What Is the Book of Psalms?

Psalms Introduction

What is the Book of Psalms?

Songs? Praise? Prayer? Liturgies? Complaints? Instruction? Confession? The answer is, “all of the above.” The Book of Psalms is a collection of both similar and disparate poems from a variety of literary and historical backgrounds with a variety of purposes for existence and use.

The Book of Psalms has often been called “The Hymnbook/Prayer book of the Second Temple.” The second temple period begins with the rebuilding of the temple in 516 BCE to the destruction of Herod’s temple in 70 CE. This dating obscures the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s temple by Herod in the first century BCE. However, it represents the days of formative Judaism, and clearly the formation of the Book of Psalms occurred primarily during this period. However, as will be presented below, some of the psalms were clearly pre-exilic. Furthermore, evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls shows that the Book of Psalms was still in a state of flux during this period, all the way into the first century CE, although the first portion of the Hebrew Psalter was apparently canonized earlier than the latter portion.

McCann states, “the book of Psalms presents nothing short of God’s claim upon the whole world and … articulates God’s will for justice, righteousness, and peace among all peoples and all nations.”1 Thus, the psalms contained in the biblical book proclaim the greatness of God and the prophetic theology of justice and righteousness. Brueggemann states, “the book of Psalms provides the most reliable theological, pastoral, and liturgical resource given us in the biblical tradition. …The Psalms are helpful because they are a genuinely dialogical literature that expresses both sides of the conversation of faith.”2 Gerhard von Rad echoed the dialogical nature of the Book of Psalms. He called the psalms “Israel’s Answer” to the acts of God, rehearsing those acts, responding both positively and negatively to Yahweh, and interacting with Him in praise.3 Claus Westermann begins one of his books on the psalms, “the psalms are poems or lyrics which have survived for centuries, through changes of civilization, religions and languages, to speak still a living word to us today. The reason for this continued vitality of the psalms is that their words are directed to God, they are prayers and appeals to Him.”4

These four descriptions serve to display the importance of the Book of Psalms, and the variety of ways to look at the psalms in the book. They also point out the recognition that the psalms are relevant and conversant in the modern, or better postmodern, world. As McCann states, interpreters should recognize the psalms “both as humanity’s words to God and as God’s word to humanity.”5 The present study will begin with a brief history of interpretation and then a brief overview of the Forms/Types of Psalms.

1 J. Clinton McCann, “Psalms,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, ed. by Leander Keck, et al, VI: 641-1280 (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996), 641. 2 Walter Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1984), 15. 3 Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 1, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 355-370. 4 Claus Westermann, The Living Psalms, trans. J. R. Porter (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 1. 5 McCann, “Psalms,” 642. He describes his approach as an “incarnational” approach to scripture. Scripture is the record of “humanity’s encounter with and response to God.” The psalms are the quintessential examples of incarnational scripture. Critical Study of the Book of Psalms

As Brueggemann states, current readers of the psalms live in a post-critical world.6 The student of the psalms must understand the foundation upon which he or she stands. His own rubric builds upon the work of Gunkel, Mowinckel, Westermann, and Childs.

Every student of the Book of Psalms stands upon the shoulders of Hermann Gunkel, knowingly or in ignorance. Gunkel developed the form-critical norms of psalm study in use today.7 He reminded his readers that unlike much modern (even religious and liturgical) literary materials the psalms of the Old Testament arose “in the real life of persons and have their setting therein. …the genres of an ancient writing must be differentiated by the various events of life from which they developed.”8 Gunkel then developed and elaborated upon common literary forms in the psalms: hymns, communal complaint songs (a.k.a. laments), royal psalms, individual complaint songs, and lesser forms, such as pilgrimage songs, victory songs, and wisdom poetry.

As Brevard Childs points out, the crucial conclusion of Gunkel’s work was the demonstration that “the historical settings of the psalms were not to be sought in particular historical events, but in the cultic life of the community.”9 This conclusion is crucial because whether one interprets the psalms as cultic poetry or historical literature affects their interpretation in many ways. Sigmund Mowinckel, who was a younger contemporary of Gunkel, sought to carry Gunkel’s theory even further to discover concrete historical, cultic contexts for the individual psalms.10 Mowinckel’s contributions are many, but the most influential theory he presented was that the Enthronement Psalms were part of an annual Enthronement Festival, where Israel symbolically enthroned Yahweh on the throne of the nation.11 Such a festival was commonplace in other Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) cultures.

