Cross-Cultural Management Journal Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015

Cristina Elena ALBU ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Romania

INTERCULTURAL Literature Review COMMUNICATION IN

Keywords , Tourism, Communication, Stereotype, Cultural shock, Intercultural communication.

JEL Classification D83; M14; L83

Abstract

Communication is involved in all social life acts, being the constituent factor of creation and of cultural processes. and intercultural dialogue are intensely discussed topics in today's society which is marked by . Cultural differences are the core subject for studies addressing intercultural communication. Good knowledge of other is a necessary step to get to recognize the nature of these differences and to relate to others through attitudes of understanding and tolerance which are premises for genuine intercultural dialogue, especially in the tourism industry. While communication is an act of human relationships, culture is the motive of this act. In tourism, quality of communication is related to the level of the culture involved and to the degree of improvement of the means of which is done. Intercultural communication experiences help tourists to know and to appreciate other cultures, but also help them to a better understanding of their own culture.

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Introduction 1. Culture Tourism is a nowadays phenomenon, In an anthropological sense, culture is ”the based on increased need for health recovery and for collective programming of the mind by which changing environment, as well as for “the birth and members of a group or social categories are the development of a sense of openness for distinguished from others” (Hofstede, 2012). beauties of nature” (Ionescu, 2000). People always Intercultural communication operates with this have focused on widening spatial and temporal anthropological concept of culture defined by Geert horizon of knowledge of their existence. One of the Hofstede as the “software of the mind”. If you have main means of achieving that objective was forgotten everything you learned, if all the (Ferenţ, 2007). Somehow involuntarily travels are information gathered was deleted from your marked by communication in many ways in which memory, what remains is just this software that this can occur: between tourist and tourism service represents culture. provider, among tourists from different cultures, Culture influences communication: the between employees of different nationalities of study of intercultural communication focuses not agencies etc. only on language use; the study of intercultural Good communication is not just communication recognizes how culture outlines transmitting information, but also a mutual who we are, how we behave, how we think, how understanding of each other's wishes and needs. we speak (Dodd, 1995). We recognize and respect Communication may be difficult if one of the the way which cultural footprint justify differences parties is dominant and rejects intercultural in communication style, vision and personality of dialogue, this fact influencing negatively the forms everyone. of tourism taking place in a particular destination. Cultural features were often attributed to Sometimes, it may appear negative aspects of heredity because philosophers and other scholars communication, from the rejection of the idea of from past did not know how else to explain the dialogue, up to violent manifestation of its own remarkable stability of the differences between position. In the tourism industry, this event can cultural patterns of human groups. They appear especially when tourists interact with local underestimated the impact of learning from population, which, in this case, would consider previous generations and the transmission to the tourists some intruders in their own culture. next generation of what we ourselves have learned. Communicative behaviours of individuals Ethnic conflicts are often justified by unfounded are the result of complex interactions between arguments of “superiority or inferiority of culture” cultural factors, contextual factors, knowledge and (Hofstede, 2012). emotion. The way we communicate is anchored The cultural differences act in different culturally, shaped by attitudes, values, practices ways. From the multitude of terms used to describe and specific expectations of an ethnic group, which the manifestations of culture, the next four types are created and circulated in the communication cover well enough the whole concept: symbols, process. Communication situations involving heroes, rituals, values and practices (as shown in individuals from different cultures are called Figure 1): intercultural communication situations. In the ▪ symbols: are words, gestures, pictures or objects process of intercultural communication, tourists that have a specific meaning that cannot be from different cultural backgrounds “negotiate their recognized as such only by those who share that cultural identities, rules of meaning, perception, culture. The words of a language or of slang belong effects which may occur in the interaction process” to this category, as well as clothing, hairstyle, flags (Şerbănescu, 2007). and symbols that define a social status. This is the In intercultural communication situations reason why the symbols have been placed towards within tourism can arise communication barriers, the outside - the surface layer. misunderstandings caused by differences in ▪ heroes: they are people, living or dead, real or behaviour, perceptual or of meaning, that exist imaginary, endowed with the qualities esteemed in between tourists coming from different cultures as a culture, and therefore serve as patterns of well as negative stereotypes activation. behaviour. Communication barriers may exist between tourists ▪ rituals: they are collective activities, even if it and staff from a specific tourism company (, does not help in practical terms to achieve desired , , etc.). Misunderstandings, goals, within a culture are considered essential wrong interpretations, communication gaps are an within social plan. Therefore, their fulfillment has a inherent feature of intercultural communication. in itself. The experiences of intercultural communication ▪ values: the core of culture consists of values: help the individual to know and to appreciate other these are general tendencies to prefer certain cultures, but also to better understand its own situations than others. Values are bipolar feelings: culture. they have a positive and a negative dimension.

