Mcshane/Von Glinow Chapter 10 I/M

Chapter 9 Developing High-Performance Teams 9 DEVELOPING HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to: Identify the characteristics of self-directed work teams. Describe the four conditions in sociotechnical systems theory for high-performance SDWTs. Summarize three challenges to the implementation of SDWTs. Distinguish virtual teams from conventional teams. Explain why virtual teams have become so popular in organizations. Describe the role of communication systems, task structure, team size, and team composition in virtual team effectiveness. Summarize the three levels of trust in teams. Outline the four types of team building. Identify three reasons why team building tends to fail.

CHAPTER GLOSSARY

collective self-regulation Team-based structure in self-directed work teams (SDWTs) Cross-functional which employees in the primary work unit have enough work groups organized around work processes, that autonomy to manage the work process. complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks, and that have substantial joint optimization The balance that is struck between autonomy over the execution of those tasks. social and technical systems to maximize an operation’s effectiveness. sociotechnical systems (STS) theory A theory stating that effective work sites have joint optimization of their social and technological systems, and that teams should have sufficient autonomy to control key variances in the work process.

237 Part 3 Team Processes

team building Any formal activity intended to dialogue A process of conversation among team improve the development and functioning of a team. members in which they learn about each other’s mental models and assumptions, and eventually form a virtual teams Teams whose members operate across common model for thinking within the team. space, time, and organizational boundaries and linked through information technologies to achieve organizational tasks.

238 Chapter 9 Developing High-Performance Teams

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

Self-directed work teams (SDWTs) complete an entire Virtual teams are becoming more common piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks because information technology and knowledge-based and have substantial autonomy over the execution of work makes it easier to collaborate from a distance. these tasks. Sociotechnical systems theory (STS) is the Virtual teams are becoming increasingly necessary template typically used to determine whether SDWTs because they represent a natural part of the knowledge will operate effectively. STS identifies four main management process. Moreover, as companies conditions for high-performance SDWTs. globalize, they must rely more on virtual teams than co- First, SDWTs must be a primary work unit, that is, located teams to coordinate operations at distant sites. they are an intact team that makes a product, provides a Several elements in the team effectiveness model service, or otherwise completes an entire work process. stand out as important issues for virtual teams. High- Second, the team must have collective self-regulation, performance virtual teams require a variety of meaning that that must have sufficient autonomy to communication media, and virtual team members need manage the work process. Third, high-performance to creatively combine these media to match the task SDWTs have control over “key variances”. This refers demands. Virtual teams operate better with structured to the idea that teams control the disturbances or rather than complex and ambiguous tasks. They usually interruptions that create quality problems in the work cannot maintain as large a team as is possible in process. Fourth, STS states that a balance must be conventional teams. Members of virtual teams require struck between the social and technical systems to special skills in communication systems and should be maximize the operation's effectiveness. aware of cross-cultural issues. Virtual team members Sociotechnical systems theory has been widely should also meet face-to-face, particularly when the supported since its origins in the 1950s. However, it is team forms, to assist team development and not very helpful at identifying the optimal alignment of cohesiveness. the social and technical system. Moreover, SDWTs Trust is important in team dynamics, particularly face several barriers to implementation. These high- in virtual teams. Trust occurs when we have positive performance teams tend to operate best in cultures with expectations about another party’s intentions and low power distance and high collectivism. Supervisors often resist SDWTs because of fears that empowering actions toward us in risky situations. The minimum teams will remove the power of supervisors. level of trust is calculus-based trust, which is based on Supervisors must also adjust from their traditional deterrence. Teams cannot survive with this level of hands-on “command-and-control” style to hands-off trust. Knowledge-based trust is a higher level of trust facilitators. Employees oppose SDWTs when they and is grounded on the other party’s predictability. The worry that they lack the skills to adapt to the new work highest level of trust, called identity-based trust, is requirements. Labour unions sometimes oppose based on mutual understanding and emotional bond SDWTs because of the risk of higher stress and the between the parties. Most employees join a team with a need to removing job categories that unions have high level of trust, which tends to decline over time. negotiated over the years. Team building is any formal activity intended to Virtual teams are teams whose members operate improve the development and functioning of a work across space, time, and organizational boundaries and team. Four team-building strategies are role definition, are linked through information technologies to achieve goal setting, problem solving, and interpersonal organizational tasks. Their main distinction with processes. Some team building events succeed, but conventional teams is that virtual teams are not co- companies often fail to consider the contingencies of located and that they rely on information technologies team building. rather than face-to-face interaction.

POWERPOINT® SLIDES

Canadian Organizational Behaviour includes a complete set of Microsoft PowerPoint® files for each chapter. (Please contact your McGraw-Hill Ryerson representative to find out how instructors can receive these files.) In the lecture outline that follows, a thumbnail illustration of each PowerPoint slide for this chapter is placed beside the corresponding lecture material. The slide number helps you to see your location in the slide show sequence and to skip slides that you don’t want to show to the class. (To jump ahead or back to a particular slide, just type the slide number and hit the Enter or Return key.) The transparency masters for this chapter are very similar to the PowerPoint files.

