Landmark Dates in the History of Counseling

1874 Galton (Darwin’s cousin) published two books on individual differences (1874, 1883)

1883 G. Stanley Hall founds psychology lab to study physical and mental characteristics of children

1896 Witmer opens first clinic at the U of Pennsylvania. Mental health counseling is born.

1900 Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams

1907 Jesse Davis started first Vocational Guidance Program in schools (Grand Rapids Michigan) He ephasized the moral value of hard work as well as the benefits of occupational information

1907 Frank Parsons started Settlement House in Boston. Also credited with first system or theory of career guidance - consistent with social reform at time. In 1909 Frank Parsons publishes "Choosing a Vocation"

1910 National Conference on Vocational Guidance: birth of the National Vocational Guidance Association, which today is known as the National Career Development Association. Also formed is the Association of Deans of Women (NADW)

1916 National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA)

1917 Yerkes and other psychologists develop the army Alpha and Beta group IQ tests.

1921 First organized meeting of the American Vocational Guidance Association

1924 National Association of Appointment Secretaries (NAAS)

1939 E. G. Williamson publishes How to Counsel Students

1940 National Association of Guidance Supervisors (NAGS)

1942 Carl Rogers publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy

1943 APA Division 17 - Division of Counseling and Guidance [now Division of Counseling Psychology] was founded.

1946 National Mental Health Act is passed by congress and the National Institute of Mental Health is formed.

1951 American Personnel and Guidance Association [now the American Counseling Association] founded (Frank Fletcher helped organize it). The five groups, NVGA, NADW, NASPA, NAAS, NAGS, merged to form the organization 1952 The American School Counselor Association formed

1954 the Journal of Counseling Psychology is created

1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act is passed by congress. Community Psychology is firmly established.

1981 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs formed.

1982 National Board of Certified Counselors is formed

Morris Jackson (1995): Historical Perspectives of Multicultural Counseling through the 1970s

1940s

In the 1940’s and 1950’s, American minorities did not hold significant posts within the APGA

 Thus, they did not have an input in the by-laws or their principles  Segregation, discrimination, and prejudice dominated in American Society, particularly its educational institutions  Minority writers did not get their articles published  Research and writing articles was not a popular activity and was left to just a few, nationally known scholars

1950s

In the 1950’s, five articles were published in the Personnel and Guidance Journal;

 According to Jackson, the articles shared their acknowledgment of culture, minority groups, specifically African Americans, and a concern about the lack of scholarly attention to the research.  During the same time, the Journal of Clinical Psychology would introduce the topic of the impact of racism within the counselor-client relationship and the ability of the counselor to address the client as an individual, rather than a member of a group.  The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology focused on the differences between groups regarding cognitive ability tests.

1960’s

As a whole, the U. S. begins to focus upon the concerns of minority groups. The profession became more diverse by the increase in racial and cultural diversity of counselors  The 1966 APGA convention called for guidance and counseling of persons who were “culturally disadvantaged”.  Several writers began discussing the necessity for practitioners in paying attention to counseling issues of the culturally different  In 1969, the first Black caucus of the APGA was formed.

 In 1972, it would be established as the Association for Non-White Concerns  In 1985, the ANWC changed its name again to the Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development

By the end of the 1960s, persons of color would begin to hold positions of prominence within the APGA

Desegregation raised questions for practitioners about how to counsel clients from different cultures

1970s

Sue and Sue (1971) and Vontress (1971) discussed how mainstream psychology did not address the concerns of minority clients

1971, the Guidance Monograph Series 6: Minority Groups and Guidance is published, discussing issues affecting African Americans, American Indians, Spanish-speaking students, and other neglected populations.

Vocabulary changed from focusing on “minority” counseling to cross-cultural and multicultural counseling

 This reflected the fact that the counseling situation may not always be between an European American counselor with a non-European American client  The concept of cultural diversity would expand, as persons from different groups who have experienced discrimination began proclaiming their differences. Journal of Non-white Concerns is established, emphasizing primarily African American issues

1970, Paul Smith, an African American, is the first minority editor of a special issue of the Personnel and Guidance Journal, “What Guidance for Blacks”.

