Objectives for Discussion and Exam Preparation

Psy 6130 -- Fall 2009 Objectives for Discussion and Exam Preparation

Julien, Chapter 1

1. Define pharmacokinetics and identify at least four pharmacokinetic processes that influence a drug’s concentration at its target sites. 2. Identify and briefly describe five routes of drug administration. 3. What is parenteral drug administration? Identify at least four parenteral routes. 4 Summarize advantages and disadvantages of oral drug administration. 5. Summarize advantages and disadvantages of intravenous drug administration. 6. List and briefly describe four body membranes that influence drug distribution. 7. Discuss the importance of lipid solubility to drug absorption and distribution. 8. What constitutes the blood brain barrier? Why is this an important concept to understand when discussing the circulatory distribution of psychoactive drugs? 9. Describe the role of the liver in drug deactivation. What is "first-pass" metabolism? 10. Describe the role of the kidneys in drug excretion and reabsorption. 11. Define elimination half-life. If a drug A has a half-life of 30 minutes and drug B has a half-life of 3 hours, which drug has a longer duration of action? 12. Cite specific examples of how drug elimination may be affected by age and by species. 13. Summarize the importance of therapeutic drug monitoring and discuss at least three goals of TDM. 14. Define tolerance. Describe three mechanisms involved in the development of drug tolerance.

Julien, Chapter 2

1. Define pharmacodynamics. 2. Describe neurotransmitter receptors and list at least four characteristics of these receptors. 3. Identify and briefly describe four types of drug-receptor structures. 4. Define and differentiate the terms agonist and antagonist with respect to drug actions on neurotransmitter systems. 5. Identify and discuss factors that may influence the potency of a drug. 6. Discuss the significance of the fact that drugs often have multiple sites of action. 7. What are dose-response curves and how are they used to study drug effects? 8. Define LD50 and ED50. Draw a dose response curve to illustrate these concepts. 9. Define potency and efficacy. Using a hypothetical dose response curve, illustrate potency and efficacy. If you are given dose-response curves for two or more drugs, be able to indicate which is more potent and which is more efficacious. 10. Define therapeutic index. How is it calculated? Why is it important to be cautious when determining a drug’s safety based on its therapeutic index? Julien, Chapter 3

1. Outline the basic divisions of the central nervous system. Identify at least one structure in each division. 2. Identify and describe the following components of neurons: cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, axon hillock, terminal bouton, presynaptic cell, postsynaptic cell, and synapse. 3. Define membrane potential. What is a “resting” membrane potential? Identify and describe at least two physical forces that contribute to the membrane potential. 4. Define and describe the action potential with respect to ion exchange across the neuron cell membrane. 5. Describe the steps of neurochemical synaptic transmission. Identify two ways that drugs may be deactivated. 6. Distinguish ionotropic and metabotropic receptor activation. 7. For each of the following neurotransmitters, identify at least one brain region where neurons containing these neurotransmitters are found: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine. 8. List at least three examples of neurotransmitters known as monoamines, two examples of amino acid neurotransmitters, and two examples of peptide neurotransmitters. 9. Describe at least five ways that psychoactive drugs may alter neurochemical synaptic transmission. Identify specific drugs for each mechanism of action you describe. 10. List six classes of psychoactive drugs and identify at least one specific example of each.

Julien, Chapter 5

1. Identify examples of CNS depressants available before the 20th century and those that were developed in the early 20th and mid-20th century. 2. List the structural classes of CNS depressants and identify examples of each. 3. List the various clinical uses of CNS depressants. 4. Identify two neurotransmitter systems modulated by CNS depressants. Distinguish CNS depressant effects on these two systems and provide specific examples of drugs for each mechanism described. 5. Define cross-tolerance. List drugs that exhibit cross tolerance with barbiturates. 6. Identify the factors that account for different durations of action among barbiturates. 7. Describe the effects of barbiturates on sleep. 8. Identify and discuss the potential dangers of CNS depressant use by the elderly. 9. Identify and discuss the potential dangers of CNS depressant use by pregnant women. Define teratogenic. 10. Besides epilepsy, for what other clinical use are antiepileptic drugs now commonly used? 11. Summarize the evidence for tolerance, dependence and abuse potential among CNS depressants.

