligaments 955 Figure 28.10 Uterus, Vagina, Uterine Tubes, Ovaries, and Supporting Ligaments (Unlabeled) 956 Figure 28.11 Histology of the Ovary 957 Figure 28.12 Maturation of the Follicle and Oocyte 958 Figure 28.13 Maturation and Fertilization of the Oocyte
88 959 Figure 28.14 Female External Genitalia 960 Figure 28.15 Female Perineum, Inferior View 961 Figure 28.16 Anatomy of the Breast 962 Figure 28.17 The Menstrual Cycle 963 Figure 28.18 Regulation of Hormone Secretion During the Menstrual Cycle 964 Figure 28.19 Sperm Cell Movement 965 Figure 28.20 Changes in Hormone Concentration During Pregnancy 966 Figure 28.Aa Meiosis I 967 Figure 28.Ab Meiosis II 968 Figure 28.Bf,g Vasectomy and Tubal Ligation 969 Figure 28.C Leiomyomas or Fibroid Tumors 970 Figure 29.1 Fertilization 971 Figure 29.2 Early Stages of Human Development 972 Figure 29.3 Blastocyst 973 Figure 29.4a,b Placenta Formation 7 and 12 Days Post-Fertilization 974 Figure 29.4c,d Placenta Formation 20 and 28 Days Post-Fertilization 975 Figure 29.5 Mature Placenta and Fetus 976 Figure 29.6 Embryonic Disk 977 Figure 29.7 Primitive Streak 978 Figure 29.8 Formation of the Neural Tube 979 Figure 29.9 Formation of the Digestive Tract 980 Figure 29.10 Human Embryo 35 Days After Fertilization 981 Figure 29.11 Development of the Face 982 Figure 29.12 Development of the Heart 983 Figure 29.13 Development of the Lung 984 Figure 29.14 Development of the Kidney and Urinary Bladder 985 Figure 29.15 Development of the Reproductive System 986 Figure 29.16 Embryos and Fetuses at Different Ages 987 Figure 29.17 Enlargement of the Uterus During Fetal Development 988 Figure 29.18 Parturition 989 Figure 29.19 Factors That Influence the Process of Parturition 990 Figure 29.20a Circulatory Conditions in the Fetus 991 Figure 29.20b Circulatory Changes That Occur at Birth 992 Figure 29.21 Hormonal Control of Lactation 993 Figure 29.23 Human Karyotype 994 Figure 29.24 Inheritance of Sex 995 Figure 29.25 Inheritance of a Recessive Trait: Albinism 996 Figure 29.26 Inheritance of an X-Linked Trait: Hemophilia 997 Figure 29.27 Inheritance of a Polygenic Trait: Skin Color 998 Figure 29.28 Pedigree of a Simple Dominant Trait 999 Figure 29.A Removal of Amniotic Fluid for Amniocentesis 1000 Figure 29.B The Human Genomic Map
89