Premier S Macquarie Bank Science Scholarship s1

PREMIER’S TEACHER SCHOLARSHIP REPORTS

Premier’s Macquarie Bank Science Scholarship

Enhancement of learning through the effective integration of presentation technologies, computer modelling and data collection into the teaching/learning cycle in physics

Greg Pitt Hurlstone Agricultural High School

Sponsored by

1 PREMIER’S TEACHER SCHOLARSHIP REPORTS

Synopsis of the Study Tour and Project The study tour was conducted in the USA during January and February, 2008. During the first week I attended the conference of the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) in Baltimore where I met teachers, scientists and representatives of companies that produce modelling and simulation software. In Baltimore I met scientists at Johns Hopkins University. I visited the Smithsonian Museums in Washington, a valuable source of information relevant to the project. In Chicago I met scientists at the University of Chicago and Loyola University, visited three Chicago high schools, met Nobel Prize recipient Leon Lederman and spent three days at Fermilab. I spent a day at the Kennedy Space Center, including the education centre, and another day in Daytona visiting the Embry-Riddle Aerospace University where I had the opportunity to explore modelling and simulations used in the aerospace industry. In New Mexico I spoke to scientists from the Los Alamos and Sandia National Laboratories and visited science museums in Los Alamos and Albuquerque, which contributed to my investigations. The final stage of my study tour was spent in Portland, Oregon, where I visited two more schools and Vernier, the company which manufactures data logging equipment that plays a significant role in enabling students to gather and analyse real-world data and to develop models for these data. It is impossible to communicate the enthusiasm of the scientists with whom I spoke and their patience in allowing me to explore with them the way in which they engage in their research. I hope that, through reading this report, teachers will gain a better insight into the ways in which scientists work. Models and the NSW HSC Physics Course Models may be physical models, conceptual models, mathematical models or computer simulations. The HSC Physics course requires students to apply models to explain the physical behaviour of the universe and to engage in “learning experiences through which students will … progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to the understanding of models and concepts and the explanation of generalised physics terms”. Students are required to analyse “the ways in which models, theories and laws in physics have been tested and validated”. They are also required to “use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make predictions”. Physicists themselves use the term “model” in a variety of ways. Roman Frigg provides a useful definition: “the term, ‘model’ refers to a simplified and stylised version of the part or aspect of the world that we are interested in (the so-called ‘target system’)”. Models are important in physics because they have predictive power. Professor Eric Mazur of Harvard says, “The way the brain stores information is by storing models. You try to make a conceptual model of what you see. You try to explain the things you see by finding relationships between parameters”. Modelling is what scientists do Through listening to many scientists I came to the conclusion that modelling is fundamental to what scientists do. Some selected examples from my study illustrate this. At the APPT conference, Lawrence Hall and Beate Heinemann (both from UCB) and Rudiger Schmidt (CERN) spoke about the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the role that it will play in elucidating the Standard Model. Gathering data to test scientific models and theories makes the LHC one of the most significant machines of this century. Matthew Briggs from the Los Alamos National Laboratories (LANL) described modelling work carried out there, which includes modelling weapons, climate, the Earth’s magnetism, 2 PREMIER’S TEACHER SCHOLARSHIP REPORTS plate tectonics and a range of astrophysical phenomena. Work being done at the LANL is described in the Bradbury Science Museum. Modelling just a single storm begins with millions of 3-D cells.

For each cell, initial conditions including pressure, air velocity, moisture and temperature are specified. These models typically incorporate dozens of variables related by differential equations for which exact solutions are not possible. As is the case for all models, simplifications are made to make the model practical. At Johns Hopkins University (JHU), I spoke to Dr Pierre Chayer. JHU scientists, including Dr Chayer, played the major role in coordinating the operation of the NASA Far Ultraviolet Satellite Explorer (FUSE) space telescope. Dr Chayer has modelled white dwarf stars to predict their observed atmospheric compositions. Achievements of FUSE include obtaining data that have further validated the Big Bang Theory and improving models of stellar origins.

