A Path to Motivation and High Achievement

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION – A PATH TO MOTIVATION AND HIGH ACHIEVEMENT

Desislava Petkova

ABSTRACT Language instructors are having to deal with an increasingly varied classroom in terms of students' language proficiency, learning styles and level of motivation. Thus they are faced with the challenge of teaching mixed ability classes while at the same time striving to increase student motivation and desire to learn. This paper presents a discussion on differentiated instruction. It also provides concrete examples of its application in the English language classroom. Key words: differentiated instruction, repecting differences

INTRODUCTION The last couple of decades have called for shifting the instructional focus of teaching English as a foreign language – from teacher-centred, single-interpretation, frontal teaching to student-focused, multiple-interpretation, communication-based learning. This process has been necessitated by the social and cultural changes occurring in the dawn on information society. Global society has made the need for teaching English as a means of communication and acquiring information more evident than ever. Thus the refusal of several generations of Bulgarian teachers to see the need to change despite the successes achieved by a number of progressive teachers is curious but not surprising. Limited by curriculum and class-size restrictions, discouraged by the diminishing respect for the profession and the lack of proper compensation, most teachers still go for the former type of instruction convinced that if this is not the only way of teaching, at least it is the easiest one. This gives them the false security of the familiar classroom environment, of which they are in control. The pitfalls of this approach are that this very environment robs them of the satisfaction of their work and further decreases their motivation. In addition, despite the illusion of control, change is inevitable and teacher are doomed to fail their students completely if they do not admit that each student is an individual worthy of respect and growth. The only possible way is ahead, towards an approach that welcomes change and adapts to students' need and interests, providing higher achievement and motivation for both students and teachers.

1. The rationale behind a differentiated approach to education The above-stated situation has resulted from a long established practice of traditional teaching, which treats the teacher as the controller of the learning environment, endowing her with power and responsibility of instructing students (in the form of lectures) and making decisions. In short, traditional teaching view represents the teacher as the originator of learning (Novak, 1998). The content and delivery are considered of primary importance and students are expected to master knowledge through drills and practice. Content need not be learned in context (Theroux 2004, Johnson & Johnson 1991). And last, but not least, while there is no doubt among teachers that not all learners are the same and that their needs are diverse, few cater for these differences in their classrooms (Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, and Van Acker, 2000; Guild, 2001). The author, however, holds the belief that every student benefits from a meaningful learning experience, every student should be treated with respect and should be given the opportunity to reach his or her potential (Guild, 2001). The current educational system does not adequately address these needs (Guild, 2001). The following section presents the rationale that makes it imperative to consider a new approach to education. Recent findings in psychology and brain research, including student diversity, mindset and theories concerning learning styles and the multiple intelligences are among the key developments that prove such a change is required. Respecting Differences Contemporary students are becoming increasingly diverse in term of academic potential and achievements (Gable et al., 2000; Guild, 2001; Tomlinson, 2004). Most students accept that they are not the same and they possess different strengths (Tomlinson, 1999). While they share a common need for acceptance, nurturing and respect, attending to differences is essential in encouraging students to experience their successes as individuals (Tomlinson, 1999). It is necessary to take into account the differences among students in a classroom, while at the same time acknowledging each student’s strengths and accommodating their limitations (Guild, 2001; Tomlinson, 2002). Why one-size-fits-all does not work The use of the one-size-fits-all model is no longer adequate for the majority of learners (Tomlinson, 2002; Tomlinson and Kalbfleisch, 1998). The use of content-based lessons delivered through a teacher-centred instructional approach does not take into account the wide diversity of the contemporary classroom expressed though different learning styles and interests. Moreover, addressing student differences and interests increases students' motivation to learn and encourages their commitment and positive attitude (Tomlinson, 2004). Evidence also shows that students learn more effectively when faced with moderate challenge, i.e. tasks that are neither too simple nor too complex (Tomlinson, 1999). Brain Research Teachers seek to instil knowledge in their students' minds, however, the knowledge about the workings of the human brain has not reached the classroom (Levine, 2003). Good instruction should seek to make the best use of the brain to process, store and retrieve information (Greenleaf, 2003; Subban, 2006). Brain research suggests that a differentiated approach is needed (1) as the "brain hungers for meaning" (Tomlinson, 1999), i.e. students learn most efficiently when they make sense of what is learned by themselves rather than when meaning is imposed on them and (2) students must be able to connect new information to already existing one through association (King-Friedrichs, 2001; Tomlinson, 1999). Growth Mindset American psychologist Carol Dweck has dedicated her career to studying mindset and its and its impact on personal growth. She has discovered two distinct "mindsets" that motivate students to behave in distinct ways (Dweck, 2006). The "fixed mindset" is represented by those students who believe that intelligence is fixed, an "entity" and tend to be interested in performing in order to demonstrate their competence or intelligence. They, however, are likely to perform below their potential when they realize they are at risk of error. They also refuse to learn if threatened by failure (Dweck, 2006; Mangels el al., 2006). The "growth mindset" students perceive intelligence as acquirable, i.e. "incremental" and are able to remain effective learners and interpret their errors as feedback rather than as failure (Dweck, 2006; Mangels el al., 2006). Thus they are more likely to improve their future performance and outperform students with the fixed mindset in the long run (Dweck, 2006). An interesting finding is that the "fixed mindset" is often associated with the so-called "bright students" (Dweck and Leggett, 1988) who teachers traditionally consider worth "investing" in. The growth mindset is a key to differentiation as it encourages teachers to work with students to show them the interconnectedness between effort and success, thus entrusting a student's success to his or her own commitment (Tomlinson and Imbeau, 2010). Learning Styles The concept of learning styles. i.e. the theory that people perceive and process experience in different ways, was first introduced in David Kolb in 1984 (http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm). New evidence emerges regularly to support this view (Guild, 2001). Identifying students' learning styles and adapting one's teaching to these can help students achieve better results and increase their motivation (Green, 1999). It can also be useful for building on students' strengths and aiding them to cope with challenges (Green, 1999). Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner suggests that intelligence is not limited to the logical and linguistic intelligences emphasized at school and measured in IQ tests. He proposes eight intelligences: verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Gardner, 1997). Gardner's theory argues that students will thrive better at school if teachers use different methodologies to accommodate for students who do not excel at linguistic and logical intelligence (Gardner, 1997).