1973 Paul Pedersen chairs a panel on cross-cultural counseling at the APA convention, resulting in the first edition of Counseling Across Cultures.

1975, Derald Sue becomes a guest editor, then editor two years later. He would expand the ethnic representation discussed in the Personnel and Guidance Journal From the American Psychological Association’s website: Timeline of Challenge and Progress: The Inclusion of People of Color in Psychology in the United States

1892 The American Psychological Association is founded by 26 [White] men

1920 Francis C. Sumner is the first African American awarded the PhD in psychology from a U.S. institution (Clark University); dissertation title: "Psychoanalysis of Freud and Adler.".

J. Henry Alston is first African American to publish a research article (titled "Psychophysics of the spatial condition of the fusion of warmth and cold in heat") in an exclusively psychological journal, The American Journal of Psychology

1932 George I. Sanchez, EdD, the "founder of Chicano psychology," challenges biased research literature on the intelligence of Mexican American children in a Journal of Applied Psychology article, "Group differences in Spanish-speaking children: A critical review".

1933 Inez B. Prosser is first African American woman awarded a doctorate (EdD) in psychology from a U.S. institution (University of Cincinnati; dissertation title: "Non- academic development of Negro children in mixed and segregated schools"

1937 Alberta Banner Turner is first African American woman awarded a PhD in psychology from a U.S. institution (Ohio State University)

1943 Robert Chin is first Chinese American awarded a PhD in psychology from a U.S. institution (Columbia University)

1949 The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is established .

1950 The National Science Foundation is established .

1951 Efran Sanchez-Hidalgo is the first Puerto Rican awarded a PhD in psychology (Columbia University); dissertation title: "A study of symbiotic relationships between friends"

1953 The first InterAmerican Congress of Psychology is convened in the Dominican Republic, with Andres Aviles (of that country) elected as president .

1954 The Puerto Rican Psychological Association is established with Efran Sanchez-Hidalgo, PhD, as its first president. Efran Sanchez-Hidalgo authors first major psychological text, Psicologa Educativa, published in Puerto Rico.

1955 APA Council of Representatives approves its first model legislation for state licensure of professional psychologists . 1962 Martha Bernal is first Mexican American woman awarded the PhD in psychology (Indiana University).

1963 The APA Ad Hoc Committee on Equality of Opportunity in Psychology (CEOP) is established by the APA Board of Directors in response to a proposal from Division 9 (SPSSI) relative to the training and employment of Negroes [sic]. The committee is charged "to explore the possible problems encountered in training and employment in psychology as a consequence of race..."

The Community Mental Health Center Act, which provided funding for construction and operation of community facilities, is signed into law.

1965 A graduate program in psychology is established at the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus

1968 The Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) is established at the APA Convention in San Francisco, with Charles L. Thomas, PhD, and Robert L. Green, PhD, elected as co- chairs. ABPsi Co-Chair Charles L. Thomas presents a Petition of Concerns to the APA Council of Representatives that addresses three major issues: (a) the extremely limited number of Black psychologists and Black graduate and undergraduate students in psychology, (b) APA's failure to address social problems, such as poverty and racism, and (c) the inadequate representation of Blacks in the APA governance structure.

1969 The Black Students Psychological Association (BSPA) is established at the Western Psychological Association meeting in Vancouver, BC. BSPA President Gary Simpkins presents demands to APA related to the recruitment, retention, and training of Black students and faculty. CEOP issues report of its national survey of 398 Negro psychologists and reports that between 1920 and 1966, the 10 top-rated departments of psychology had produced 24% of all doctorates in psychology, but only 0.5% of the Negro doctorates in psychology. Furthermore, 48.2% of the respondents stated race had limited their professional opportunities. CEOP concludes, "most black psychologists feel themselves, and until recently were, alienated from American psychology because of the totality of what it means to be black" .

