An Ecological Study of Marine Fouling Organisms and Anthropogenic Impacts at Southsea Marina

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An ecological study of marine fouling organisms and anthropogenic impacts at Southsea Marina 628405

Introduction:

Fouling of ship hulls by the attachment and stability of growth of an array of various microorganisms has been considered as a big worldwide problem, and with increasing restrictions on the use of biocides alternative approaches need to be addressed. Marinas are meant to act as nursery grounds set in place for use as artificial reefs, through increasing habitat complexity, biological colonization and species diversity (Connell, 2000). Also playing a part in staging posts to prevent the distribution of invasive species transported via ballast water or for species fixed onto boat hulls (Fletcher, 1989; Davenport & Davenport, 2006). Marina- structures in place (e.g. piles and pontoons) may alter the water circulation, decrease water current flow and by chance increase natural sedimentation rates (Turner et al., 1997). The innermost parts of marinas are probable to experience lower water replenishment and therefore suffer with anoxic sediments with detrimental effects on benthic communities (Guerra-Garcia & Garcia-Gomez, 2005). Due to high levels of tourism and anthropogenic factors influencing the marina due to close proximity, the accumulation of contamination is considered to be high in these regions (Chapman et al., 1987; Wendt et al., 1990; McGee et al., 1995). This includes a mixture of both organic and inorganic chemicals, including trace elements (Hall et al., 1992), tributylin (Alzieu et al., 1989; Alzieu, 2000), and other biocides sourced from antifouling paints (AF)(Biselli et al., 2000; Thomas et al., 2002), polychlorinated biphenyls, chromated copper arsenate, petroleum hydrocarbons and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (Lenihan et al., 1990; Weis & Weis, 1992; McGee et al., 1995).

One of the most promising alternative approaches as an alternative measure to AF agents would be to use something naturally occurring in the marine environment. Sessile marine macroalgae have been proven to be very prosperous in this aspect, as they are free from settlement by fouling organisms (Bazes et al., 2009). They are effective in these situations as they are said to produce chemically active metabolites in their surroundings, used as a defensive mechanism to protect themselves from other settling organisms (Bazes et al., 2009; Thabard et al., 2011). Reports have also been noted in the rapid decrease of Seaweed hydrocolloid growth rates, falling to 1-3 % per year from a previous 3-5 % in the 1980-1990s (Bixler & Porse, 2010), this was said to be due to emerging markets in China, Eastern Europe, Brazil, tightening seaweed supplies showing in the over exploitation of brown seaweeds used for extracting alginates, and in the red seaweeds for extracting agar. There is a desired equilibrium that needs to be addressed involving naturally produced AFs that have a broad spectrum activity with a low toxicity to non-targeted organisms, stability in a paint formulation and readily commercially available (Hellio & Yebra, 2009). Marine fouling is a result of progressive accumulation of various organisms; attracted to clean newly introduced surfaces to occupy their fundamental niches following the settlement of bacteria and diatoms (Costerton, 1999). This fouling presents as a considered ‘slime’, where in actual fact it is a complex biofilm formation that invitingly provides specialized niches within their structure, where favourable conditions can allow the attachment of spores or larvae of larger organisms can establish themselves. This continues until complex communities comprising of micro and macroorganisms can be 628405 recognized which compromises the hydronamics of ships (Schultz & Swain, 2000; Schultz et al., 2011), leading to the increased consumption of fuel (Townsin, 2013).

Through this study an ecological analysis of marine fouling organisms at Southsea Marina will be take place, to illustrate typical marine fouling communities commonly found distributed in different floating structures pontoons, ships, boats and yachts) in Marinas. Also to determine effects of exposure on marine fouling community development, and the toxic coating on marine fouling community establishment and to deem their effects on floating structures. The typical hypothesis this study will be based upon will be that attachment areas situated near channel openings and away from toxic AF agents will have broader species diversities, and structural communities.

Sampling area:

This investigation will involve the exploration of Southsea Marina in Langstone with the corresponding coordinates of; Latitude - Longitude: 50° 47' 29.8932" -1° 1' 59.9304" (see figure 1).