Julien, Chapter 6

1. What are the advantages of benzodiazepines over barbiturates? For example, compare and contrast barbiturates and benzodiazepines with respect to side effects and potential toxicities, and with respect to tolerance, dependence and abuse liability. 2. Describe the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines. 3. List the clinical uses of benzodiazepines 4. List the processes that contribute to the half-life of benzodiazepines. 5. List examples of short-, intermediate-, and long-acting benzodiazepines, and specify the common clinical use of each. 6. Why should elderly individuals avoid using long-acting benzodiazepines? 7. What is the most clinically significant drug interaction involving benzodiazepines? 8. Describe benzodiazepine withdrawal and discuss treatments for benzodiazepine dependence. 9. What is flumazenil? Specify its clinical use. 10. Compare and contrast mechanisms of action and clinical uses of benzodiazepines with those of buspirone. 11. Compare and contrast zolpidem and benzodiazepines. 12. Discuss the treatment of anxiety disorders with benzodiazepines versus serotonin agonists. Specify the advantages and limitations of each.

Julien, Chapter 9

1. Summarize the symptoms of major depressive disorder. Define dysthymia. 2. How has the pharmacotherapy for depression and anxiety disorders changed over the past 40 years? 3. Summarize current conceptualizations regarding the pathophysiology of depression. Contrast the current model with early neurotransmitter deficiency models. 4. Identify the two main classes of “first-generation” antidepressants and list examples of each. 5. Identify examples of the “second-generation, atypical” antidepressants. 6. List some of the commonly prescribed SSRIs and briefly describe differences among them with respect to pharmacokinetics and common prescribed uses. 7. Distinguish SSRIs from the first-generation of antidepressant drugs with respect to pharmacological mechanisms of action and with respect to side effects and toxicity. 8. What are dual-action antidepressants? List examples. Discuss the rationale behind the development of these drugs?

Julien, Chapter 10 1. Summarize the symptoms of bipolar disorder. 2. Outline the pharmacological agents useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Identify specific drugs in each category. 3. List the clinical uses of lithium. 4. Describe the correlations between plasma levels of lithium and the therapeutic and side effects of this drug. 5. Summarize the current conceptualization regarding lithium’s anti-manic effects. 6. Identify major organ systems affected by lithium and the major side effects associated with each system. 7. Discuss the effects of various antimanic drugs on memory and cognition. 8. Summarize the risks of antimanic drug use on pregnancy and fetal development in women with bipolar disorder. 9. Identify some of the major anticonvulsants used in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each. 10. Discuss the issue of patient compliance with mood stabilizers. What measures can be taken to improve compliance? 11. Identify medications or disease states that might exacerbate bipolar disorder symptomology. 12. Summarize and critically evaluate evidence for the role of omega-3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder.

Julien, Chapter 11

1. List positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. 2. Summarize the neuropathological features of schizophrenia. 3. Identify and discuss at least three neurotransmitter systems presumed to be involved in the pathology of schizophrenia. 4. Summarize early evidence that led to the development of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Critically evaluate this hypothesis. 5. Summarize the hypofrontality hypothesis of schizophrenia. 6. List three categories of antipsychotic drugs and identify at least two examples of each. 7. Distinguish traditional neuroleptics from atypical antipsychotics with respect to the symptoms effectively managed by each and with respect to side effects/toxicities associated with each. 8. Distinguish traditional neuroleptics from atypical antipsychotics with respect to their pharmacological mechanisms of actions. 9. Identify the unique characteristics of ziprasidone, aripiprazole, and amisulpride. 10. Compare and contrast new atypical antipsychotics with respect to efficacy and potential health risks, such as diabetes, weight gain, and electrocardiac effects. Julien, Chapter 12

1. Define “off-label” drug use. Why is the use of psychotherapeutic drugs in children considered “off-label”? 2. Discuss the potential advantages and the risks of pharmacotherapy for psychological disorders in children. 3. List the classes of psychotherapeutic drugs that have been examined for treatment of aggressive disorders in children and adolescents. Summarize the rationale for their use. 4. In addition to stimulant drugs, what other drugs have been tested in the treatment of ADHD? Compare and contrast these drugs with stimulant medication. 5. Compare and contrast the different classes of antidepressant drugs in the treatment of childhood and adolescent depression. 6. Compare and contrast the use of benzodiazepines and SSRIs in the treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. 7. Compare and contrast the neuromodulator mood stabilizers and the atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents. 8. Summarize and discuss relevant issues in the treatment of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and prodromal schizophrenia in children and adolescents.