1970 The Association of Psychologists Por La Raza (APLR) is founded at the APA Convention in Miami. APA establishes the Commission for Accelerating Black Participation in Psychology (CABPP) composed of representatives of BSPA, ABPsi, and APA and charges CABPP to address BSPA's concerns. ABPsi provides all graduate departments of psychology its "Ten-Point Program" for increasing the representation of Blacks in psychology; 35 departments agree to immediately implement the entire program .

1970 ABPsi and APA develop a 3-year Black Visiting Scientist program to historically black colleges and universities . BSPA opens offices in the APA Building in Washington, DC, with APA providing 3 years of funding; Ernestine Thomas is the office's director and BSPA national coordinator. First issue of Network of Indian Psychologists is published by Carolyn Attneave, PhD.

1971 In response to demands of the Black Psychiatrists of America, the NIMH Center for Minority Group Mental Health Programs is established with a focus on (a) funding investigator-initiated studies on the mental health concerns of ethnic minorities, (b) establishing and administering six research and development centers-each of which focuses on mental health needs of a particular racial/cultural group, and (c) initiating the Minority Fellowship Program, which provides funding to five professional associations to administer minority fellowships for research and clinical training in psychiatry, psychology, psychiatric nursing, psychiatric social work, and sociology/

Kenneth B. Clark, PhD, an African American, becomes the first person of color to be elected APA president .

An early form of the System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA) is published by Jane Mercer and June Lewis .

1972 The Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA) is founded with seed monies provided by APA Division 9 (SPSSI); Derald W. Sue, PhD, is elected as president. The First National Conference on Asian American Mental Health is convened in San Francisco with funding provided by NIMH's Center for Minority Mental Health Programs. Publication of the first edition of Black Psychology edited by Reginald L. Jones, PhD.

1973 Participants at the Vail Conference on "Levels and patterns of professional training" form a Task Group on Professional Training and Minority Groups and recommend that APA create an office and board on ethnic minority affairs. Publication of the first edition of Asian Americans: Psychological Perspectives edited by Stanley Sue, PhD, and Nathaniel Wagner, PhD.

A national conference on Chicano Psychology is convened at University of California at Riverside by Manuel Ramirez III and Alfred Casteñeda with funding provided by NIMH.

Jack Sawyer and David J. Senn publish landmark Journal of Social Issues article, "Institutional racism and the American Psychological Association," which describes how APA, through an absence of concern about the employment practices of its printers and other suppliers, engaged in institutional racism .

1974 The APA Minority Fellowship Program is established with funding provided by NIMH and Dalmas Taylor, PhD, as director. The Association of Black Psychologists publishes the first issue of the Journal of Black Psychology edited by William David Smith, PhD .

1975 As a result of the California Supreme Court's decision in Larry P. v.Wilson Riles that use of intelligence tests results in racial bias in the placement of students into programs for the educable mentally retarded, the California Board of Education declares a moratorium on the uses of such tests for such purposes. African American psychologist Asa G. Hilliard III served as principal architect and lead expert witness of this challenge of the use of IQ tests.

The Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP) is established.

1976 The National Asian American Psychology Training Conference is convened at California State University at Long Beach with a focus on "Models of psychology for Asian Americans" and "Training psychologists for Asian Americans"

The first Symposium on Chicano Psychology is convened at the University of California at Irvine, with funding provided by the Ford Foundation .

1977 Publication of the first edition of Chicano Psychology edited by Joe Martinez, PhD .

1978 With the leadership of Dalmas Taylor, PhD, the Dulles Conference is convened by the APA Board of Directors, the APA Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility, and NIMH on the topic of "Expanding the roles of culturally diverse peoples in the profession of psychology" and recommends the establishment of an APA Office and Board on Ethnic Minority Affairs

Kenneth B. Clark, PhD, receives the first APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest .

John Garcia, PhD, is first Mexican American/Latino elected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists.

