Women in Ancient Egypt

Hatshepsut, 'King' of Egypt (1479-1457 B.C.E.)

Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and his queen Ahmose Nefertari. She was married to her half brother, Thutmose II, perhaps to strengthen his claim to the throne. As Hatshepsut produced no heir, a son of Thutmose II by another wife inherited the throne as Thutmose III. He was probably very young when he became king, and Hatshepsut acted as his regent. By the seventh year of the reign of Thutmose III, Hatshepsut had adopted the status of king. Unlike other female kings, Hatshepsut ruled for a considerable number of years. Her reign was prosperous, with expeditions to Punt, Byblos and Sinai commemorated in her mortuary temple. This structure, at Deir el-Bahari, is now one of the most famous monuments in Egypt.

By his twenty-second year, Thutmose III was ruling alone. It is not clear whether Hatshepsut died naturally or was removed. Nor is it clear whether she was buried in her tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Because she defied tradition to become king, Hatshepsut was not included in later lists of kings, and her name and image was removed from her monuments.

Queen Hatshepsut Offering to Osiris [Illustration]. (1470 B.C.E.). EGYPTIAN MUSEUM 01/001/14922), Cairo, Egypt.

Why might Queen Hatshepsut be drawn as a man?

From Herodotus “The Histories” “Concerning Egypt itself I shall extend my remarks to a great length, because there is no country that possesses so many wonders, nor any that has such a number of works which defy description. Not only is the climate different from that of the rest of the world, and the rivers unlike any other rivers, but the people also, in most of their manners and customs, exactly reverse the common practice of mankind. The women attend the markets and trade, while the men sit at home at the loom... the women likewise carry burthens upon their shoulders, while the men carry them upon their heads. They eat their food out of doors in the streets... A woman cannot serve the priestly office, either for god or goddess, but men are priests to both; sons need not support their parents unless they choose, but daughters must, whether they choose or no.” -- Herodotus, The Histories, c. 484–425 B.C.E.

Papyrus marriage contract between the priest Pagosh and Teteimhotep

From Assiut, Egypt Ptolemaic Period, 172 B.C.E. Marriage contracts were first recorded in the Late Period (661-332 B.C.E.), and continued until the first century C.E.. They were often drawn up by the husband to establish the rights of both parties to maintenance and possessions. The law did not require a marriage to be recorded.

This example is written on papyrus in demotic script. In the contract the husband agrees to pay a stipulated amount of money within thirty days in the event of divorce. The woman could receive a third of the marriage settlement, or even more. Many contracts stipulated that any children of the marriage would be brought up as the man's heirs. On the reverse of the papyrus is a list of eight witnesses to the contract.

At the time that these contracts were drawn up, it was possible for a woman to leave her husband. Reasons for divorce included adultery on either side, failure of the woman to produce an heir, the husband's dislike for his wife or his wish to marry another woman. The wife was entitled to some support from her husband, no matter what the circumstances of the divorce might be. Once divorced, both partners were free to remarry.

Information retrieved from: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/papyrus _marriage_contract_betw.aspx