Figure 1: Sampling sites of Southsea Marina (Latitude - Longitude: 50° 47' 29.8932" -1° 1' 59.9304") 1-3; 1 = Latitude - Longitude: 50.79216,-1.034045, 2 = Latitude - Longitude: 50.791577,-1.035011 and 3 = Latitude - Longitude: 50.790648,-1.036009. 628405

Fouling organisms were sampled in 5 different groups accounting for the 3 geographically different sampling sites as represented by figure 1 to differentiate different community structure in regards to distance distribution. Samples were collected using generic bags, nets and scrapers. Groups 1 collected samples from both sides of floating pontoons at site 1 (outside the Marine – Visitors Berth), Group 2 will collect samples from the sides of floating pontoons at site 2, Group 3 will sample from the sides of floating structures at site 3, group 4 will look at fouling organisms from a section of 4 boats spread along the Marina and finally group 5 will construct a detailed description concerning layout and environmental relevant observations of the Marina whilst evaluating salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH at the 3 sites.

Results

The determined salinity from each of our sites can be deemed unreliable due to impossible attainable results (see table 1). Temperature can be seen to fluctuate as expected with the highest temperature recorded for site 3, expected because of the lack of replenished water input influencing temperature change closer to land, pH is also shown to have the most neutral level which can be estimated because of the close proximity to the shore, and because the other more exposed sites would have more salinity readily available from the connecting ocean. Dissolved oxygen (DO) didn’t differ much from different sites, this is probably due to the junction between the sheltered Marina and the open ocean, this can be seen to decrease with the closer samples where taken from shore. Water flow and exposure to inputting flowing water sources are noted and correspond with their coordinates on the map (see figure 1), pollution sources can also be determined from the governed water inputs effecting levels of contamination (see table 1).

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 General observations (e.g. potential Exposed to Centre of Very pollution, water channel harbor sheltered movement and degree of exposure etc.) Salinity (ppm) 2.8 2.9 2.1 Temp ( o C) 4.6 10.6 11.3 628405

pH 7.57 7.76 7.25 DO mg/L 54 52 53.2 No influential water Pollution Channel Boats-Oil inputs/ source Boats-oil Water Flow Medium Low Low Exposure High Low Low Table 1: Observations and variables of experiment with regards to pollution and seawater conditions for each allocation site.

Table 2 shows the different array of organisms founded at each site, microorganisms were firmly attached to surfaces found at each site with either the carcasses of remaining life or present organisms embedded within the complexity of the biofilm structures. Species diversity was the precautionary parameter focused on in this experiment, overlooking the evenness of these communities and their abundance of each individual species present to conclude a biodiversity index; and without this relevant piece of data the Shannon’s diversity index could not be determined. A total of 15 individual organisms were accounted for, with 3 present in site 4, 8 in site 3, 6 present in site 2 and another 6 founded in site 1. This shows that AF measure found on boat hulls may be of use, as the least number of species exist in site 4, with increasing numbers shown towards the preferred settled catchment area in site 1, with an equal number of species richness founded between site 3 and 2 in intermediate waters, where elevated temperatures can be found in the shallow basking water with hardly any new water flow or exposure to replenish waters.

Table 2: Each accounted for organism and specifically categorized macroalgae division in each founded site.

Organisms Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Anaemonia viridis ✓ ✓ Ascidiella sp ✓ ✓ Botryllus spp ✓ ✓ Carcinus meanus ✓ Ciona intestinalis ✓ ✓ ✓ Corella eumyota ✓ Cycloporous papillosus ✓ Gammarid sp ✓ ✓ ✓ Halichrondria ✓ 628405

Hymeniacidon perleve ✓ ✓ Macrocheira kaempferi ✓ Mysida ✓ Nematode ✓ Palaemoetes sp ✓ Polychaete ✓ Rhodophyta Ceramium nodulosum ✓ Chondrus crispus ✓ ✓ Grateloupia turuturu ✓ Plocamium cartilagineum ✓ ✓ Polysiphonia ✓ ✓ Phaeophyta Fucus vesiculosus ✓