2. Differentiated instruction – a path to motivation and achievement Carol Ann Tomlinson, a key proponent of differentiated instruction, defines it as a philosophy of teaching that is based on the teacher's respect for students' differences in readiness levels, interests and learning profiles (Tomlinson, 1999). Drawing on the above stated rationale, Tomlinson (1999) claims that differentiation is not just an instructional strategy but an innovative way of thinking about teaching and learning. Accommodating students' differences and placing students at the centre of instruction as active participants in teaching and learning and providers of creative input and meaningful feedback shifts the traditional focus from the teacher instructing the students to teachers and students collaborating in learning. This interaction creates opportunities for growth for both students and teachers and increases enjoyment and satisfaction (Tomlinson, 1999).

2.1. Principles of differentiated instruction In her book The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners, Tomlinson (1999) outlines the following principles guiding the differentiated classroom. The teacher focuses on the essentials The teacher is aware of individual students' needs and seeks to address them by assisting struggling students to grasp essential concepts and skills and directing advanced students to master complex ideas. The teacher attends to student differences While students themselves accept and value the differences among themselves it is vital for the teacher to understand and acknowledge individual students' strivings for mastery in their own unique way. The teacher should accept students as they are and encourage them to reach their ultimate. Assessment and instruction are inseparable Assessment in a differentiated classroom is an ongoing process of establishing students' readiness for new skills and concepts as well as of areas of challenge. Its goal is to help students grow rather than to pinpoint their problems. The teacher modifies content, process and product The teacher adjusts what students learn and the materials through which they learn it (the content), the activities through which particular skills are used in order to grasp key facts and concepts (the process) and the means through which students show what they have learned (the product). These are modified to meet students' readiness (current degree of skill or understanding), interest and learning profiles. All students participate in respectful work The teacher understands and respects both students' similarities and differences and strives to support students to grow steadily and continually in accordance with their readiness and interest. The teacher and students collaborate in learning A differentiated classroom is student-centred in that students provide important feedback and participate in a meaningful dialogue with the teacher to establish a common understanding and rules for governing the classroom. Students help each other learn and sustain a productive classroom environment. The teacher balances group and individual norms The teacher, like any good leader, needs to cater for achieving group norms, i.e. that all students have a grasp of key understanding and skills but she or he also has to address individual strengths and weaknesses and ensure that both striving and advanced learners are able to grow within their own capacities. The teacher and students work together flexibly In a differentiated classroom the teacher varies a number of components to make the learning process equally efficient and effective for all students. She or he differentiates the pace, materials, time allocated to the performance of task, grouping, instructional strategies. (The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners, pp. 9- 14, Tomlinson, 1999).

