Human Anatomy and Physiology 233

Human Anatomy and Physiology – 233 Study Guide

ABG’s Be able to diagnose: Resp. acidosis, Resp. alkalosis, Met. acidosis, Met. Alkalosis What are the compensations for each of these and what is the process to determine compensation? What are the symptoms of the each of the above symptoms? What conditions might causes each of these conditions to occur?

Urinary system: What is the location of the kidneys? How would this be described? What is the pathway of urine through the major features of the urinary system? Know what happens in each step of urine formation and where these steps occur. What occurs during filtration, reabsorption and secretion? What is the difference between filtrate and urine? How does the kidney compensate for Respiratory acidosis and Respiratory alkalosis? What happens at the site of? Glomerulus and Glomerular capsule Proximal convoluted tubule Loop of Henle Distal convoluted tubule Collecting Duct What parts of the nephron do Aldosterone and ADH affect? What if there is oversecretion of either of these hormones? What if too little? Where in the kidney is water reabsorbed? Review urinalysis and be able to identify what is normally in the urine and what would be abnormal. E.g. what is albuminuria? Proteinuria? What is the significance of a hypertonic medullary interstial fluid? What is the role of renin and angiotensin in the maintainance of blood pressure? What are diuretics and what is their action on urine production? What substances act as natural diuretics? Where is the micturition reflex center and how does this work to maintain control? What is the concept of tubular maximum and how might glucose appear in the urine? Why is kidney dialysis used? What are some of the diseases that can lead to kidney failure? Are you aware of the names describing variations in urine production? What factors contribute to these conditions? What happens to GFR and NFP if hypotension occurs? Hypertension? Features of kidney anatomy: Calyxes, pyramids, renal medulla, renal cortex, renal pelvis. Features of the bladder anatomy: Associated muscles, type of epithelium, feedback mechanisms involved. Fluids, Electrolytes & Buffers: Know the levels of compensation and how each system compensates for the other. What are two electrolyte imbalances that could result from alkalosis. What are two electrolyte imbalances that could result from acidosis. Know how calcium is affected by acidosis and alkalosis. Know the bicarbonate carbonic acid ratio. Know where the fluids are found in the body. What are the major cations and anions found in each of the 3 compartments? Which electrolyte is predominant within cells? In the interstitial fluids? Plasma? Know how buffers work and what they are composed of. Where is each buffer system predominant? Why is carbonic acid important? How do they minimize pH changes? What are the signs and symptoms for too much calcium, sodium and magnesium? What are the signs and symptoms for too little calcium, sodium and magnesium? Study the signs and symptoms of respiratory and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis and how the electrolyte imbalances may contribute/reflect each. Which electrolyte is predominant within cells? In the interstitial fluids? Plasma? Which electrolyte participates in carbohydrate and protein metabolism? What is meant by increased membrane excitability? What are carpopedal spasms? What is meant by the neuromuscular junction? Which endocrine gland(s) are involved with regulation of calcium levels? Edema: Causes, symptoms and relationship to BV and BP. How is thirst regulated and what causes thirst?

Digestive System: Know the major anatomical organs of the digestive system, including their location, their respective function, secretions and applicable hormones and unique features (such as microvilli, goblet cells, Islets of Langerhans, etc.). What is the route of digested material? What are the different processes involved in digestion? Ingestion > Elimination What hormones are involved with the conversion of glucose to glycogen and what hormone mediates this process? Can you name each of the primary nutrient and their role in the body? How does the body digest each of these and where is the major digestion/absorption site? Where is water reabsorbed in the digestive system? Why doesn’t the acid produced in the stomach cause it to digest itself? What are the various sphincters associated with regulation of the movement of food through the GI? E.g. pyloric, gastroesophageal etc. What is the difference between mesentery and peritoneum? What are the respective layers of the GI tract tissue? Disorders of the Digestive system (know causes and symptoms): Ulcers, Cirrhosis, Colon Cancer, Diabetes, Appendicitis, Gallstones etc. What hormones are involved with digestion? e.g. CCK, gastrin, secretin What enzymes are involved with the digestive process? What vitamins are synthesized as part of the digestive process? Where is the acids in our stomach produced and how are they neutralized? Know about the dentition patterns of humans including the role of the teeth in digestion.