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▪ practices: these include symbols, heroes and reactions from one we interact, which confirms the rituals. These are visible per se for an outside stereotype group. When we try to inhibit activated observer; their cultural significance remains stereotypes in our minds, the processes involved in invisible and depends only on how these practices the inhibition of stereotypical material lead to its are interpreted by those within the group. increased accessibility, which makes those Culture offers tourists the opportunity to stereotypes to return later in our mind with greater get in touch with the history, traditions and customs intensity than if we had not tried to suppress them. of other nations, that contributes to the Our psychological processes analyze in such a way the stereotypical information or counter- development of self, to accommodate with the stereotypical information, that very often contribute lifestyle of the population from certain tourist to maintain stereotypes rather than to change them. destination. Stereotypes have an important role in tourism since some ungrounded information can 2. Stereotype – part of the culture influence a tourist to visit or not a certain place. A stereotype is a cognitive generalization Therefore, it is ideal for tourists to inquire in about a particular social group which brings advance about destination that they plan to visit, for together members of a group through a specific getting familiar to specific cultural aspects of that attribute. These cognitive associations can appear area, in order not to experience a cultural shock. anytime and it is not necessary “to be based on a Often, this informing clarifies many stereotypes in specific culture” (Miller et al., 2012). “In tourism, the mind of tourist and can permanently change its stereotypes are used to describe tourists and locals. perception on certain features of a tourist Stereotypes can influence the perceptions of destination, of the local population, of how should tourists and hosts that they have about each others.” behave in public in countries that are totally Positive stereotypes can attract tourists, while different from that of the tourist (for example, this negative ones can drive them away (Reisinger, difference may be reflected under the aspect of 2009). religion, customs, behaviour towards tourists: their From social point of view, “building-up acceptance or rejection by the host population). of stereotypes depends on” (Cernat, 2005): ▪ status of observed groups (high-status group 3. Cultural Shock members perceived as effective and competent); Intercultural encounters are often ▪ nature of relations between groups (group accompanied by similar psychological and social members which we are in conflict are perceived as processes. The simplest form of intercultural unsociable and immoral); encounter is that between a stranger and a new ▪ social roles that are mostly played by group cultural environment, which is quite common in the members (female roles lead to communal tourism industry. Usually, “the foreigner goes stereotypes and masculine roles lead to agentic through a form of cultural shock” (Hofstede, 2012). stereotypes); Uninformed foreigner may struggle to learn a few ▪ Conversational eloquence and communicability symbols and rituals of the new environment (words features which constitute stereotypes. to use, how to welcome, when to offer gifts), but it Once formed, stereotypes are activated is unlikely to recognize and much less to feel the and applied to individuals belonging to social values from deeper layer. Somehow, a visitor in a groups, often in an automatic way (the time foreign country returns to the newborn stage where required for activation of stereotypes is very short, he has to learn from the beginning the simplest a few hundredths of a second). They affect us both things. This usually generates disconcerted impressions and behaviours (through the feelings, helplessness and hostility to the new mechanism of stereotypical threat or through direct environment. link mechanism of perception-behaviour). In order ”People who spend much time in a foreign that these processes not to become automatically, cultural environment manifest mood changes that we should have sufficient cognitive resources follow more or less strict the curve” available to be motivated enough or to have weaker (as shown in Figure 2). Positive or negative stereotypes, conditions that are not easily feelings are represented on the vertical axis and accomplished in everyday life. time on the horizontal axis: In tourism, the use of stereotypes can be ▪ Phase One: ”is a period of euphoria (usually benign, but often it has negative social short): , excitement of travelling and consequences. Stereotypes can function as seeing new lands.” prophecies that are self-fulfilled. When interacting ▪ Phase Two: is a period of cultural shock when with a person who belongs to a group perceived as the tourist comes in contact with the new aggressive, group stereotype is activated in our environment. mind and unconsciously affects our behaviour. This ▪ Phase Three: ”called acculturation; this occurs aggressive behaviour generates, in turn, aggressive when the visitor gradually learned how to work in