® LECTURE OUTLINE (with PowerPoint slides)

DEVELOPING HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAMS

Developing High- Performance Teams Slide 1

TRW Canada relies on self-directed work teams (SDWTs). TRW teams are completely responsible for operating the company’s 20 production processes

Self-Directed Work Teams at TRW Canada Slide 2 SELF-DIRECTED WORK TEAMS (SDWTS) Self-directed work teams defined • Formal groups that complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks and have substantial autonomy over the execution of these tasks. Self-Directed Work Teams Defined Slide 3

Attributes of Self-Directed Work Teams 1. Complete an entire piece of work  May be a product, a service, or part of a larger product or service Attributes of SDWTs 2. Assign tasks to members Slide 4  The team—not supervisors—assign tasks  The team plans, organizes, and controls work activities with little or no direct involvement from a supervisor 3. Control work, inputs, flow, and output • May have total authority to make all decisions 4. Are responsible for correcting problems • Teams maintain their own quality and logistical control 5. Receive team-level feedback and rewards • Recognizes and reinforces the team is responsible • May also receive individual feedback and rewards

SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS THEORY AND SDWTS Sociotechnical Systems at Celestica

Sociotechnical Systems at Celestica adopted sociotechnical systems (STS) as its template for Celestica corporate renewal. The Toronto-based computer manufacturer Slide 5 assigned self-directed work teams to each work process and identified key variances that the teams control in those processes. STS doubled productivity and increased job satisfaction

 Effective work sites have joint optimization of their social and technological systems and teams should have sufficient autonomy to control key variances in the work process—that impact quality, quantity and the cost of the product or service.

SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS CONDITIONS FOR HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAMS 1. Primary work unit • Teams should make an entire product/service or similarly complete an entire work process Sociotechnical Systems Conditions • Fairly independent form other work units Slide 6 2. Collective self-regulation • Team has autonomy to divide up work among its members as well as how to coordinate that work • Provides ability to respond more quickly and effectively to the environment • Increases motivation through empowerment 3. Control key variances  Control the quantity and quality of output in the work process for factors within their control 4. Joint optimization  Balance the social and technical systems to maximize the operation’s effectiveness  Companies can control how they introduce technology i.e. technology is flexible enough to support a semi- autonomous, team-based structure

Problem – team-oriented technological system not always most efficient (e.g. Volvo’s Kalmar and Uddevalla plants) CHALLENGES TO SELF-DIRECTED WORK TEAMS Cross-cultural issues • More difficult to implement in high power distance Challenges to SDWTs cultures – employees more comfortable when supervisors Slide 7 give direction e.g. Mexico • May be more difficult to implement in cultures with high individualism and low collectivism – employees less comfortable collaborating and working interdependently

Management resistance • Concerned about losing power and jobs • Difficult to become “hands-off” facilitators—tend to slip back into command-oriented supervision  Solutions -- education and training -- transfer people who can’t adjust Employee and labour union resistance  Employees concerned about new roles and skills required  Labour unions concerned about: -- increased stress for employees -- reversal of rules and reduction in union rights VIRTUAL TEAMS Teams whose members operate across space, time, and organizational boundaries and are linked through information Virtual Teams Defined technologies to achieve organizational tasks Slide 8

Why Companies Form Virtual Teams  Increasingly possible because: -- Information technologies have made it easier to communicate with and coordinate people at a distance i.e. Internet, intranets, instant message, virtual Why Virtual Teams? whiteboards etc. Slide 9 -- Shift from production-based to knowledge-based work: work can be exchanged using information technology  Increasingly necessary because of: -- Knowledge management – knowledge is the currency of competitive advantage so organizations need to seek this knowledge wherever it is available -- Globalization – coordinate operations globally

FEATURES OF HIGH PERFORMANCE VIRTUAL TEAMS Based on the team effectiveness model in Chapter 8, the following key design issues apply to virtual teams: Team Environment • Virtual teams need several communication channels available to offset lack of face-to-face communication e.g. High-Performance Virtual e-mail for routine tasks, videoconferencing for more Teams complex situations Slide 10 Team Tasks • Operate best with structured tasks that require only moderate levels of task interdependence Team Size • Team size issues are amplified because of limited opportunities for face-to-face communication and social bonding Team Composition  Team members require special skills in communication  More likely to include people from across cultures – so members require awareness of cross-cultural issues High-Performance Virtual Teams (con’t) Team Processes Slide 11  Team development and cohesiveness are particular concerns – recommend that virtual team members have some opportunity to meet face to face e.g. when the team is formed Team Trust • Higher level of team trust required for virtual teams than for other teams due to unique conditions

TEAM TRUST Trust occurs when we have positive expectations about another party’s intentions and actions toward us in risky situations Trust Defined Three levels of trust: Slide 12 1. Calculus-based trust -- minimal level -- belief that the other party will deliver because punishments will be administered if they fail -- least stable, thus easily broken -- cannot sustain a team’s relationship Three Levels of Trust Slide 13 2. Knowledge-based trust -- grounded on other party’s predictability developed through communication and past experience -- relatively stable 3. Identification-based trust -- based on social identity Three Levels of Trust -- involves mutual understanding and emotional bond (con’t) -- each party thinks, feels, and responds like the other Slide 14 -- high performance teams exhibit this level of trust -- Most robust of the three types of trust

Dynamics of trust in teams • Popular misconception that team members build trust from a low level when they first join the team • Recent studies reveal that people tend to join a team with a high level of trust – however, this trust is fragile because it is based on assumptions vs. experience • Trust tends to decrease rather than increase – particularly challenging in virtual teams because communication is important to sustain trust