The APA Ad Hoc Committee on Minority Affairs is established, and later notes that major areas of ethnic minority concern include: (a) psychological and educational testing, (b) APA accreditation criteria and procedures, (c) ethnic minority curriculum issues, (d) licensure/certification issues, (e) publication/editorial activities, (f) underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in APA's governance structure, (g) APA's involvement in court and legislative advocacy

1979 The APA Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs is established, with Estaban Olmedo, PhD, as its director

The National Hispanic Psychological Association (NHPA) is established with Carlos Albizu-Miranda elected as President

1979 The first issue of the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science is published, with Amado Padilla, PhD, as editor.

The first issue of the Journal of Asian American Psychological Association is published, with Roger Lum, PhD, as editor. U.S. District Court rules that in regard to Larry P. v. Wilson Riles, California's use of standardized intelligence testing in schools was discriminatory and therefore illegal .

APA approves revised Criteria for Accreditation of Doctoral Training Programs and Internships in Professional Psychology, one of which (Criterion II) relates to cultural and individual diversity, e.g., "Social and personal diversity of faculty and students is an essential goal if the trainees are to function optimally within our pluralistic society. Programs must develop knowledge and skills in their students relevant to human diversity"

John Garcia, PhD, is the first Mexican American/Latino selected for receipt of a major APA Award-the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award

Logan Wright, PhD, is the first ethnic minority and the first person of American Indian heritage elected to the APA Board of Directors.

1980 By vote of the APA membership, the APA Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs (BEMA) is established; Henry Tomes, PhD, is elected as chair.

1981 BEMA establishes a Task Force on Minority Education and Training.

1984 BEMA establishes a Task Force on Communication with Minority Constituents, which is charged to (a) identify and increase ethnic minority membership in divisions and state associations, (b) help divisions and state associations establish ethnic minority-oriented committees, and (c) increase ethnic minority participation in APA governance . The APA Publication and Communication (P&C) Board establishes an Ad Hoc Committee on Increasing the Representation of Underrepresented Groups in the Publication Process

First issue of the Puerto Rican Journal of Psychology is published by the Puerto Rican Association of Psychologists

1985 BEMA, with the approval of the APA Council of Representatives, establishes the BEMA Committee on Ethnic Minority Human Resources Development (CEMHRD) to address ethnic minority student and faculty recruitment and retention and development of ethnic minority education and training resources, and appoints Martha Bernal, PhD, as CEMHRD's chair. Later, CEMHRD's charge is expanded to include accreditation issues and ethnic minority data resources.

The first national convention of the Asian American Psychological Association is held in Los Angeles.

NIMH is reorganized; ethnic minority research is "mainstreamed"-all of NIMH's three research divisions assume responsibility for funding ethnic minority-focused research and ethnic minority investigators 1986 The Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (APA's Division 45) is established The Society for the Clinical Psychology of Ethnic Minorities is established as Section VI of APA's Division 12 (Clinical Psychology)

Logan Wright, PhD, is the first person of American Indian heritage to be elected President of the APA .

1987 APA Central Office is restructured into three directorates (Science, Practice, and Public Interest); James M. Jones, PhD, an African American, serves as interim director of the Public Interest Directorate .

The BEMA/BSERP Task Force on the Status of Black Men and Its Impact on Families and Communities is established

The BEMA Task Force on the Delivery of Services to Ethnic Minority Populations is established and later issues APA Council-approved Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services to Ethnic, Linguistic, and Culturally Diverse Populations under the chair of Joseph Pine, PhD . As an outcome of the Publication and Communications Board's Ad Hoc Committee on Increasing the Representation of

Underrepresented Groups in the Publication Process, the Journal of Educational Psychology establishes an Underrepresented GroupsProject (UGP), whose major activities include creating a position of associate editor for a person of color who, with the assistance of an ethnic minority advisory group, assumes responsibility for both encouraging the publication of research on educational psychology issues of concern to ethnic minorities and developing a mentoring process for ethnic minority scholars .