9 Cross-Cultural Management Journal Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015 new conditions, has adopted some of the local elements by their offspring in order to optimal values, has more self-confidence and begins to integrate in community life” (Cucoş, 2000). integrate into a new social environment.” Unlike , acculturation ▪ Phase Four: it is then stable mood is finally designates "the process by which an integrative acquired. ”It could remain negative compared to culture imposes less influential representatives of a home mood (4c), if, for example, the visitor culture, through socialization agents, its defining continues to feel himself stranger and patterns". Being a fundamental cultural exchange, discriminated; could be as good as before (4b) - in born from the encounter between two cultures, which case it can be considered that the visitor is acculturation “produces lasting and profound bicultural adapted, or may be even better (4a) - in changes on individual and collective personality” this case, the visitor has become indigenous” (Rudmin, 2008). The assimilation of engulfing (Hoftede, 2012). cultural patterns is done willingly or not, being In the tourism industry this accompanied by distinct ways of acculturation: takes place especially when tourists choose as a integration, assimilation, etc. According to the way destination a country totally different from of organizing contacts between communities its own in terms of religion as it was pointed before (presence or absence of manipulation of cultural (for instance, an Romanian orthodox tourist will and social realities), “acculturation can be remain extremely surprised if he will travel to an spontaneous, forced or imposed” (Abou, 2009): Arab country like Egypt, where 95% of the ▪ spontaneous acculturation (free, natural) is population is Muslims and therefore, this is why crystallizing when there is a permanent contact women cover their face, head, sometimes whole between the populations involved (for example, a body with traditional Muslim clothes; at first tourist destination where foreign tourists are glance, Romanian tourist would see this as a permanently present), but there are influential restriction of women's freedom - thus are born also mediators which make it possible (welcoming local cultural stereotypes). population); the change is simply resulting from Thus, the tourist spends more time in a this encounter. new environment, it is more likely for him to adapt ▪ forced acculturation: when the power of social and accept the traditions and customs from that and political context imposes it, but the methods of area; in time, what appeared to be unacceptable, acculturation are negotiated silently by the groups can enter in the normal category. There is also the involved; (this is when a certain tourist destination opposite situation, when the tourist cannot accept is promoted at governmental level to the tourists the lifestyle of the population in a certain tourist from a particular country - basically, it is destination, which could shorten its stay. But in the recommended to the tourists of a certain nationality current economic and informational environment, to visit a specific country; thus, with the same all should be based on the acceptance of the other, category of tourists for a long time, the destination no matter how different he might be in terms of the population takes characteristics from the tourists’ culture from which he comes. culture, losing gradually, its own traditions). ▪ imposed acculturation: it is the case of 4. colonization, where the rhythm and manner of The human being is not just a biological is acquired by force; (strongly being, but first of all a sociocultural one, as it was promoted tourist destination, where foreign tourists proven by its ability to acquire skills, to formulate come constantly, although the local population its interests and to promote social values. The best does not agree with their presence in that area and known cultural learning processes are enculturation adopts a hostile behaviour towards them). The and acculturation. First defined in 1945 by effects generated by these types of acculturation American anthropologist Herskovitz, enculturation differ depending on their degree of flexibility. was explained as ”the sum of direct acquisitions The distance, greater or less, between which do not involve a deliberate learning, cultures being in contact will influence the articulating a sensitivity intellect which is social acculturation process and, of course, the degree of assumed” (Gavreliuc, 2011). Therefore, prestige that these cultures have; stressed or enculturation becomes everything acquired during permissive history of mutual relations, their higher a lifetime because it is available and socially or lower homogeneity plays an important role on valued. Also, enculturation can be considered a the impact of acculturation phenomena that can process by which the individual, born with permanently change tourism in a specific significant behavioural potentialities, is led by destination. groups to which it belongs to develop a wished behaviour, according to their standards. 5. Intercultural Communication Enculturation means the process by which a Between communication and culture “cultural group incorporates specific valued exists and operates a circular relation, hard to define and decipher. Culture and communication