Julien, Chapter 13

1. Summarize the neuropathology of Parkinson’s Disease. What is the main goal of pharmacotherapeutic interventions for Parkinson’s Disease. 2. Describe at least three ways that dopaminergic actions may be augmented in the brain. 3. What is levodopa? Summarize the limitations of its use in the treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. 4. Identify two substances used to potentiate the actions of levodopa and describe their pharmacological actions. 5. Differentiate new and older dopamine receptor agonists and list examples of each. 6. Describe the actions of selegiline. 7. Summarize current conceptualizations regarding the etiology of Alzheimer’s Disease. 8. Identify currently available medications for the treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease. 9. Differentiate the actions of cholinesterase inhibitors from those of memantine. 10. Describe the involvement of glutamate in the actions of memantine, and discuss the presumed neuroprotective effects of this drug. van Haaren, Chapter 1 (Ellenberger)

1. When selecting an appropriate animal model for research, it may be necessary to weigh scientific interests against practical considerations. Cite and discuss specific examples that depict this dilemma. 2. Identify and discuss the essential animal characteristics that must be considered when determining the feasibility of an animal research model. 3. Identify and distinguish five common animal species used in research. 4. For at least three animal species, discuss advantages and limitations of each as an animal research model. 5. Define zoonosis. Why must a scientist who uses animals in research be familiar with zoonotic risks? 6. What is the body responsible for maintaining and assuring that laboratory animal care and experimental uses of animals comply with federal, state and local laws? 7. List at least five federal requirements regarding information to be contained in animal use protocols. van Haaren, Chapter 2 (Porsolt, McArthur, and Lenegre)

1. Distinguish “models” and “tests” in psychopharmacology. 2. List and briefly describe at least three examples of general behavioral screening tests. 3. Summarize the Primary Observation test described by Irwin (1968). Specify at least five items of observation in the Irwin procedure. 4. List examples of tests that assess exploratory behavior. Identify some of the behavioral measures obtained with these tests. Discuss a primary disadvantage of exploratory screening tests. 5. List examples of tests that assess motor performance. What do these tests indicate? 6. What are the two main types of screening tests for antidepressant drugs? List examples of each type. 7. Explain the justification for reserpine antagonism as a screening for antidepressants. Discuss some of the difficulties with this screening tool. 8. Describe two behavioral screening tests for antidepressants. 9. Describe and discuss tests of “behavioral despair”. Identify and discuss limitations of these tests. Specify examples of false positives and false negatives in the forced swimming tests. 10. Identify and briefly describe some of the behavioral screening tests for anxiolytics. 11. Identify at least three types of exploration tests used to test anxiolytic activity and specify the primary dependent measure in these tests. Discuss some of the potential problems with exploration tests. 12. Describe examples of conflict tests. What are the advantages of these tests over exploration tests in screening anxiolytic activity? Identify and discuss some of the criticisms of conflict tests. 13. Describe some of the screening tests for neuroleptic drugs. 14. On what hypothesis are most neuroleptic screening tests based? Summarize the rationale for developing new screening tests for antipsychotic drugs? 15. Identify and briefly describe some of the non-mechanistic tests for neuroleptic activity. 16. Define catalepsy and dyskinesia. Why is it important to screen neuroleptics for these effects? 17. Identify specific examples of extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) observed in primates. Why should we avoid considering EPS as a unitary side effect of neuroleptics? 18. Identify and discuss some of the hindrances to the development of screening procedures for cognitive enhancers. Discuss some of the general methodological considerations in developing screening tests for cognitive enhancers. 19. Describe some of the screening tests currently used to screen cognition enhancing effects of drugs. 20. Identify the most widely used pharmacological challenge for screening novel compounds for cognitive-enhancing potential. 21. Describe the most widely used behavioral procedure for cognition screening. Specify the advantages and limitations of this test. 22. Describe the spontaneous alternation procedure. What kinds of manipulations have been shown to impair performance in this test? 23. Describe the Morris Water Maze. What type of memory is it presumed to measure? 24. What manipulations have been shown to impair performance in the Morris Water Maze. Identify a key criticism of this test. van Haaren, Chapter 4