TEAM BUILDING Employees at Ericsson Cyberlab in Singapore climbed over rock walls, inched across planks, scaled cargo nets, and performed other daunting tasks to improve team dynamics Team Building at Ericsson Cyberlab Slide 15 Any formal intervention directed toward improving the development and functioning of a work team  Accelerates the development of team norms – reshape team norms or strengthen cohesiveness  Applied to new teams but is more common among existing teams Team Building that have regressed to earlier stages of team development Slide 16  Best applied when the team experiences high turnover or members have lost perspective on roles and team objectives

TYPES OF TEAM BUILDING Role definition • clarifies roles and expectations; create common mental models Types of Team Building Slide 17 Team goals • clarifies the team’s performance goals, increases motivation to achieve goals, establish feedback Decision processes • examines the team’s problem-solving and task-related decision-making processes; improve team decision-making and interpersonal processes Interpersonal processes • try to build trust and open communication by resolving misconceptions • e.g. wilderness team building, paintball wars • Dialogue – process of conversation among team members in which they learn about each other’s mental models and assumptions and eventually form a common model for thinking within the team

IS TEAM BUILDING EFFECTIVE? Results mixed on team building -- some successful, but just as many fail Problems • Introduced without diagnosis of the team’s needs (e.g. Making Team Building problem-solving, interpersonal processes) – broad brush Effective approach Slide 18 • Used as a quick fix, needs to be ongoing • Need to make team building part of the job – not an event • Needs to occur on-the-job, not just away from the workplace

TRANSPARENCY MASTERS

Transparency 9.1: Self-Directed Work Teams Defined Transparency 9.2: Attributes of SDWTs Transparency 9.3: Sociotechnical Systems Conditions Transparency 9.4: Challenges to SDWTs Transparency 9.5: Virtual Teams Defined Transparency 9.6: Why Virtual Teams? Transparency 9.7: High-Performance Virtual Teams Transparency 9.8: High-Performance Virtual Teams (con’t) Transparency 9.9: Trust Defined Transparency 9.10: Three Levels of Trust Transparency 9.11: Three Levels of Trust (con’t) Transparency 9.12: Team Building Transparency 9.13: Types of Team Building Transparency 9.14: Making Team Building Effective

SOLUTIONS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How do self-directed teams differ from be less comfortable with employee involvement conventional teams? because of their preference to work alone. In this respect, the company would not have much Entire piece of work. In contrast to many problem with SDWTs in Singapore and Mexico conventional teams, SDWTs complete an entire because both cultures are more collectivist than piece of work whether it’s a product, a service, or individualist. part of a larger product or service. SDWTs also work better in low power distance Team assigns tasks. SDWTs assign tasks that cultures. Power distance refers to the extent that individual team members perform as contrasted to people accept unequal distribution of power in a conventional teams in which supervisors assign society. Employees with low power distance tasks. usually want to be involved in corporate decisions, Authority. SDWTs control most work inputs, whereas those in high power distance cultures flow, and outputs in contrast to conventional teams prefer having supervisors give them directions and where supervisors traditionally coordinate and plan answers. There may be some difficulty with tasks. SDWTs in Singapore and Mexico because both cultures traditionally have a high power distance. Corrects work flow problems. SDWTs are However, both cultures are probably moving away responsible for correcting work flow problems as from extremely high power distance (a trend in they occur. In contrast to conventional teams, many countries), so it is doubtful that this would be SDWTs maintain there own quality and logistical a serious concern. controls. 3. A chicken processing company wants to build a Team level feedback and rewards. In contrast to processing plant designed around sociotechnical many conventional teams, SDWTs receive team- systems principles. In a traditional chicken level feedback and rewards in addition to processing plant, employees work in separate individual feedback and rewards that may be departments---cleaning and cutting, cooking, available. packaging, and warehousing. The cooking and 2. Advanced Telecom Ltd. has successfully packaging processes are controlled by separate introduced self-directed work teams (SDWTs) at its work stations in the traditional plant. How would operation throughout Canada. The company now the company change this operation into more wants to introduce SDWTs at its plants in around a sociotechnical systems design? Singapore and Mexico. What potential cross- Several social and technical changes are necessary cultural challenges might Advanced Telecom to transform this plant into a sociotechnically- experience as it introduces SDWTs in these designed operation. These are the key conditions to countries? apply sociotechnical systems theory. The textbook indicates that various forms of Primary work unit. Employees should be employee involvement, including self-directed regrouped around work processes (producing work teams, have been introduced around the sausages, canned meats, etc.) rather than their world. However, it also acknowledges that current organization into functional departments. If SDWTs and other high-involvement practices are necessary, this may mean that one group operates better suited to some cultures than to others. the entire plant. However, it is more likely that a SDWTs would be adopted most readily in cultures few product areas would be formed. with high collectivism. People with a collectivist Joint optimization. The new plant must arrange value appreciate and support their membership in the technology so that it supports a team the group to which they belong. Consequently, they environment. For example, the work stations work more comfortably discussing their ideas with should be redesigned around the new organization co-workers. In contrast, individualistic people may of employees. Thus, cooking and packaging