2.2. Elements of the differentiated classroom 2.2.1. The teaching triangle In The Differentiated Classroom, Tomlinson (1999) likens the tree key elements of the teaching process – the teacher, the students and the content to the angles of an equilateral triangle. The teacher is located at the top, being the formal leader of the process (Edinger, 2008). For the process to be effective, the balance should be kept – the teacher should be confident in him/herself but be open to learning and enter the role of a learner without shame or uneasiness. A confident teacher should admit to not knowing all the answers but be open and eager to find them (Tomlinson, 1999). 2.2.2. Levels of learning Hilda Taba (in Schiever, 1991 and Tomlinson, 1999) divides learning into separate qualitative levels. The basic level of learning consists of pieces of information, or facts, that we organise and make sense of through categorise or concepts. We try to understand the rules, or principles that govern these concepts. And then we use concrete skills to apply the gained knowledge. "During planning, a teacher should generate specific lists of what students should know (facts), understand (concepts and principles), and be able to do (skills) by the time the unit ends. Then the teacher should create a core of engaging activities that offer varied opportunities for learning the essentials she has outlined. These activities should lead a student to understand or make sense of key concepts and principles by using key skills." (Tomlinson, 1999, p. 40) Thus it is the teacher's role to synthesise the key facts and the organising concepts and principles as well as to distil the skills that would make the acquired knowledge useful. The end goal of organising learning into distinct level is to provide students with a clear path to learning that is meaningful, ties to student's experience and knowledge of the world and can be used outside of the classroom (Tomlinson 1999). 2.2.3. Curriculum element In The Differentiated Classroom, Tomlinson (1999) distinguishes three key curriculum elements, briefly mentioned in 2.1., namely content, process and product. In the light of the preceding point, content is "what a student should come to know (facts), understand (concepts and principles), and be able to do (skills) as a result of a given segment of study (a lesson, a learning experience, a unit)" (p. 43). Content is the input we provide students with through various media, such as textbooks, additional reading materials, videos, audio recordings, etc. Process comprises the tools we use to help students learn or make sense of the content. These tools are the class activities we employ to effect teaching. Effective activities have a clearly define goal, use key skills to gain key understanding and help students link old to new knowledge (Tomlinson, 1999). A product is a "vehicle" through which a student demonstrates what she or he has learned over a considerable period of time. It is a "culmination product". An effective product assignment should contain clear instructions of what the students are to demonstrate as a result of the study, what the steps of development are and the final product should be. It should also consider the differences in students' readiness, interest and learning profiles (Tomlinson, 1999).

2.3. The practice of differentiation Differentiation can occur on a number of levels. Taking into account the principles of differentiation, the teacher can differentiate (1) content, process, product or learning environment (2) to accommodate for student readiness, interest, or learning profile (3) in order to provide access to learning, create or increase the motivation to learn, and ensure efficiency of learning. The reason for modifying (1) can also be related to student readiness, interest, and learning profile (Tomlinson, 1999). 2.4. Differentiation strategies Instructional strategies are used by teachers to deliver content via suitable process and direct students towards the creation of the required product. Strategies are not good or bad in and of themselves. Strategies can be used with respect or with neglect of students' differences (Tomlinson, 1999). Good teachers employ a wide variety of strategies in accordance with the nature of the task and their students' needs (Berliner, 1986 in Tomlinson, 1999). When used appropriately, these strategies help teachers respond to differences in student readiness, interest and learning profile. Teachers may choose to differentiate content, process, product or learning environment for various reasons, outlined in 2.3. (3). A list of differentiate strategies is presented below. These will not be discussed here in detail but are provided for reference and as examples. Differentiation strategies  Anchor activities  Varying organizers  Varied texts  Varied supplementary materials  Taped materials  Tiered lessons  Learning contracts  Group investigation  Orbitals  Independent study  Interest centres  Varied homework  Compacting  Complex instruction  Entry points 3. Examples of differentiation The author would like to present two example of how to differentiate textbook activities using differentiations strategies. The author has selected two activities from two textbooks she has co-authored (together with Ms Emiliya Koleva) – Hello for the 5. Grade and Hello for the 7. Grade (Prosveta Publishing, Sofia). Activity 1: The beauties of Bulgaria and the UK (Hello! for the 5. Grade, Prosveta Publishing), Fig. 1. Aims:  Practice comparatives and superlatives  Practice vocabulary on geographical features  Develop/Practice the following skills: analysis, comparison, summarizing, reasoning, working in a team  Demonstrate the above concepts graphically  Nurture tolerance and respect for individual talents QuickTime™ and a QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. are needed to see this picture.