10 Cross-Cultural Management Journal Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015 form an odd couple. Neither is explained without key issues of intercultural communication the other. The two phenomena are not perfectly represents incorrect communication or even insulated, “do not contain each other or cannot be misunderstanding. located in the parallel plane of reflections through Intercultural communication refers to a analogue correspondence” (Caune, 2000). process of interpersonal communication, direct, Communication enters in the definition of culture unmediated, which takes place between people and culture enters in the definition of aware of their cultural differences. Intercultural communication. They contain each other in part, communication was born “due to the interaction of through their common element, symbolic language several common notions such as: cross-cultural (considered to be the common root of communication, international communication, communication and culture) (Georgiu, 2010). ” (Jandt, 2004). Communication is a process that involves ”The contact with other cultures changes the following items (Şerbănescu, 2007): the way the tourist perceives, contributing to its ▪ transmitter (speaker); spiritual enrichment.” In tourism, intercultural ▪ receiver (listener); communication regards the interaction between ▪ channel of communication (written or oral, direct tourists of different nationalities, between tourists or mediated by telephone, radio, computer, etc.); and the local population where they spend their ▪ code (symbols and rules for combining symbols, stay, between tourists and specialized personnel particularly in the language in which with whom they meet, between employees of communication takes place); different nationalities or from different cultures ▪ context (wide range situation where which operates in different units of tourist communication occurs); accommodation: , , leisure centers, ▪ referent (“the facts of the real world described in travel agencies etc. With the risk of wrongly communication”) (Şerbănescu, 2007). perceiving the message, staff working in the Each of these elements is influencing the tourism industry must ensure constantly that the way we communicate. To the six components of information provided is understood correctly by the the communication process it is added ”the noise” tourist, and vice versa: the tourist must clearly state as a whole of psychophysical elements, that may its preferences, so there will be no confusions or affect the transmission of the message which can doubts regarding enjoyment of the services be thus distorted. requested. Communication establishes a path of influencing human individuals, or groups of 6. The tourist: the ultimate recipient of the individuals, by other individuals or groups, and communication through this influence, the influenced one is Participants in tourist communication can brought to a close level of the influential factor, but be grouped into the following categories: never to the same level. Communication is ▪ institutional actors (governmental organizations therefore based on cooperation, meaning both the involved in the tourism industry); influential agent and influenced agent must be ▪ associative actors (agents that connect tourism directly related and act, first one by offering or associations and public authorities); imposing, and the other one by receiving. If ▪ individual actors (companies and individuals). cooperation is interrupted, then the communication Among them there are performed at process is interrupted too, “therefore, the two different levels and at different times, exchanges of agents do not make the transfer from one to information leading to mutual understanding, to another” (Oprea, 2008). establishing business connections or competitive Explicit thematic of intercultural relationships, to cooperation in designing plans, communication was made for the first time by developing strategies and development of projects, American ethnologist and semiotician Edward T. all subordinated to a common goal: “the expansion Hall. The concept of ”intercultural communication” of the tourism phenomenon, one of the most appeared for the first time in his work ”The Silent important factors of economic, social and cultural Language”, published in 1959. In the analysis of development” (Rotar, 2006). culture that he makes, the American researcher For a sustainable development of the starts from a semiotic model. In his view, dialogue tourism industry, communication in all sense and partners are using not only the language, but also a levels, between all emitters and receivers of number of non-verbal expressions such as tone, tourism messages and tourists, has become a key facial expressions and gestures. In every culture, element. Communication in tourism goes beyond negation, affirmation, permission, prohibition, the strict framework of relationship between astonishment etc., are accompanied by specific professional worker and tourist. Apart from the gestures, facial expressions and tones. If these are providers and the intermediaries of tourism not properly interpreted, communication will fail services (hotel, company, travel agency, and will not achieve its goal. Therefore, one of the etc.) there are a variety of partners that must be