Literary Types

Form-Criticism, developed primarily by Hermann Gunkel, with its recognition of literary types, is the prevailing means of organizing, studying, and interpreting the psalms in the modern scholarly world. We will look at a few of these psalm types in our study today. One should note that form-criticism can become a defining theme rather than a method for study. Scholars sometimes force forms onto the psalms as the currently exist. Poetry does indeed tend to exist in forms; on the other hand, poetry tends to exhibit a great deal of freedom within the forms. This truth should serve as a warning against over-applying form critical methods. Nonetheless, recognition of forms can be a useful organizational and study tool.

6 Brueggemann, 17. 7 Hermann Gunkel, Introduction to Psalms: The Genres of the Religious Lyric of Israel, completed by Joachim Begrich, trans. James D. Nogalski (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998). 8 Ibid., 7. 9 Brevard Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 509. 10 Ibid. 11 Sigmund Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, Two Vols., trans. D. R. Ap-Thomas (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1962). Hymns

The hymn, Westermann’s “descriptive praise,”12 is an expression of praise to God, usually in the third person. It is primarily a communal activity. McCann lists these components.13

 Opening invitation to praise (כ ייי  Reasons for praise, often introduced by “for” (Hebrew ki  Recapitulation of invitation to praise

Psalm 96 (also called an “Enthronement song,” as a subcategory of hymn) --96:1-3—Call to Worship the Lord --96:4-6—Act/attributes of the Lord for which He deserves praise --96:7-13—Concluding call to praise because He reigns as king

Complaints/Laments These are essentially prayers to God, usually during time of trouble, distress, or calamity. These prayers are expressed individually and as a community (hence, “Individual Laments” and “Communal Laments”). The individual lament is the most frequent type in the psalter. They include both a cry for help and a proclamation of trust in the Lord. McCann14 presents the basic elements of the lament as:  Opening address, often with a vocative (“O Lord”)  Description of the trouble  Plea or petition for God’s response, sometimes with reasons that He should help  Profession of trust or confidence  Promise of vow to praise God or offer a sacrifice

Psalm 42-43 —Address to God or cry for help (42:1-2, 9; 43:1) —Description of current distress (42:3, 5a, 6-7, 10-11a; 43:5a) —Affirmation of Trust (42:4, 5b, 8, 11b, 43:5b) —Vow to praise and assurance of being heard (43:2-4)

Thanksgiving Songs

The thanksgiving song is related to the lament because it is based upon deliverance. In these psalms, the singer expresses gratitude for deliverance from some distress, sometimes delineated and sometimes not expressed. McCann lists the following components.15

 Expressions of praise and gratitude to God  Description of the trouble or distress from which the psalmist has been delivered

12 Westermann, 11. 13 McCann, “Psalms,” 648-649. 14 Ibid., 644-645. 15 Ibid., 647.  Testimony to others concerning God’s saving deeds  Exhortation to others to join in praising God and acknowledging God’s ways

Psalm 92 --92:1-3--Introductory summary and resolve to give thanks. --92:4-14—Reason for giving thanks --92:8--Note the somewhat chiastic structure with v. 8 as a statement of praise at the center of the psalm. The reign of Yahweh is the central reason for praise & thanksgiving. Everything else describes His rule. --92:15—Summary of Thanksgiving

Royal/Messianic Psalms These psalms are categorized by content more than form. They are related to the king in some way. There is a wedding song (Ps. 45), a battle song/prayer (Ps. 20), and perhaps coronation songs (Pss. 2, 21, 72, 110). All of these show a special connection between Yahweh and the king.

Some of these came to be viewed as messianic in the DSS, Judaism, and the NT (i.e. Ps. 2:1f/Acts 4:25f; Ps. 45:6f/Heb. 1:8f; Ps. 110:1/Mt. 22:44/Acts 2:34f; & Ps. 110:4/Heb. 5:6, 10). In fact, Gerald Wilson argued that the placement of royal psalms at strategic places in the Book of Psalms gave these psalms and the psalter as a whole a messianic orientation.16

Psalm 110 --Ps. 110:1 is the most cited or alluded to OT text in the NT (Mt. 22:44, 26:64; Mk 12:35-37, 14:62; Acts 2:34, 35; 1 Cor. 15:25; Eph. 1:20; Col. 3:1; Heb. 1:3; 1 Pet. 3:22). --Two stanzas: --1-3—Promise to king/messiah and description of victory --4-7—Promise to king/messiah and description of victory