Fermilab, Chicago In Chicago I discussed the role played by models with Professor Leon Lederman, a Physics Nobel Prize laureate and former director of Fermilab. He talked about the atomic model and remarked on the difference between the model encountered in high school textbooks and the research that has revealed so much about the internal structure of protons and neutrons.

Photo: Professor Lederman and Greg Pitt (right) At Fermilab, Don Lincoln showed me the D-zero detector section of the Tevatron particle accelerator and explained the various parts of the system used to detect muons and other charged particles created by collisions in the Tevatron. Experiments using the Tevatron produce data, which help to develop subatomic particle models. Stephen Mrenna is a physicist at Fermilab who works mainly on mathematical modelling. He discussed the place of models and theories in science. He said that despite the name, the Standard Model is a theory in the same sense as Einstein’s General Relativity Theory.

University of Chicago, Chicago At the University of Chicago’s James Frank Institute (JFI) Dr Margo Levine described her work on self-assembling quantum dots, conical 3D-structures produced by depositing germanium atoms individually onto a silicon crystal. She said that to develop a model for the structures it was assumed silicon and germanium atoms had different atomic radii. This permitted equations describing this model to be solved from which a more comprehensive model could be developed.

At University of Chicago, Professor Cheng Chin spoke to me about his work on Bose- Einstein condensates (BECs). Cesium BEC was chosen because its use results in there being less thermal noise and hence fewer variables are involved which simplifies the modelling process. Because of their shared properties analysis of BEC may result in better models for some types of stars. At the University of Chicago Dr Zosia Krusberg, a cosmologist, who is developing theoretical models for dark matter interactions, said that existing models predict the masses of dark matter particles and that theoretical models that she is developing are based on these. She explained how models would produce predictions which could then be used to guide where and how further data might be obtained and analysed, leading to the acceptance, modification or rejection of the models.

Loyola University, Chicago Professor Gordon Ramsey at Loyola University focuses on theoretical studies of spin- polarised fundamental particles. Also a musician, he discussed the comparison of sounds made by real instruments with sounds produced by synthesisers – essentially a modelling process. In the last 30 years, efforts to model musical instruments electronically have met with increasing success as the parameters that affect our perception of musical sounds have been progressively analysed and reproduced electronically. At Loyola University, I spoke to Assistant Professor Dr. John Bougie whose research interests include Granular Media, Fluid Dynamics and Physics Education. John’s research into the behaviour of granular materials makes use of mathematical, computer and visual models. His research finds application in the food and drug industries where solid granular materials must be transported and mixed. His models include simplifications and do not account for variables such as rolling friction between particles or that particles may become charged. Comparing the models’ predictions with observations of real materials tests the validity of the models. Loyola University’s Associate Professor John Dykla’s interests include general relativity theory and interpreting solutions to Einstein's equations. Professor Dykla spoke about the detection of gravity waves predicted by the General Theory of Relativity. He described a laser interferometer (LIGO) used to detect the predicted gravity waves. LIGO uses two detectors separated by more than 3000 km. These will not respond simultaneously to terrestrial vibrations whereas vibrations associated with gravity waves should appear almost simultaneously at each detector. This is an example of a model – a part of the General Theory of Relativity – being tested to see whether the predictions of the theory can be validated experimentally. At Embry-Riddle Aerospace University (ERAU) in Florida, Professor Jack McKisson reiterated the opinion of other scientists that models are an approximation to reality because models make assumptions which simplify the process of describing reality. Professor McKisson used Ohm’s Law as an example of a model. The law works well when large numbers of electrons are considered, but does not model what happens to individual electrons in a conductor.

Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories I spoke to scientists from both of these laboratories about their work. Dr Yue Chen is an astrophysicist at LANL who conducts research in an area he referred to as “space weather”. He is part of a group that is working on developing a model for the

5 PREMIER’S TEACHER SCHOLARSHIP REPORTS behaviour of the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. Improved models of these belts may allow for satellite design and control that makes them less susceptible to damage. Yue indentified three types of models. The first he called a “theoretical model”, the basis of which were well-understood physical laws which could be applied to yield solutions. The second type of model he called a “computational model” in which not all the physics was understood and in which it was not possible to identify all the variables. Such models produce results which make sense and which agree reasonably well with observations. A third type of model – the type he is working on – Yue referred to as a “data assimilation model”. This type of model, he said, has been borrowed from weather prediction models. The data assimilation model merges key components of the other two models. Dr Mark Boslough works at the Sandia National Laboratory in New Mexico. He is currently working on the development of a model for the social effects of climate change. Part of this model deals with perception of risk and the irrational human response. For example, people have great fear of sharks but not of bees despite the fact that bees kill more humans directly than any other animal. He spoke about the importance of Occam’s Razor and noted that there comes a point when simpler models have to be sought when the assumptions and propositions required to support a model become absurdly complex. Dr Boslough’s resolution of one scientific debate by applying this strategy provides an excellent insight into the nature of science. At Embry-Riddle Aerospace University (Daytona, Fl), Mike King demonstrated the use of wind tunnels in aerodynamic modelling. At ERAU I learned about weather modelling and its importance to aviation. Severe weather poses high risks to both planes and human lives, and thus the capacity to model weather systems to make accurate predictions goes beyond academic interest. Models and simulations play a role in the training of aircraft control tower operators. The examples described in this section demonstrate the fundamental role of modelling in science. Because of the complexity of the real world, models provide a window through which sense can be made of it and, more importantly, useful predictions can be made which lead to useful applications of science. Modelling and pedagogy The use of models in the teaching-learning cycle to represent structures or processes helps students to understand complex ideas in science by showing the relationship between the most significant variables or components in a system. Nobel laureate Professor Leon Lederman was passionate about the need for students to learn about science and the importance of having students carry out hands-on investigations as early as possible, including at primary school. Van Bistrow (University of Chicago) emphasised the importance of laboratory experience in developing students’ science skills because experiments play such a significant role in scientific investigations. At Fermilab, scientists including the Australian physicist Peter Kaper discussed the role of school science projects. It was felt that a common problem was that students did not understand the need to simplify their investigations by devising an experiment or model that removes as many of the complicating variables as possible. At the AAPT conference, Robert A. Morse presented pedagogical material based on the work of Benjamin Franklin. Save for the fact that Franklin’s assumption about the charge carriers was the opposite of what now know to be true, his electric current

6 PREMIER’S TEACHER SCHOLARSHIP REPORTS model has much in common with today’s model – an unsurprising observation given the meticulous experimental basis for Franklin’s model. Paul Hewitt is a well-known US textbook author and physics teacher. At the AAPT conference he described his approach to teaching physics based on a non- mathematical approach. By placing an emphasis on the understanding of physics, rather than mathematical equations, he found that students’ satisfaction with physics increased. Paul reflected on Richard Feynman’s admonition to “teach no physics in high school because physics teachers have no passion for physics”. Paul explains the philosophy underpinning his texts on his website.

School Visits In Chicago, I visited three schools; Glenbrook South High School, Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy (IMSA) and Walter Payton College. At Glenbrook South High School in Chicago practical work and technology play significant roles in the teaching-learning process. They have a comprehensive guide to their physics course on the Internet. Much of the content is suitable for the NSW Physics course. I observed students investigating trolley collisions using computer- based Vernier data logging equipment with motion sensors, and they compared their measurements with predictions from mathematical models. At the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy (IMSA), Branson Lawrence and Diane Hinterlong discussed the importance of getting students to analyse problems. To facilitate this, Branson described the Socratic questioning strategy, which seeks to have students deduce answers for themselves. At Walter Payton College I visited Matt Silvia’s grade 9 physics class in which students were following up a previous first-hand investigation of Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The day-to-day integration of technology into student investigations and as a teaching tool was apparent in Matt’s work with this class. It was interesting that the word “model” was explicitly mentioned at least 10 times in the first five minutes of the lesson. Matt’s classroom approach is based on modelling being a fundamental part of students’ learning as expounded by David Hestenes at Arizona State University. At the Science and Technology High School in Portland, Oregon, Hector Morales discussed the role that technology plays in student learning at the school. In conducting practical investigations, students make extensive use of data logging as a basis for modelling physical phenomena. Museums and Models Museums are a rich source of models. The following examples provide a foundation for further exploration.