1. Identify and discuss examples of environmental variables that may influence behavioral effects of drugs. 2. Identify and discuss some of the advantages associated with the use of positive reinforcement schedules to study behavioral effects of drugs. 3. List some key dependent measures when determining dose-effect functions of drugs on behavior. 4. In determining dose-effect functions in behavioral pharmacology studies, what factors besides pharmacological and physiological mechanisms of drug action are important to consider? 5. Describe the procedures involved in establishing dose-effect functions in behavioral pharmacology experiments. Discuss the importance of establishing stable baseline behavior prior to administering drug or vehicle injections. 6. Behavioral pharmacology experiments may be conducted to assess the development of tolerance, to assess whether an experimental drug antagonizes the behavioral effects of another drug, or to determine if an experimental compound potentiates the behavioral effects of another drug. Draw hypothetical dose-effect curves to depict tolerance, antagonism, and potentiation. 7. Define positive reinforcement. 8. Identify and describe examples of response-based reinforcement schedules. 9. Identify and describe examples of time-based reinforcement schedules. 10. Identify and distinguish among the following combined schedules of reinforcement: multiple, mixed, chained, and tandem schedules. 11. Identify and distinguish among the following combined schedules of reinforcement: concurrent, conjoint, conjunctive, and alternative schedules. 12. Of the above combined schedules, which are more frequently used in behavioral pharmacology and which are less frequently used. Discuss. 13. Define rate-dependency. Who was the first to establish this concept in behavioral pharmacology? Describe the rate-dependent effects of psychostimulant drugs. 14. Summarize the effects of at least four different drug classes on response rates maintained by different schedules of positive reinforcement. 15. Summarize the results of at least one study that examined behavioral history as a determinant of drug effects on behavior maintained by different schedules of positive reinforcement. van Haaren, chapter 5 (Dworken, Pitts, and Galizio)

1. Define negative reinforcement and describe an example. 2. Identify one of the earliest behavioral procedures utilizing negative reinforcement to be used in behavioral pharmacology. 3. Summarize the effects of at least three drugs from different pharmacological classes on behavior maintained by negative reinforcement. 4. Describe the signaled avoidance-escape procedure and differentiate the effects of neuroleptics from those of anxiolytics in this procedure. 5. Describe the shock titration procedure. What pharmacological class of drugs is this procedure primarily used to evaluate? 6. Identify and describe the most widely used techniques in the behavioral pharmacology of negative reinforcement. 7. Distinguish free-operant avoidance procedures from discrete-trial procedures. 8. Describe the modified free-operant avoidance procedure implemented by Heise and Boff (1962) What comparison was allowed by this procedure? 9. Summarize the behavioral effects observed with the various drugs tested by Heise and Boff (1962) using a modified free-operant avoidance procedure. What classes of drugs reduced avoidance responding? What classes increased avoidance responding? 10. Highlight some of the methodological difficulties with free-operant avoidance procedures. 11. Why is response rate alone and insufficient index of performance under a free- operant avoidance schedule? List additional dependent measures that may be used to characterize performance. 12. Cite examples to depict the influence of baseline performance on drug effects under free-operant avoidance schedules. 13. Summarize some of the strengths and limitations of free-operant avoidance schedules. 14. Describe the variable cycle avoidance schedule. Summarize results from at least two studies that examined drug effects under this type of schedule. 15. Describe procedures involving time out from avoidance. Describe and discuss the effects of at least two drugs investigated under these procedures. Identify drugs that produce similar effects under time out from avoidance procedures and avoidance procedures. Identify drugs that produced differential effects under these procedures. 16. Describe stimulus-shock termination procedures. Summarize results of the classic study by Kelleher and Morse (1964) comparing drug effects on stimulus shock termination and food-maintained behavior. What are the implications of these findings? 17. Describe research findings that indicate the importance of the schedule maintaining responding, independent of the maintaining event, in determining behavioral effects of drugs. Identify examples that challenge this interpretation. 18. Discuss some of the limitations of shock-maintained behavior. Identify schedules under which shock readily maintains behavior and those under which it does not. van Haaren, Chapter 6 (Picker and Negus)