Wisdom Psalms

These psalms display certain characteristics of Wisdom Literature. Debate has raged concerning the applicability of the term “form” to the wisdom psalms, as well as concerning their importance in the Hebrew psalter. In fact, some scholars have suggested that the term “Wisdom Psalm” is a misnomer that interpreters should avoid.17 McCann, however, points out that other scholars argue that the entire psalter is given an “instructional orientation” because of the placement of wisdom psalms—or at least psalms with wisdom themes—at important places in the Book of Psalms, such as Psalm 1.18

Psalm 1

16 See Gerald Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, SBL Dissertation Series 76 (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985). See also McCann, “Psalms,” 649-650. 17 James L. Crenshaw, The Psalms: An Introduction (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 87-94. 18 McCann, “Psalms,” 650. --The way of the righteous (Ps. 1:1-3). Note wisdom themes: contrast of two ways of life, delighting/meditating on the law, prosperity/blessing to righteous, and nature imagery. --The way of the wicked (Ps. 1:4-5). The wicked man will be excluded from the righteous, i.e. God’s people. --Concluding statement of the relationship of the righteous and wicked with the Lord (Ps. 1:6).

Other Types

McCann notes three other types of psalms, while others list more or less. His three are Entrance Liturgies (Pss. 15 and 24), Prophetic Exhortation (Pss. 50, 81, 95), and Psalms of Confidence or Trust (Pss. 16, 23, 91). Furthermore, many psalms consist of “mixed types” or are not categorizable.19 This ambiguity in types leads to another area of psalm study, which McCann lists as “Rhetorical Criticism,” which pays close attention to literary features.

Poetry, Translation

--Parallelism --Synonymous --The two lines of the poetic pair (bi-cola) are basically synonymous. The second line restates the thought of the first in different words. PS 24:1 The earth is the LORD's, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it;

PS 27:1 The LORD is my light and my salvation-- whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life-- of whom shall I be afraid?

--Antithetical --The second line expresses the opposite of the first, thus stating its antithesis. PS 1:6 For the LORD watches over the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish.

--Synthetic or Ascending --The second line in the poetic pair expands or explains the thought of the first. PS 25:16 Turn to me and be gracious to me, for I am lonely and afflicted.

--Chiasm -- PS 107:32 Let them exalt him in the assembly of the people and praise him in the council of the elders (NIV). --lit., “Let them exalt him in the assembly of the people and in the council of the elders praise him.”

19 Ibid., 650-652. -- PS 109:30 With my mouth I will greatly extol the LORD; in the great throng I will praise him. --lit., “I will give thanks to the LORD greatly with my mouth, in the midst of the multitude I will praise him.”

--PS 91:13 You will tread upon the lion and the cobra; you will trample the great lion and the serpent. --lit., “Upon the lion and cobra you will tread; you will trample the great lion and the serpent.”

--Acrostic --An acrostic is a mnemonic device (for memory) in which each line, verse, or other section begins with the next letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Examples are Psalms 111, 112, and 119. In the latter, each of the eight lines of each verse begins with the same letter, and the next eight lines begins with the next letter, and so on. הלהלללו ייהההי׀ אודדההה ילההוהה בילכהל־לבבההב בילסהודד ילשרהריהים בולעדההה׃ 2 ג ילהדדליים שמלעשיבהי ילהוההה דילהדילהרו ישריהים ללכהל־חהפלצביהההם׃ 3 הודד־ולההדההר לפיההעלהוד ולהצידלקהתהוד עדמההדהת להלהעד׃ 4 זבהכהר העהשיהה ללניפלללאדתההיו חל ןחלניהו י ולרלחהו ים ילהוההה׃ 5 טההרהף נהתלהן ליהירבאההיו ייזלכ ידהר ללעודלההם בילרייתהוד׃ (Psa 111:1-5 WTT)

Historical Development of the Psalms

--Pre-monarchic Psalms --Psalm 29—Canaanite mythological images?

--Psalm 82—“gods” reflects pagan influence?

--Psalms from David’s reign --Psalm 23 --Shepherd imagery makes connection with David possible, as well as the linguistic and theological parallels with 2 Sam. 7:13. --Psalm 18 (=2 Sam. 22)—Chicken or egg?