At the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry there was a replica of the Watson and Crick model of DNA, constructed from wires, sheets of metal and laboratory apparatus, including clamps of the kind commonly found in school laboratories. Another display presented the organism Caenorhabditis elegans as a model for human aging. Other models included the solar system, the internal structure of the Earth, weather and many types of machines, all serving to reinforce the importance played by models in conceptualising the world around us.

At the aerospace museum, part of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC, there were many examples demonstrating the role of models in science. Despite the use of supercomputers in solving aerodynamic problems, physical models tested in wind tunnels are a fundamental part of aerodynamic research.

The Kennedy Space Center Education Resource Center (ERC) provides educational resources. Printed information, charts, photos and DVDs are available from the centre and through the Internet. Students can learn about aspects of space travel using several excellent simulations accessible through the Internet. I was fortunate to meet and hear astronaut Jon McBride talking about his experiences as an astronaut.

Modelling and technology Student learning can be enhanced through the integration of real data collection, computer modelling and effective presentation technologies into the classroom. I found the following to be particularly useful:  Crocodile Physics lets the user model a range of physical phenomena including electricity, motion and forces, optics and waves.  Interactive Physics (IP) can be used to create models of physical systems that are both dynamic and interactive. IP is a particularly powerful learning tool when the behaviour of modelled systems is compared with the real system behaviour or when extrapolating first-hand investigations in ways not possible other than with a model.  Easy Java Simulations (EJS) is a free, open-source tool for creating Java physics models. The interface has been developed to allow users to focus on the underlying physics rather than the programming aspects of developing simulations.  Vernier produces data loggers and a range of sensors and software that allow students to measure real-world data and to mathematically model relationships between measured variables. LabQuest is a new touch screen data logger that enables students to easily conduct quantitative experiments and analyse data to produce mathematical models for data without having to understand the underlying mathematics.

Conclusion An essential element of science is the development of models that describe observations and relationships. Models enable predictions to be made and this makes science useful because the knowledge that it embodies can be used to do things which are useful and which underpin technology. Students learning about science must understand the role of modelling in science. Data logging technology and computer software make it possible for students to develop their own models. Technology, as the product of science, also makes it possible to deliver content, to make learning meaningful and thereby stimulating learning experiences in the classroom.

References General Rationale statement in NSW HSC Physics syllabus The Aim of the NSW HSC Physics course The Physics Teacher, Vol 43, 2005 Eugenia Etkina, Aaron Warren & Michael Gentile, Rutgers Univesity, New Brunswick, NJ

Interactive Teaching (DVD), Professor Eric Mazur, Harvard, published by Pearson Prentice Hall 2007

Websites http://www.aapt.org http://lhc.web.cem.ch/lhc http://www.lanl.gov/museum http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/gmb/moorthi/gam.html http://fuse.pha.jhu.edu http://jfi.uchicago.edu/aboutinstitute/index.shtml. The James Franck Institute is an interdisciplinary association of scientists with primary interests in the study of physical chemistry and condensed matter physics. http://www.luc.edu/physics/facilty http://www.lal.gov http://sandia.gov http:/www.tufts.edu http://theyphysicsfront.org http://www.conceptualphysics.com http://changingminds.org http://modeling.asu.edu http://www.senescence.info/models http://education.ksc.nasa.gov/educators http://www.crocodile-clips.com http://www.design-simulation.com http://www.um.es/fem/EjsWiki http://www.vernier.com