Fig. 1. Differentiation strategy used: Complex instruction (Cohen, 1994) Unlike traditional cooperative groups which draw on the strength of the bright students who help the striving ones, complex instruction seeks tasks that require a wide range of intellectual skills and abilities. When completing the task students are compelled to see their peers as different, but equally important contributors and to realize that the end result is the product of the joined strengths of each individual member of the group and cannot be achieved by one person alone. Procedure: 1. Students of various degrees of readiness are grouped together to work on one of the following tasks:  Making a virtual tour of selected sights in Bulgaria (using a presentation tool, or posters);  Making a virtual tour of selected sights in the UK (using a presentation tool, or posters);  Designing a quiz about selected sights in Bulgaria;  Designing a quiz about selected sights in the UK;  Doing a class survey on students' favourite sights in Bulgaria, summarizing the results and designing a poster with the top 5 sights. 2. Student research their assignments in and out of class using the course book for ideas, books, guidebooks, postcards, maps and online materials in Bulgarian and English and work together on the final product. The teacher helps students distribute tasks by highlighting individual student strengths and encouraging mutual trust and cooperation. 3. Students present the final product and explain how and why they decided to organize it in a particular way. Students also discuss the individual contributions of each group member and why they consider it unique or valuable. Activity 2: Green buildings (Hello for the 7th grade, Prosveta Publishing), Fig. 2 Aims:  Practice key vocabulary connected with green building  Develop/Practice the following skills: analysis, comparison, research, working in a team  Encourage initiative and creativity

Fig. 2 Differentiation strategy used: Entry points - addressing varied intelligence profiles (Gardner, 1993)  Narrational Entry Point: Presenting a story or narrative  Logical-Quantitative Entry Point: Using numbers or scientific approaches  Foundational Entry Point: Examining the philosophy and vocabulary  Aesthetic Entry Point: Focusing on the sensory features  Experiential Entry Point: Using a hands-on approach Procedure: 1. Students work in small groups and make a list of the characteristics of green buildings; 2. The characteristics are summarized by the teacher in a class discussion; 3. Students are assigned a task to do research on a type of green building on the Internet or find out information about a green building in their area; 4. Students are grouped based on their learning profiles, and asked to present their finding to the class by  making a model  drawing a plan  making a poster  telling as story  discussing the materials, procedure and costs of building a green house.

4. Conclusion Differentiated instruction yields many beneficial results for both teachers and learners. Apart from addressing the concrete needs of each student, it contributes to a productive classroom environment by nurturing respect for differences, stimulating growth and strengthening motivation. Differentiated instruction reflects the realities of life, equipping students with understanding and skills based in everyday experience and encourages students to develop their unique strengths and uncover their full potential. Needless to say, differentiation is a constant source of challenge and learning for teachers as well, providing additional meaning and satisfaction to a worthwhile profession. References: Cohen, E. (1994). Designing Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogeneous Classroom (2nd Edition). Teachers College Press. Dweck, C.S., and Leggett, E.L. (1988). A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality. Psychological Review, Vol. 95, No. 2, 256-273. Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Random House Publishing Group. Edinger M. J. 2008. An Exploratory Study of Creativity-fostering Teacher Behaviors in secondary classrooms. PhD Dessertation. The College of William and Mary. Gable, R.A., Hendrickson, J.M., Tonelson, S.W., and Van Acker, R. (2000). Changing disciplinary and instructional practices in the middle school to address IDEA. The Clearing House, 73(4), 205- 208. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1997). Reflections on multiple intelligences: Myths and messages. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(5), 200–207. Green, F. R. (1999). Brain and learning research: Implications for meeting the needs of diverse learners. Education, 119(4), 682-688. Greenleaf, R. K. (2003). Motion and emotion. Principal Leadership, 3(9), 14-19. Guild, P. B. (2001). Diversity, Learning Style and Culture. New Horizons for Learning. [Online] http://education.jhu.edu/newhorizons/strategies/topics/Learning%20Styles/diversity.html (14 May 2012) Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T. (1991). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic (3rd Edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. King-Friedrichs, J. (2001). Brain friendly techniques for improving memory. Educational Leadership, 59(3), 76-79. Mangels, J.A., Butterfield, B., Lamb, J., Good, C., and Dweck, C. S. (2006). Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model, SCAN (1), 75–86. Novak J.D. (1998). Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps As Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporations (1st Edition). Routledge. Theroux, P. (2004). Enhance Learning With Technology. Collaborative Learning. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners (1st Edition). Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C.A. (2004). Differentiation in diverse settings. School Administrator, 61(7), 28-33. Tomlinson, C.A. (2004). Research evidence for differentiation. School Administrator, 61(7), 30. Tomlinson C.A., and Imbeau, M. B. (2010). Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C.A., and Kalbfleisch, M.L. (1998). Teach me, teach my brain: A call for differentiated classrooms. Educational Leadership, 56(3), 52-55. Schiever, S. (1991). A comprehensive approach to teaching thinking. Allyn & Bacon. Stronge, J. (2004). Teacher effectiveness and student achievement: What do good teachers do? Paper presented at the American Association of School Administrators Annual Conference and Exposition, San Francisco, USA.