1. Define stimulus control. 2. Identify at least three behavioral processes involved in the stimulus control of behavior. Why is it important to distinguish among these three behavioral processes when studying drug effects on stimulus control? 3. Identify at least three common behavioral paradigms used to establish stimulus control and to examine drug effects on stimulus control. 4. Describe an example of a free operant procedure used to establish stimulus control. 5. Describe the free operant conditional discrimination procedures employed by Katz in a series of studies (1982, 1983, 1988) to examine drug effects on stimulus control. Summarize the main findings of those studies. 6. Describe and discuss examples of discrete trial procedures used to examine stimulus control. What are the main advantages of these procedures over free operant procedures. 7. Describe the repeated acquisition procedure. Highlight the findings of Picker and Poling (1984) in a study using this procedure. 8. Describe the incremental repeated acquisition procedures implemented by Paule and McMillan (1984) and summarize their main findings. 9. Describe the fixed-consecutive-number procedure. Summarize the results of at least one study that implemented these procedures. 10. Identify the five operant tasks that comprise a behavioral battery developed by the National Center for Toxicological Research and indicate what behavioral process each task is meant to measure. 11. Identify and briefly summarize key experimental variables that influence drug effects on stimulus control. 12. Describe the signal detection procedure employed by Dykstra and Appel (1974) to examine LSD’s effects. Summarize their main findings. 13. What procedure offers one of the most powerful techniques for evaluating drug effects on stimulus control? Why? 14. Based on the findings of a variety of studies reviewed in this chapter, what is the overall conclusion regarding the impact of stimulus control on the behavioral effects of drugs.

van Haaren, Chapter 7 (Pontecorvo and Clissold)

1. Define the construct working memory. List examples of working memory test paradigms. 2. Identify examples of delayed response tasks. 3. Describe conditional/discriminated delayed response tasks 4. Describe the delayed alternation task. 5. Describe the delayed matching to position task and the delayed non-matching to position task. Summarize some of the advantages of these procedures. 6. Describe a delayed matching to sample task and distinguish it from the DMTP task. With what species are DMTS procedures often used? 7. Summarize some of the advantages and limitations of the DMTS task. 8. Describe and distinguish delayed response and delayed comparison tasks. 9. Describe the repeated discrimination procedure employed by Clissold et al. (1991). van Haaren, Chapter 11 (Meisch and Lemaire)

1. Identify and briefly describe at least three control procedures required to demonstrate evidence of drug-reinforced behavior. 2. Identify and discuss some of the procedural variables that differ among drug self- administration studies. 3. List the different routes of administration that have been investigated in drug self- administration studies. 4. Discuss the relationship between infusion duration and reinforcing efficacy of drugs. Based on a review of studies published in 1990, what did the authors conclude regarding the variables of infusion volume and duration? 5. Describe some of the different approaches employed to establish drug self- administration behavior and discuss the influence of prior training history on drug self-administration. 6. Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of the intravenous route in drug self-administration studies. 7. Identify three different surgical procedures for inserting intragastric catheters for oral drug self-administration studies. Discuss possible complications following intragastric catheterization. 8. Identify some of the advantages and some of the limitations of intragastric drug delivery in studies of drugs as reinforcers. 9. Summarize the advantages and limitations of intracranial drug delivery to investigate drugs as reinforcers. 10. Distinguish intracranial and intracerebroventricular routes of drug delivery. Summarize the advantages and limitations of the icv route. 11. Describe the two-bottle choice test used in oral drug self-administration studies. 12. Describe procedures that have been successfully implemented to establish orally delivered drugs as reinforcers. 13. Identify some drugs that have been shown to function as negative reinforcers. Cite specific research findings. 14. Identify and briefly describe key dependent variables in studies of drugs as reinforcers. Why is absolute response rate an insufficient measure? 15. Describe the typical shape of dose response functions with respect to response rate measures in drug self-administration studies. 16. Summarize the effects of FR size on dose-response functions. Cite specific research findings. van Haaren, Chapter 13 (Branch)

1. Provide an operational definition of tolerance and of sensitization. 2. Distinguish tolerance from habituation. 3. Describe three ways in which the study of dose-effect functions helps clarify the difference between tolerance and habituation. 4. Summarize some of the evidence that distinguishes behavioral tolerance from physiological tolerance. Cite findings from the following studies  Schuster and Zimmerman (1961)  Chen (1968)  Schuster et al., (1966)  Carlton and Wolgin (1971) 5. Summarize the reinforcement loss hypothesis as an explanation for behavioral tolerance. Discuss some of the limitations of this interpretation. 6. Summarize the effects of reinforcement schedules on tolerance as depicted by the results of the following studies: Hoffman et al. (1987); Genovese (1988); Smith (1990); Smith (1986). 7. Summarize evidence from the Smith (1990a) study regarding situation specificity of tolerance. Describe the procedures and main findings of this study. 8. Discuss some of the potential problems with assessing tolerance to the discriminative stimulus effects of drugs. How did Sannerud and Young (1987) get around these problems to demonstrate evidence of tolerance to the discriminative effects of morphine? Describe their procedures and main findings. van Haaren, chapter 16 (Pare and Glavin)