stations might be combined for each product group organizations need to seek out this knowledge (or for the entire production activity). wherever it may reside. Virtual teams are a natural part of the knowledge management process Collective self-regulation. STS advocates a team- because they encourage employees to share and use based structure in which employees in the primary knowledge when geography limits more direct work unit have sufficient autonomy to manage the forms of collaboration. work process. The team should be able to decide how to divide up work among its members as well Globalization. Globalization is the other reason as how to coordinate that work. This means that why virtual teams are increasingly necessary. they must receive more information about their Globalization has become the new reality in many work activities (such as quality control data) and organizations. Companies are opening businesses have the right to make decisions affecting their overseas, forming tight alliances with companies work process. located elsewhere, and serving customers who want global support. These global conditions Controlling key variances. STS says that require a correspondingly global response in the productivity improves when the work team has form of virtual teams, which coordinate these control over “key variances”. These variances operations. represent the disturbances or interruptions that occur in a work process. By controlling these 6. Suppose the instructor for this course assigned you factors, work teams control the quantity and quality to a project team consisting of three other students of output in the work process. Thus, the new who are currently taking similar courses in Ireland, design must give employee control over the Singapore, and Brazil. All students speak English elements in the process that affect quality and and have similar knowledge of the topic. Use your productivity. For example, chicken processing knowledge of virtual teams to discuss the problems employees would control the operation of that your team might face, compared with a team of machinery, the packaging process, and so on. local students who can meet face to face. 4. What can organizations do to reduce management Students can suggest a variety of potential resistance to self-directed work teams? problems with this virtual team. One of the main problems that virtual teams experience is in the One of the challenges or barriers that face SDWTs team development process. Without face-to-face is management resistance. Supervisors and even contact (i.e. media richness), team development higher level managers are often the main sources of may be slower. Research on virtual teams resistance to the transition to self-directed work confirms that some face-to-face contact improve teams. Their main concern is losing power when team dynamics. employees gain power through empowered teams. Some are concerned that their jobs will lose value Another problem is that the communication process or even that their jobs will no longer be required. would be limited mainly to e-mail or Web-based discussion sites (eg. team rooms). This can slow In order to reduce management resistance to down the communication flow and increase the risk SDWTs, organizations need to provide a of flaming. Moreover, since Singapore and Ireland reasonable level of job security to supervisors and have considerably different time zones than managers. If addition, the organization needs to Canada, the communication may be delayed by provide training and development to support half of a day. Thus, last minute deadlines become supervisors and managers in making the transition a problem. from “hands on” supervision to coaches and facilitators. This type of high-involvement culture Virtual teams can create problems with will also need to be reinforced through cohesiveness because the team members do not organizational changes including adapting know each other and have limited contact. This managerial performance criteria to sustain the weakens some of the benefits that face-to-face required behaviour changes. teams experience if they become cohesive (such as mutual support, motivation to work for the team, 5. Why are virtual teams becoming increasingly etc.). Of course, not all face-to-face student teams necessary? are cohesive! Knowledge management. Knowledge has 7. What can virtual teams do to sustain trust among become the currency of competitive advantage, so team members?

A common misconception is that team members solutions to general team problems. No one build trust from a low level when they first join a bothers to diagnose the teams’ specific needs (e.g. team. According to recent studies, the opposite is problem solving, interpersonal processes) because actually more likely to occur. People typically join the team-building intervention is assumed to be a a virtual or conventional team with a high level— broad-brush solution. In reality, there are different not a low level—of trust in their new team-mates. types of team-building activities for different team needs. This mismatch can potentially lead to Declining trust is particularly challenging in virtual ineffective team building. teams. Research identifies clear communication among team members is an important condition for Another problem is that corporate leaders tend to sustaining trust. Virtual teams will need several view team-building as a one-shot medical communication channels available in order to off- inoculation that every team should receive when it set lack of face to face communication. In is formed. In truth, team building is an ongoing addition, team processes including virtual team process, not a three-day jumpstart. Some experts development will require some face to face suggest, for example, that wilderness experiences interaction, particularly when the team forms. often fail because they rarely include follow-up consultation to ensure that team learning is 8. “Team building activities have become more transferred back to the workplace. popular as companies increasingly rely on teams to get the work done.” What problems may arise that Last, we must remember that team building occurs could lead to ineffective team building results? on the job, not just on an obstacle course or in a national park. Organizations should encourage Studies suggest that some team building activities team members to reflect on their work experiences are successful, but just as many fail to build high- and to experiment with just-in-time learning for performance teams. One problem is that corporate team development leaders assume team-building activities are general

PHOTO CAPTION CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

Jabil Circuits teams of employees who make a product or complete a work process. Second, this photo caption suggests that Q: What advantages and potential problems would Jabil these teams are semi-autonomous. They are self- Circuits have with its team-based organizational directed, so they have sufficient autonomy to manage structure? the work process. Third, Celestica focussed on the “key variances” in these work processes. In other words, A: One advantage of the team-based organization is that teams are aware of the disturbances or interruptions that it is usually more responsive and flexible to occur in a work process, and how they can improve environmental changes. This structure also can reduce quality by managing those key variances. The only costs and increase employee satisfaction because teams element of sociotechnical systems theory that is not empower employees and reduce reliance on a explicitly mentioned in this photo caption is joint managerial hierarchy. A cross-functional team structure optimization. It is not clear whether Celestica balanced improves communication and cooperation across the social and technical system. The fact that study traditional boundaries. With greater autonomy, this teams “mapped work process flows” suggests that some structure also allows quicker and more informed joint optimization occurred, but this information is decision making. One concern with team-based speculative. structures is that they can be costly to maintain due to the need for ongoing interpersonal skills training. Teamwork potentially takes more time to coordinate than formal hierarchy during the early stages of team Ambient Design’s Virtual Teams development. Employees may experience more stress due to increased ambiguity in their roles. Team leaders Q: What conditions are needed to make Ambient also experience more stress due to increased conflict, Design’s virtual team work effectively? loss of functional power, and unclear career progression ladders A: The answer to this question comes from the team effectiveness model. Students should identify the main organisational and team environment conditions, as well as team design and team processes, that make Celestica Inc. teams of any kind more effective. This section of the Q: To what extent has Celestica applied the four STS chapter takes students through several elements of the conditions necessary for successful self-directed work team effectiveness model that are most important, such teams? as communication systems, team composition, and some face-to-face interaction to improve team A: Celestica applied most of the sociotechnical development and cohesiveness. conditions. First, they formed primary work units –