--Psalms of the 1st Temple --Psalm 72—Royal psalm, kingdom still alive

--Psalm 24—Up to holy mountain, temple standing.

--Psalm 78 (cf. 78:60 and Jeremiah 7)—These are the only two references to the destruction and/or rejection of Shiloh in the OT. This could suggest a connection between the texts, at least in general time period.

--Songs of the 2nd Temple --Psalm 137 (exile?)—This psalm was obviously written during or shortly after the exile (i.e. before temple and Jerusalem was rebuilt).

--Psalm 51—The walls of Jerusalem appear unbuilt, i.e. pre-Nehemiah.

--1 Chronicles 16:8-36—Reapplication of pre-exilic psalms?

--Psalms & Hymns outside of the Book of Psalms --Exodus 15 --Job 3 --Jeremiah 18:19-23; 20:7-12 --Habakkuk 3:1-19 --Isaiah 38:10-20 --Luke 1:46-55 --Philippians 2:6-11 --Colossians 1:15-20

Canon, Arrangement, Authorship

--Arrangement of the Psalms Masoretic Text Septuagint 11QPs a20 1-8 1-8 9-10 9 11-113 10-112 101-103, 109, 114-115 113 118, 104, 147, 105, 116 114-115 146, 148 117-146 116-145 121-132, 119, 135-136, 145 147 146-147 139, 137-138, 93, 141, 133

20 Tyler Williams, “11Q5 (11QPsa) Qumran Psalms Scroll,” available at http://biblical- studies.ca/dss/introductions/11QPs-a.html, accessed 3 February 2009. 148-150 148-150 144, 142-143, 149-150, 140 151 134, 151

--These differences suggest that 150 was the number of the initial collection of the Psalms, with 151 becoming an addition. It is very unlikely that the two traditions could have subdivided the psalms so differently and still come up with 150 in both collections unless the number 150 was important.21

--Dead Sea Scrolls --The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (11QPsa) contains 39 psalms from the canonical Book of Psalms, as well as various others, including Psalms 151, 154, & 155, known from other sources. The order is considerably different from the canonical psalter.22

--Implications for Canonization --Canonization of the Book of Psalms was almost obviously well behind the remainder of the Old Testament. At the turn of the Christian era, at least three separate arrangements of the Book of Psalms was in use in the eastern Mediterranean. --Of course, the fact that the LXX and MT maintained the same number and identity of psalms, albeit in a different arrangement, may suggest that the basic psalter was fixed at an earlier date, but that fringe groups or sects maintained a Book of Psalms that differed from the official book.

--Sub-Groups --5 Books --The Book of Psalms is divided into five books, perhaps in imitation of the five books of the Torah, or Pentateuch. Each book ends with a doxology of some type. --The Books are: Psalms 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, & 107-150. The doxology at the end of Psalm 72 states that “the prayers of David are ended,” which is interesting, since several more “of David” psalms occur in the book.

--“Songs of Ascent” (lit. “Songs of Going Up”) --Psalms 120-134 represent a somewhat coherent set of psalms, probably at least partially related to pilgrimage, although some may be related rather to ascending the steps to the temple (as in Psalm 24).

--Authorship --Superscriptions --Superscriptions are clearly additions to the texts of the Psalms, whether they were added at the time of writing or centuries later. They are not in poetry and contain many terms and notations that were almost certainly musical or cultic in

21See J. Crenshaw, The Psalms: An Introduction (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2001), 2ff, for this chart and discussion. 22 See Crenshaw, The Psalms, p. 3, for a delineation. nature. The question for the student is what level of authority, i.e. inspiration, do these superscriptions have. In other words, if one chooses to discount the superscription, does that person no longer accept the authority of scripture?

(ללדהויד) Of David” = ledavid“-- --Seventy-three Psalms, and interestingly enough 85 in the LXX, contain mention of David in their superscriptions.

--“Of Solomon (Ps. 72), Moses (Ps. 90)”

--“Of Ethan (Ps 89)” --Ethan is considered a sage (wise man) in 1 Kings 4:31, but a certain Ethan (although of apparently different descent) is listed a as a temple musician in 1 Chronicles 6 & 15.

--“Sons of Korah”--Psalms 42-49, 84-85, 87-88 --The descendants of Korah are listed as musicians and gatekeepers in the temple in 1 Chronicles. Nothing else is known of them.