Sargassum muticum ✓ Chlorophyta Ulva lactuta ✓ Ulva intestinalis ✓ ✓

Chaetomorpha linum ✓ Ulva linza ✓ Ochrophyta Undaria pinnafitida ✓

There were 4 classified groups of macroalgae that were characterized, which were Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta, Chlorophyta and Ochrophyta. Site 1 was observed to have the highest species diversity, which would be presumed as there is increasing amounts of scarce nutrients and dissolved oxygen in areas situated closely to an opening channel, which can be reflected through the directly proportional relationship with decreasing species richness closer to the shore in sampled sites. Results differentiated from the corresponding sampling sites further concluded this observation as site 1 presented the highest species richness for Rhodophyta species, Chlorophyta and Ochrophyta sharing an equal richness with Phaeophyta species. This contrasts with the singular species belonging to the classified Ochrophyta division highly, and further concludes the preferred habitat distributions of the successively increasing diversity were seen to be closer to the oceans channel. 628405

Discussion:

Bathing water quality in the UK is established on the basis of compliance with standards stated in Directive 76/160/ECC. The procedures concerning the main standards used to assess the quality of bathing water are total coliforms and faecal coliforms which are bacteria found in the human and other animals intestinal tract, and are indicators employed to detect the contamination from sewage and anthropogenic sources. The incoherent connection of domestic foul water to surface water drainage can affect the water quality of joining estuaries and the open ocean; sources of contamination into local surface water drainage systems of the Solent located close to Southsea Marina in Langstone Harbour, have been rectified since the 1980s through sewage treatment work discharging 3 km from the shore. The Lee-on-the-Solent beach is designed to protect water quality, through enforcing ultraviolet disinfection procedures in receiving discharged waste effluent to eradicate any microorganisms from entering and polluting water inputs (The Solent diffusive water pollution plan, 2010). Portsmouth, Langstone and Chichester Harbours are extensive and connected tidal basins, linking Lee-on-the Solent to the Itchen Estuary which extends along the eastern shore of Southampton Water including water from the lower estuary of the River Hamble. There are numerous discharge points including Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTWs) and trade dischargers (see figure 2).

Figure 2: An indicative map of all of the discharge points accounting for trade

discharges, fish farms and Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTWs). (Adapted from: The Solent diffuse water pollution plan, 2010). 628405

The majority of WWTWs all experience storm overflows, one of the larger WWTWs is Chichester WWTW (referred to as Apuldram), which along with its relative storm overflow, discharges into Chichester Harbour. There are many sewage discharges to flow into the catchment areas feeding into rivers both from private septic tanks and treatment works, and from Water Companies WWTWs. This will result in nitrate loading in surface and ground waters, yet the overall nutrient load from these points is unknown.

Figure 3: Water Framework Directive (WFD) waterbodies South Downs and Harbours, the current ecological status. Green = good, yellow = moderate, orange = poor, bad = blue and pale yellow = not yet assessed. (Adapted from: The Solent diffuse water pollution plan, 2010).

Many approaches are set in place within European waters involving the Water Framework Directive (WFD) which establishes a common community framework for protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and groundwater. With the fundamental aim to promote the sustainable use of water whilst progressively reducing and hopefully eliminating pollutants for the long-term protection and enhancement which will aid the prevention of fouling. Work from Leatherland and Burton (1974) have shown that variations amongst organisms from differing areas in the Solent region compared with other areas suggests that some possible influences of local waste discharge, inflicted by WWTWs but at this recorded time there were no signs of major sufficient evidential factors. Although conclusive evidence shows anoxic muds to constitute higher concentrations of mercury than in unreduced surface layers, 628405 suggesting mobility in intervening water of the uppermost zone and fixation under reduction conditions. Tubbs & Tubbs (1983) show that the spread of green algae in Langstone Harbour has been caused by an increased amount of treated and untreated discharged sewage effluent. Although prior work from Soulsby et al. (1982) displayed that this could be due to the decline of wading bird species leading to the blanketing of the muds by algae, yet this was not proved in this investigation due to insufficient evidence. Later Soulsby et al. (1985) continued their research to prove that the large dispersal of the studied macroalgae, Ulva and Enteromorpha in Portsmouth Harbour and Langstone Harbour which had been exposed to sewage discharges exhibited no higher standing crops of algae in the presence of sewage derived nutrients, contradicting previous findings from Tubbs & Tubbs (1983).

Figure 4: Photos showing the observations of macroalgal mats on intertidal mudflats in the Solent area. (Adapted from: The Solent diffuse water pollution plan, 2010).