ACTIVITY 9.1: CASE ANALYSIS SHIPPING INDUSTRY ACCOUNTING TEAM

Case Synopsis

This case describes how accountants from various parts of Canada must work together as a virtual team after their respective companies merged into one decentralized organization. The case is written from the perspective of the Halifax accountant, who explains his/her dislike of working in teams and discusses some of the problems in the assigned team. The case relates to several issues in the effectiveness of virtual teams, including the problem of applying ambiguous and complex tasks to virtual teams, team development without face-to-face communication, and team members who lack motivation and/or ability (technologically and interactively) to work in virtual teams. Suggested Answers to Case Questions

1. What type of team was formed here? Was it Students should break down this answer into the necessary, in your opinion? various components of the team effectiveness model that relate to this situation: The team created in this case was a virtual team because it consisted of members operate across Team Environment: Students can identify a space, time, and organizational boundaries and are number of environmental concerns that make it linked through information technologies to achieve difficult for this team to operate effectively. The organizational tasks. team relies on email, which seems to lack the qualities (media richness-- as we learn in Chapter Whether it was necessary to form this team 11) for communicating on the complex and requires students to consider a few factors, some of ambiguous issues about corporate strategy. which are not explicit in the case. First, it seems Moreover, given the lack of coordination, it reasonable for an organization to rely on experts in appears that the organizational structure supports a specialization to put their heads together to form individual performance rather than team a strategy to improve business in their performance. This point is reflected in the author’s specialization. Without making too many statements that he/she could just as well work assumptions, it is difficult to imagine how the firm alone on the required tasks. Students can speculate could develop strategy without the collective on the quality of leadership influences here. involvement of these people. Team Tasks: Students should recognize that The key question, therefore, isn’t whether the team forming a strategic plan to improve shipping should have been formed. The key question is how accounting business is a potentially messy affair the team should be structured. The answer to the that the team members do not seem to engage in next question provides some details on this point, alone let along together very often. In other words, but students can suggest in this question that the task is novel, complex, and ambiguous. This is maybe a collocated team would be more effective definitely not ideal for virtual teams, particularly under these conditions. Specifically, perhaps these virtual teams that clearly are far from the people could have been brought together face-to- performing level of team development. face for a few days to work through many of the main issues for the strategy. Team Size/Composition: Team size seems to be fine; four people should be able to develop as a 2. Use the team effectiveness model in Chapter 8 and virtual team relatively well, controlling for other related information in this chapter to identify the factors. However, team composition is clearly a strengths and weaknesses of this team’s concern here. While everyone on this team seem environment, design, and processes. appropriate with respect to their expertise in accounting for shipping firms, they seem to lack the motivation and competencies for virtual team

252 Chapter 9 Developing High-Performance Teams dynamics. The author and possible others on the 3. Assuming that these four people must continue to team have little desire to work in a team work as a team, recommend ways to improve the environment. They have apparently worked alone team’s effectiveness. for some time before the merger. The team Students can identify several things to improve the members also seem to lack skills in communicating effectiveness of this virtual team. They might even through information technology. The Vancouver begin by questioning the wisdom of relying on a team member doesn’t use email very well. None virtual team for such an ambiguous and complex of the team members has used conference calling problem. A multi-day retreat for these four people much in the past. Other, potentially more effective and perhaps other senior executives might be wiser communication media have not been mentioned in and, in the long run, less costly. this case. One recommendation is for the team members to Team Processes: One of the glaring problems with meet face-to-face to at least begin the strategy plan the virtual team in this case is that the team and to possibly participate in some team building members have had almost no opportunity or activity. This personal contact may improve team resources to develop as a team. One of the striking dynamics by moving the team development characteristics of effective virtual teams is that process further along and build some level of their members have had an opportunity to meet cohesiveness. face-to-face at some point (preferably early) in the team’s life cycle. This has not occurred here, Another recommendation is to develop skills in except that the author has met Rochelle, the these (and possibly other) employees regarding accountant from Montreal. The result is that team communicating through information technology as members do not understand each other, cannot well as working in teams. It is clear that these agree on anything other than the most basic issues, people need to become better versed in a variety of and seem to have very low cohesiveness. communication media so they can choose information technology that matches the complexity of this and other tasks.