--“Asaph”—Psalms 50, 73-83 --Asaph was a temple musician under David in Chronicles, and his descendants are listed as singers after the exile (Ezra 2:41). A descendant of Asaph also served as an official in Hezekiah’s court in 2 Kings 18. --These psalms may have formed an original unit that was subsequently inserted into the Book of Psalms. The theme of “divine justice” is fairly consistent in the psalms, although like all collections, they defy definitive classification.

--Authorship --Certainly the ledavid superscriptions (and other superscriptions including the preposition le) were understood later as references to authorship. However, does that mean that this was their original meaning? The preposition typically means “of,” “to,” or “for,” but the nuances of the translation are many. --The phrase could refer to authorship. Indeed, authorship would be the most obvious understanding of the term. --The phrase could refer to origin, which may or may not be the same as authorship. If the origin was in the original Davidic kingdom, in the 1st temple, then “of David” could still be relevant. --The phrase could refer to a “Davidic collection,” which would likely mean an early temple collection. This reference could imply Davidic authorship but would certainly not require it. --Many of the psalms have superscriptions relating to the life of David. Scholars tend to see these superscriptions as later additions by which the worshippers in the temple made association of the psalm to a specific life situation. This was especially significant because it placed the psalm in the life of David, psalmist par excellence. The psalm could then be used in ritual remembering David’s life, as well as in the life of individuals (or groups) who faced similar situations in life. --The superscriptions may or may not refer to authorship. The tradition of David as author of Psalms is pervasive and early, although the fact that the MT and LXX disagree in the number of “of David” superscriptions might suggest a different use of this phrase, or at least warn us to not put too much emphasis on the superscriptions.

--Other Superscriptions --Historical Superscriptions --For the most part, these superscriptions place a certain psalm within the life of David. Some of them make a great deal of sense (i.e. 3 & 51) and others are less clear (i.e. 52 & 59). What is the source of the superscriptions? What are their importance and reliability? --The superscriptions are obviously editorial, meaning that they are not a part of the psalm to which they are connected. The question remains, however, at what points in time were they added and who added them. --The author, or someone who used them at the point of inception, may have added them; or --A later editor may have added them, recognizing a probably point of origin or even current liturgical use; or --A liturgical, or priestly, leader may have added them during the 1st and/or 2nd temple periods because the psalm was used at certain points in the liturgy remembering the life and work of David. Any of the three suggestions are as plausible as the others. Furthermore, none of the three proposals place a greater emphasis on inspiration of scripture. Thus, no one can say with true knowledge who wrote the superscriptions or the reasons that they were written. --Perhaps a more reasonable question is “Are they historically accurate?” --Those who would doubt, or deny, the accuracy of the superscriptions would do so on the basis of extra-biblical origin. If they were added later than the psalm itself, then they have no authority. Rather, they offer a possible historical connection or a liturgical utilization of the psalm. Both of these make the superscription valuable because believers today use the psalm in many of the same ways as ancient followers of God. However, the authenticity of the historical data in the superscription is irrelevant. --Those who would uphold the historical reliability, and even require it for orthodoxy, do so on the basis of canonical authority. If the superscription is a part of the canon of scripture then it must be correct. Because God allowed the superscription to become a part of canonical scripture, it must be viewed as authentic and reliable and utilized in that manner. --The student and reader should probably remain somewhat flexible concerning the superscriptions, since a wide variety of perspectives is available, and the data are open to a variety of interpretations. --Musical/Liturgical Superscriptions23 Usually translated “song,” often with notation that it refers to—(שרייר) shir-- songs accompanied by musical instruments. The truth is that the exact meaning of the term is impossible to know. It is one of two basic words for “song.” Often translated “psalm,” but the difference between these—(מיזלמדר) mizmor-- two terms has been lost to modern readers. Often associated with wisdom circles and referred to—(מלסלכ ייל) maskil-- “didactic poetry,” but the designation is uncertain. This term occurs 71 times in the Psalms (92 in the LXX). The—(סלה ) selah-- meaning is uncertain, but scholars normally associate with a pause of some kind, either for a musical interlude, silence, or recitation. --Other notations apparently refer to tunes, such as “The Deer of the Dawn” (Ps. 22), “The Dove of the Far-off Terebinths” (Ps. 56), and “Lilies” (Pss. 45, 69). Once again, however, the identity of these tunes, and the precise meaning of the notations, was lost in antiquity.

23 See Holladay, The Psalms through Three Thousand Years, 72-76, for a detailed discussion of the superscriptions.