As briefly discussed in the introduction, prior to the present research the hypothesis of this study was that increasing species diversity would be indirectly proportional to increasing distance away from the innermost sites closer to the opening channel. This was supposed because of the readily replenished water containing scarce nutrients, DO, thermal regulatory flushes of colder denser waters to prevent overheating and salinity inputs from the ocean to balance freshwater inputs (although salinity readings cannot confirm due to error). This supports findings from Callier et al. (2009) in that the lowest macrofaunal abundance, and thus other organisms due to the lack of habitat complexity was recorded at the innermost sheltered sites and differences between organism’s attachment preferences in relation to distribution and proximity from certain floating structures could be noticed. It was dually noted from these results that in Southsea Marina the biotic index (AMBI) was positively correlated to the sediment metal concentrations (Cu, Zn and Cd) and elutriate toxicity (LC 50), showing signs of a potential contamination sequestrating metals into sediment 628405

(Callier et al., 2009). A lack of observations of any organism attachment in site 4 was observed, only one Rhodophyta, Plocamium cartilagineum, despite its temperate preference. This was an unexpected find, especially as Chondrus crispus has been previously confirmed that crude ethanol extracts of a fresh source of the macroalgae have anti-germination inhibitory effects, that can act on spores and the initial AF potency can last up to six weeks (Chambers et al., 2011), so this was surprising. From these results it seemed possible to determine that a low attachment and species diversity could reflect the toxicity of AF agents contained within paint or various other AF prevention enforced in these regions. Although the absence of the only one macroalgae that displayed to be adapted to AF agents is slightly contradictory. Yet further analysis would be necessary to confirm, especially as Kocack et al. (2011) has previously described a lower species diversity is expected amongst areas that are subjected to pollution within Langstone Harbour, which site 3 could be representative of due to the stagnant water accumulating in the sampling region.

Various organisms are showing signs of adaptive defense mechanisms setting in place, like Sargassum another macroalgal genus that has shown to display species that produce specific defensive molecules, Sargassum polyceratium (Thabard et al., 2011), and Sargassum muticum (Bazes et al., 2009). With the developing recognition of naturally occurring molecules being produced by macroalgae and even behavioural adaptations presenting in tropical marine crabs like the founded Carcinus meamus (Becker & Walh, 1996), showing scientists are looking for alternative approaches to reduce fouling especially with evidence of AF agents to be harmful, plus proof that a variety of different various AF toxic painted panels actually colonised initially by bacteria at the same rate as non coated panels, these later developed to include diatoms and protozoa further progressing community structures, the only impact to comprise the time was the AF paint used (soluble matrix, insoluble matrix and self-polishing AF paints) (Jackson & Jones, 1988). Other research has blamed harbour design itself on influencing the rate of fouling organism’s recruitment to available surfaces within Marinas; the entrainment of water encapsulated in Marinas can limit the dispersal of planktonic propagules but resultantly increasing propagule pressure to available surfaces, including boat hulls. Floerl and Inglis (2003) conspire that this is likely to accelerate hull-fouling assemblages, which could potentially transport non-indigenous species to alien environments to flourish in a reservoir for potential invasive species that Marinas provide, adding to the decreased biodiversity and species richness (Minchin, 2007; Arenas et al., 2006).

Conclusion:

It is apparent that the current mechanisms in treating wastewater effluent and acceptably releasing it into the marine environment, through the justification of AF measures such as paints on surfaces to prevent the colonization of organisms are contributing detrimentally. Effecting the fouling organisms assemblages through the readily contamination of toxins rather than the thought of precautionary measure that was desired. The whole design of Marinas has is an ecological disaster with water becoming entrapped and stagnant, allowing 628405 sediment to become toxic and water to be acidic accumulated with pollutants creating unwanted conditions for desirable habitats with lack of nutrients, food and structural complexity. Research into natural occurring molecules extracted from macroalgaes defensive mechanisms need to be looked into for more long- term approaches for Marinas, and also water circulation throughout the whole of the area where water in the Marina appears non-moving. AF measures and design have proven to be ecological disasters; more now needs to be looked to correct human error and then to attack in a more sustainable natural occurring coherent way.

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