ACTIVITY 9.2: TEAM EXERCISE TEAM-TRUST EXERCISE

Purpose dynamics. If students complain that the instructor This exercise is designed to help students understand changed the rules, you can remind them that the the role of interpersonal trust in the development and exercise states that there will be up to two saboteurs maintenance of effective teams. (i.e., it is possible that teams don’t have any saboteurs.) Probably the best materials to conduct this exercise are coloured wooden blocks found in most toy Materials departments. Alternatively, you use coloured paper to The instructor will provide the same 15 objects for each cut out objects of different shapes, ensuring that each team as well as for the model. team has an exact duplicate of the master shape. Prior to class, you should set up a configuration of objects on a Instructions table. The screen can be a cardboard box turned upside Students are divided into teams of approximately 10 down over the objects. Identical sets of objects should people. Each team receives 15 objects from the be placed in bags and given to the teams. instructor. The same 15 objects are arranged in a This exercise can be conducted in any classroom, specific way on a table at the front of the room (or but the best setting provides each team with a elsewhere designated by the instructor). The table is sufficiently large table with access on all sides and behind a screened area so that the arrangements cannot enough distance from other teams that their be seen by participants from their work areas. configuration can’t be seen. The goal of each team is to duplicate the exact To judge the final configurations, you can prepare a arrangement (e.g., location, overlap, spacing) of the template, such as an acetate sheet with tracings of the objects on the table, using its own matching set of objects in their proper configuration. Also consider objects, within 20 minutes (or other time limit given by designating a few students to serve as judges of the best the instructor). Participants are allowed one 30-second configuration. opportunity at the beginning of the exercise to view the screened table. They may not write, draw, or talk while Discussion Questions viewing the screened table. The level of trust among team member should make a The instructor informs each team that it will have up significant difference in their success at this task. The to two saboteurs. These are people selected by the instructor can facilitate discussion around this issue and instructor prior to class, and whose main objective is to related topics in Chapter 9. use any reasonable method to prevent the team from Students should try to explain why trust is so producing an accurate configuration of objects in their important in teams. They should explain that this work area. The saboteurs are forbidden from revealing exercise requires information from every team member. their identities. Members must check their recollection of the master At the end of the time limit, the instructor will configuration, and this is best done by confirming evaluate each team’s configuration and decide which evidence from others. (This is rather like checking your one is the most accurate. The class will then evaluate perceptions with others that we described in Chapter 6.) their experience in the exercise in terms of team When trust is low, members are unable to confirm their development and other aspects of team dynamics. recollection or combine information effectively. Students should also discuss their feelings toward Comments for Instructors other team members, particularly those whom they We find that this exercise works best when no one is believed were saboteurs. The instructor should be selected as a saboteur. The instructor casually and sensitive to emotions on this issue. conspicuously talks to several students at the beginning of class, but never asks anyone to serve as a saboteur. Note: Based on G. Thompson and P. Pearce, “The This avoids the awkwardness that some students feel Team-Trust Game,” Training and Development, May about betraying their team members. It also adds more 1992, pp. 42-43. meaningfulness to the issue of “trust” in team

ACTIVITY 9.3: TEAM EXERCISE EGG DROP EXERCISE

Purpose Instructions Step 1: The instructor will divide the class into teams, This exercise is designed to help students to understand with approximately 6 people on each team. Team the dynamics of high-performance teams. members will divide into groups of “managers” and “workers”. The team can have as many people as they Materials think is needed for managers and workers as long as all This exercise requires a variety of materials in team members are assigned to one of these roles. Please sufficient quantity. Specifically, the costing sheet note from the cost sheet that managers and workers indicates that the store provides plastic bowls, balloons, represent a cost to the project’s budget. plastic cups, Styrofoam cups, paper plates, plastic plates, coffee stirrers, paper clips, tape, facial tissues, Step 2: Within the time allotted by the instructor, each paper serviettes, rubber bands, and straws. You are free team’s managers will design the device to protect the to alter this list without significantly affecting the egg. Workers and managers will then purchase supplies activity. Moreover, you can limit the number of each from the store, and workers will then build the egg item that each team is allowed to purchase. protection device. Team members should read the rules carefully to avoid penalty costs. Along with these supplies, the instructor should be prepared to have the following: Comments to Instructors Raw eggs -- one per team, with a few extras in case of This popular exercise is loads of fun, but also requires mishaps before the official drop; space and a fair number of materials. Based on personal experience, I strongly recommend that you Costing sheets -- master sheet is provided two pages have one or two assistants to monitor the teams (assign forward in this manual. Most teams will require more penalties for violation of rules) and particularly to serve than one sheet, so make 2-3 times as many sheets as as store clerks for supplies. Students are eager to there are teams; receive their supplies and don’t like waiting in a long queue. I use a laptop computer with spreadsheets for Team rules -- master sheet is provided on next page. each team so costing is documented quickly and Typically one per student, but the rules can be shown as accurately. an overhead or computer presentation instead; At the beginning of the exercise, hand out the rules Plastic tarp -- to protect floor where eggs will be sheet (or display as an overhead) and one costing sheet dropped; per team. It is important to review the rules carefully, Laptop computer (optional) -- handy for quickly such as that workers cannot plan and managers cannot documenting and calculating cost of each team’s touch the materials at all. You should also specifically requisition using spreadsheet software; note the costs involved, such as the design and construction time costs (indicated in the costing sheet). Assistance -- depending on class size, a couple of The instructor should also show where the egg will be students to work on store requisitions and to monitor dropped, including the height of drop. adherence to rules during design and construction. Briefing these people before class is a good idea. After the class has been briefed on the rules and instructions, every team begins the exercise. Each Team Task team’s raw egg is distributed at the beginning of the exercise. The instructor and assistants need to keep The team’s task is to design and build a protective track of time because some cost is related to how long device that will allow a raw egg (provided by the each team requires for designing and building the egg instructor) to be dropped from a great height without protective device. Assistants also need to keep a close breaking. The team wins if it’s egg does not break watch on rule violations, such as managers holding using the lowest priced device.