1. Define stress according to Gatchell and Baum (1983), cited in this chapter. 2. Identify at least three components of the stress response. 3. Discuss the concept of “appraisal” to account for individual differences in responses to complex stressors. Provide a brief example that illustrates how the appraisal processes is influenced by learning. 4. Identify two major determinants of psychological stress. 5. Why do experiments with psychological stressors require more than one experimental treatment condition? 6. List examples of behavioral and physiological measures frequently examined in stress studies. 7. Define “learned helplessness”. Summarize the laboratory procedures used to examine this phenomenon. 8. Describe the role of central monoamine pathways in modulating the physiological effects of stress. Cite at least two specific experimental results. 9. Identify and describe at least three laboratory procedures involving examples of physical stressors. 10. Identify and describe at least two laboratory procedures involving examples of psychological stressors. 11. Describe at least four instances in which stressors may be administered in an unpredictable manner. 12. Identify the three treatment conditions necessary when examining predictability as an independent variable. According to the authors of this chapter, have most studies on unpredictable stress implemented adequate experimental control? Explain. 13. Briefly summarize the contribution of operant techniques to experimental studies of stress beginning in the 1960s. 14. Summarize classic experiments by Seligman and Maier (1967) and by Weiss (1968) which demonstrated the importance of controllability in modulating stress responses. van Haaren, chapter 17 (Commissaris)

1. Provide an operational definition of conflict behavior. 2. What drug class is most frequently prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders? Identify at least two other drugs gaining recent popularity in the treatment of anxiety. Briefly describe the pharmacological actions of each. 3. Name the two primary categories of conflict paradigms and list specific examples of each. Compare/contrast these paradigms with respect to advantages and/or limitations. 4. Describe the experimental procedures involved in at least three of the following paradigms: elevated plus maze task, light-dark test, novelty-suppressed feeding, consummatory negative contrast, social interaction test. 5. Summarize the experimental procedures in conflict paradigms based on classically conditioned fear. 6. Describe and discuss experimental procedures in operant conflict paradigms, such as the Geller-Seifter paradigm, and subsequent modifications to this procedure. 7. Summarize research results on the effects of drug treatments in operant conflict paradigms. 8. Describe punished drinking procedures. Discuss limitations of the Vogel conflict task. 9. Summarize the effects of benzodiazepines, buspirone, antidepressant drugs, and adrenergic agonists in various conflict procedures. (Hint: see Table 1 on page 462) 10. Summarize the effects of anxiogenic treatments in conflict procedures. van Haaren, chapter 18 (Higgins, Bickel, and Hughes)

1. Identify the various research settings in which human behavioral pharmacology studies are conducted. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these different research settings. 2. Describe the use of drug-discrimination procedures in human populations. Describe an example of at least one specific study using these procedures. 3. Define stimulus equivalence. Describe a study that combined drug discrimination and stimulus-equivalence training. Summarize the importance of this type of research. 4. Identify four categories of procedures used to assess the direct behavioral effects of abused drugs in human populations. 5. Identify at least two examples of procedures involving arbitrary operants that are commonly used in human behavioral pharmacology research. 6. Describe the Digit-Symbol-Substitution-Test and summarize the findings of Higgins et al. (1990) in a study that examined the effects of cocaine on DSST performance in humans. 7. Describe the repeated acquisition of behavioral chains procedure and summarize the findings of at least one study using this procedure to assess drug effect in humans. 8. Identify three instruments most commonly used to assess subject ratings of drug effects in human behavioral pharmacology studies. Briefly describe these instruments. 9. Identify and describe the two most common methods used to study drug self- administration in humans. 10. Define behavioral economics. Discuss the use of behavioral economics in the investigation of environmental factors that influence human drug self-administration. 11. Discuss the use of contingency management procedures in substance abuse treatment outcome studies. 12. Describe the procedures and main findings of at least one study in which contingency management procedures were implemented as part of treatment for drug dependence and prevention relapse.