11 Cross-Cultural Management Journal Volume XVII, Issue 1 / 2015 taken into account. The whole system of tourist of the world we live in, by the existence of communicators has the main recipient the tourist – universal truths, by inherent similarities between the reason of this complex mechanism composed of people, by the universal activities in which all men actors above aforesaid, most of which are are getting involved, by the answers they give to performing actions that directly concern him. stimuli received from the environment. The In tourism, the criteria that differentiate differences between cultures are not random. On potential tourists are: one hand, these differences are the result of the ▪ socio-demographics: age, sex, socio-professional geographical, social, cultural, economic, political, category, household income, family composition, religious, historical environment from which family cycle. tourists are coming. On the other hand, differences ▪ geographical: place of origin (behavioural are the result of subjective interpretation by the differences according to region or country), tourists of various elements and relationships from proximity destinations (determines the way of the outer world and of shaped by thoughts and travelling and influences transport costs), places of actions, in the form of attitudes, of values, as a stay (climate, traditions). system of rules that guide their choices in life. ▪ psychographic: tourist personality (psychological profile, cultural and ideological values), lifestyle Acknowledgement (types of activities, centers of interest, opinions and This paper is a result of a research made reactions), motivations (physical, cultural, possible by the financial support of the Sectoral relational or related to self-image). Operational Programme for Human Resources Taking into account the criteria for Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the segmentation of the tourists, the companies European Social Fund, under the project operating in the tourism sector can create POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132400 - “Young successful individual and customized offers, can change their researchers – professional development in an way of addressing in relationship with the tourist international and interdisciplinary environment”. and can achieve a high quality intercultural communication. References [1] Abou, S. (2009). De l’identité et du sens [The Conclusions identity and the sense]. Paris: Perrin. A quality communication is not just a [2] Caune, J. (2000). Cultură și comunicare. simple transmission of information, but also a Convergențe teoretice și locuri de mediere mutual understanding of each other's wishes and [Culture and Communication. Theoretical needs. Specialized staff in the tourism industry has Convergences and places of mediation]. the responsibility to ensure consistently that the Bucharest: Cartea Românească. information provided is correct perceived by the [3] Cernat, V. (2005). Psihologia stereotipurilor different perceptions of stimuli received from [Psychology of stereotypes]. Iași: Polirom. outside. [4] Cucoș, C. (2000). Educația. Dimensiuni Subjective interpretations and perceptions culturale și interculturale [Education. Cultural are stored by tourists in the form of beliefs that are and intercultural dimensions]. Iași: Polirom. tourist but at the same time, the tourist must clearly [5] Dodd, C. (1995). Dynamics of Intercultural state their preferences to avoid confusion or Communication. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. ambiguities in receiving requested services. Brown Company Publishers. The experiences of intercultural [6] Ferenț, E. (2007). Economia și managementul communication help tourists to understand and turismului [Economy and Tourism appreciate other cultures and, at the same time, to Management]. Iași: Politehnium. better understand their own culture. In the process [7] Gavreliuc, A. (2011). Psihologie interculturală of intercultural communication, tourists from [Intercultural Psychology]. Iași: Polirom. different cultural backgrounds express their cultural [8] Georgiu, G. (2011). Comunicarea identities, perceptions, all coming to surface as a interculturală. Probleme, abordări, teorii result of interaction. In situations of intercultural [Intercultural communication. Problems, communication, could arise communication approaches, theories]. Bucharest: barriers, caused by the differences in behaviour or Comunicare.ro. perception, that exist between tourists coming from [9] Hofstede, G. (2012). Culturi și organizații. different cultures as well as negative stereotypes Softul mental. [Cultures and organizations. activation. The contact with other cultures changes Mental software]. Bucharest: Humanitas. the tourist’s perceiving way, thus contributing to its [10] Ionescu, I. (2000). Turismul, fenomen social, cultural and spiritual development. economic și cultural [Tourism, a social, There are similarities between cultures, economical and cultural phenomenon]. but also differences and mutual influences. The Bucharest: Oscar Print. similarities are represented by the objective reality

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[11] Jandt, F. (2004). An introduction to Intercultural Communication; Identities in a Global Community. London: Sage Publications. [12] Miller, S.L., Zielaskowski, K. & Plant, E.A. (2012). The Basisof Shooter Biases: Beyond Cultural Stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, pp. 1358-1366. [13] Oprea, I. (2008). Comunicare culturală și comunicare lingvistică în spațiul European [Cultural and linguistic communication in European space]. Iași: Institutul European. [14] Reisinger, Y. (2009). . Cultures and Behavior. USA: Elsevier. [15] Rotar, G. (2006). Comunicare în turism [Communication in Tourism]. Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană. [16] Rudmin, F. (2008). Constructs, measurements and models of acculturation and acculturarive stress. Intercultural Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 106-123. [17] Șerbănescu, A. (2007). Cum gândesc și cum vorbesc ceilalți. Prin labirintul culturilor. [How others think and speak. Through the labyrinth of cultures]. Iași: Polirom.

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Figures

Figure 1. The Onion Diagram of Geert Hofstede (Source: http://www.slideshare.net/iigreencandyii/cultural- onion)

Figure 2. The Acculturation Curve (Source: http://hyraxllc.com/content/leading-and-management/is-culture- shock-ruining-your-chances-overseas/)

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