256 Chapter 9 Developing High-Performance Teams materials or workers helping managers to design the drop (i.e. whether the raw egg inside the protective product. Violations also include submitting incomplete device broke). I prepare this information on an costing sheets (see list of rules). Each violation is fined overhead transparency while students take a break. $100, as indicted on the costing sheet. After displaying the results and announcing the winner When all egg protective devices have been built, the (team with the lowest cost design and unbroken egg), instructor or volunteer drops each device from the students are asked about the team dynamics, such as predetermined height. I have usually established a forming team roles, team development and height of approximately 2.5 metres (about 8 feet), coordination, conflicts that arose, application of specified by a piece of tape pasted to one wall. relevant skills, and so on. The manager versus worker However, this exercise has included dropping eggs out issue invariable arises as a problem, particularly the windows two storeys or more above the ground. strict division of labour and problems coordinating between the two groups. The debriefing typically begins by showing the total costs for each team, time taken, and success of the egg

STUDENT HANDOUT EGG DROP EXERCISE RULES FOR MANAGERS AND WORKERS

Only managers may design the egg protection device. Workers cannot assist in design. Only workers are allowed to touch the raw materials and make the egg protection device. Managers are not allowed to touch materials or product at any time. Only workers can carry raw materials from the store, and only managers can submit an order form to the store. Teams can order materials from the store as often as they wish using a new form for each order. Orders will be processed only when the forms have been correctly completed, including the team’s name, total cost of items ordered and signature of authorized manager. Any materials purchased cannot be returned for a refund.

STUDENT HANDOUT EGG DROP EXERCISE COSTING SHEET

UNIT NUMBER ITEM COST REQUIRED TOTAL COST manager $200 worker $100 plastic bowl $50 balloon $450 plastic cup $175 Styrofoam cup $50 paper plates $50 plastic plates $75 coffee stirrer $5 paper clip $1 tape $3/metre facial tissues $3 paper serviette $25 rubber band $1 straws $7.50 penalty $100

ACTUAL TIME design time* $2.50/min construction time* $5.50/min TOTAL COST: $

*NOTE: Insert ACTUAL design and construction times in minutes after each stage has been completed and verified by a neutral observer. Team members must notify observers as soon as their design has been completed, then as soon as their product has been completed.

ACTIVITY 9.4: SELF-ASSESSMENT TEAM PLAYER INVENTORY Purpose This self-assessment is designed to help you estimate the extent to which you are positively predisposed to work in teams. Overview Some people would like to work in teams for almost everything, whereas other people would like to keep as far away from teams as possible. Most of us fall somewhere in between. This self-assessment estimates the extent to which the person completing this instrument is positively predisposed to work in teams. Instructions Students are asked to read each statement in this self- assessment and indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with that statement. This instrument has 10 statements.

Feedback for the Team Player Inventory [NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.]

The Team Player Inventory estimates the extent to which you are positively predisposed to working on Score Interpretation teams. The higher your score, the more you enjoy working in teams and believe that teamwork is 40 to 50 Strong preference for teamwork beneficial. This scale has a range from 10 to 50. the 21 to 39 Moderate preference for teamwork following chart compares your results with a sample of Canadian undergraduate psychology students. 10 to 20 Low preference for teamwork

SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE: CONCURRENT ENGINEERING TEAMS

Concurrent engineering teams represent a special areas, as they are affected by engineering’s designs at variation of self-directed work teams. Concurrent some point in the cycle,” says Earl Werner, Harley- engineering refers to the cross-functional integration Davidson’s vice-president of engineering. “The more and concurrent development of a product or service and input we have up front, the better our products will be.” its associated processes. Generally, this occurs by A second benefit of concurrent engineering is that it assigning product development to a cross-functional significantly improves communication in the project team consisting of people from marketing, development process. This occurs because team design, manufacturing, customer service, and other members are typically “co-located,” that is, they work areas. together in the same physical space. When co-location Concurrent engineering is a dramatic shift from the is combined with having people working concurrently serial process traditionally used to develop a product or on different phases of the project, concurrent service. Traditionally, the marketing department engineering can dramatically reduce the time required develops a strategy or product concept, which is passed to send the product or service to market. “over the wall” to the design engineers. These designs Of course, co-location isn’t always feasible and, for are then sent to manufacturing engineers who figure out multinational projects, it may be better to have team how to make the product or service efficiently. The members in their own cultural setting. Information manufacturing designers usually require the product technologies are increasingly making it possible for designers to make several changes to standardize parts these virtual teams to work effectively at a distance. and minimize custom tooling. The customer service Still, until these technologies replicate face-to-face department is brought in at some later date to consider interaction, co-location will be the preferred option for product repair and parts replacement issues. Customers product development projects due to their complexity and suppliers are rarely involved at all. and novelty. In contrast, concurrent engineering creates a cross- functional project team -- often including customers Sources: T. Minahan, “Harley-Davidson Revs up and suppliers -- that simultaneously works on several Development Process,” Purchasing, 124 (May 1998), phases of product or service development. Design and pp. 44 S18+. A. L. Patti, J. P. Gilbert, and S. Hartman, manufacturing engineers begin working “Physical Co-location and the Success of New Product simultaneously. Marketing and purchasing Development Projects,” Engineering Management representatives are involved during this development Journal, 9 (September 1997), pp. 31-37; M. L. Swink, process, not afterwards. So are primary customers and J. C. Sandvig, and V. A. Mabert, “Customizing suppliers. Concurrent Engineering Processes: Five Case Studies,” Chrysler and other companies have benefited from Journal of Product Innovation Management, 13 (1996), concurrent engineering because their products and pp. 229-44; F. Rafii, "How Important is Physical services are too complex for design engineers to create Collocation to Product Development Success?" alone. Through cross-functional teams, concurrently Business Horizons, 38 (January 1995), pp. 78-84; W. I. engineering leverages the diverse knowledge of people Zangwill, Lightning Strategies for Innovation: How the from different backgrounds. This is one reason why World's Best Firms Create New Products (New York: Harley-Davidson Motor Co. has shifted to concurrent Lexington, 1993); pp. 40-J. V. Owen, "Concurrent engineering at its product development centre in Engineering," Manufacturing Engineering 109 Wisconsin. “It’s crucial to have input from all these (November 1992), pp. 69--73

Concurrent Engineering Team

Customers

Customer Marketing Service

Design Develop Customer Marketing Support Strategy

Concurrent Engineering Team

Design Design Manufacturing Product

Manufacturing Engineering Product Engineering

Suppliers

VIDEO SUGGESTIONS Along with the video cases for this part of the textbook, the following videos and films generally relate to one or more topics in this chapter. These programs may be available at your college/university or rented from the distributor. Please contact your film librarian to determine the availability of these programs at your institution. This list was compiled from library holdings of several universities. Due to the variety of video material, this is not a comprehensive list. Nor can we say that all of the programs below are suitable for your class.

Continuous Team Development. (1999, 14 min., Ash The Team Approach. (1994, 24 min., Kantola Quarry Productions). Peter Quarry interviews Peter Productions). Part of the Toastmasters International Wimer, an experienced organizational consultant on quality-centred management series. Good teams build effective team work to assess team effectiveness; involvement, improve communication and cooperation, solving productivity problems in teams; using and generate innovative business solutions. They customer feedback to improve team performers; dealing streamline decision-making and expand competencies. with difficult team members; maintaining team This video helps by assuring all employees about what enthusiasm during change. they can expect from teams and what their team-mates can expect from them. Success Factors for Virtual Teams: Peter Quarry interviews Ron Young (1998, 15 min., Ash-Quarry Implementing Self-Directed Work Teams (1992, Productions). Discusses factors that will contribute to 198 mins. on 3 tapes, CareerTrack). Explores the 'virtual team' success. Points include typical mistakes concept of self-directed work teams, touted as the made in setting up 'virtual teams', how multimedia productivity breakthrough of the '90s, explaining what technology creates richer communication, using the they are, how they work and how to create and manage 'virtual tearoom', and problems with e-mail bullying. them. Building a Winning Team. (1997, 29 min., Carrollton, Eleven Commandments for an Enthusiastic Team TX) : Associated with Matt Weinstein’s book, (1990, 25 min., VHS). In this videotaped seminar, Ian Managing to Have Fun, this video program provides a Percy discusses eleven principles for creating live audience with specific examples of building a enthusiasm and togetherness to build a cohesive, winning team. Weinstein suggests using humour or fun successful team. to permit employees to vent, to foster problem solving, and to create an atmosphere of appreciation at work. Mining Group Gold. (198?, 22 min., VHS). Based on Tom Kayser’s book of the same name, this program Coaching a Winning Team (1997, 55 min., Stanford takes us to Xerox and other organizations where Alumni Association). Part of the Stanford executive Kayser’s ideas about team effectiveness have briefings series, this video program highlights: building dramatically increased the quality of team processes credibility and consensus in a vision; using enthusiasm and decisions. Much of the video is about meetings (see to turn around team motivation; identifying and Chapter 11), but it also includes discussion of team utilizing complimentary strengths in a team. In this roles and relationships. video, Tara VanDerveer shows us that a successful team is born of strengthening individual qualities and Team Building: How to Motivate and Manage focusing them on a singular goal. People. (1989, 120 min. on two video tapes, VHS). This program covers key steps to team building which Jobs, Not what they Used to Be: The new Face of include how to locate and recruit quality team Work in America. (1996, 57 min., Films for the members, how to communicate in order to develop the Humanities & Sciences). Using several companies as team concept and how to motivate people to produce examples, this program looks at the future of work in better results. America, focusing on the work environment, training, and philosophies of companies which stress teamwork, Team Building. (198?, 12 min. VHS). This program, high technology, and inventive ways of organizing their part of International Telefilm’s “People Skills” series, businesses. describes the five characteristics of effective teams and what each team member must do to build the team.

Group Tyranny and the Gunsmoke Phenomenon. on hanging a bank robber in spite of their peace-loving (198?, 15 min., VHS). Dr. Jerry B. Harvey transports ways. This illustrates viewers to the Old West, where townspeople are bent