APA sponsors the Utah National Conference on Graduate Education in Psychology, which incorporates a focus on "Cultural diversity: How do we enhance graduate education in a multicultural world?"-including issues related to curricula and increased participation of people of color as students and teachers .

1988 Publication of the first edition of the Directory of Ethnic Minority Professionals in Psychology, edited by Christine Iijima Hall, PhD.

1990 APA governance structure is reorganized; the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs (BEMA) and the Board for Social and Ethical Responsibility (BSERP) are sunset and in their stead a Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest (BAPPI) is established with Melba J.Vazquez, PhD, as its elected chair; the APA Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs (CEMA) is established with Bertha G. Holliday, PhD, as its elected chair .

Richard Suinn, PhD, is the first Asian American to serve on the APA Board of Directors. The Ethnic Minority Caucus of the APA Council of Representatives is established with Lillian Comas-Diaz, PhD, elected as its chair, and Alice F. Chang, PhD, elected as its secretary/treasurer.

1991 The National Conference on Enhancing the Quality of Undergraduate Education in Psychology is convened at St. Mary's College of Maryland, with ethnic minority student issues as one of its seven topics of focus, including discussions on such issues as (a) broadening the curriculum to include more ethnic minority issues and researchers, (b) creating a sense of community and managing classes with diverse students and (c) ethnic minority recruitment strategies

1992 APA's Public Interest Directorate sponsors the first APA miniconvention (at the Washington, DC, APA Centennial Convention) focused on ethnic minorities: "Ethnic minorities: Issues and concerns for psychology, now and in the future"

At the Centennial APA Convention in Washington, DC, the Council of National Psychological Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests is established upon adoption of the CNPAAEMI Governing Rules.

Joseph Horvat, PhD, an American Indian of the Seneca-Coyuga tribe, is the first ethnic minority person elected president of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association.

Gail E. Wyatt, PhD, an African American, is first person of color to receive an NIMH Research Scientist Career Award .

Joseph Horvat, PhD, an American Indian of the Seneca-Coyuga tribe, is the first ethnic minority elected as president of the Psi Chi NationalHonor Society.

1993 With the leadership of Jessica Henderson Daniel, PhD, and chair of the Massachusetts Board of Registration of Psychologists, Massachusetts becomes the first state to require program and experience related to racial/ethnic basis of behavior for licensure.

1994 Alice Chang, PhD, is the first ethnic minority female to serve on the APA Board of Directors.

The APA Commission on Ethnic Minority Recruitment, Retention, and Training in Psychology is established by the APA Board of Directors, with Richard M. Suinn, PhD, appointed as chair by APA President Ronald Fox, PhD.

1995 Volume 1 of the AAPA Monograph Series is issued, with Nolan Zane, PhD, and Yoshito Kawahara, PhD, as co-editors.

Jennifer Friday, PhD, is the first African American to be elected president of the Southeast Psychological Association (SEPA). APA Council of Representatives approves revised Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, including "Domain D: Cultural and individual differences and diversity," which calls for programs to: make "systematic, coherent and long-term efforts to attract and retain students and faculty [or interns and staff]..." from diverse backgrounds, "ensure a supportive and encouraging learning environment appropriate for the training of diverse individuals," and provide a "coherent plan to provide students [or interns] with relevant knowledge and experience about the role of cultural and individual diversity in psychological phenomena and professional practice"

1995 The XXV Interamerican Congress is held in San Juan, Puerto, with Irma Serrano-Garcia as congress president.

1996 With funding provided by the Office of Special Populations of the Center for Mental Health Services, APA initiates "HBCU Training Capacity Grant" program through which small grants are competitively awarded to psychology departments at historically black colleges and universities for activities that will strengthen a department's capacity to effectively recruit, retain, and train students of color for careers in psychology

Publication of Handbook of Tests and Measurements for Black Populations (two volumes) edited by Reginald L. Jones, PhD.

APA's Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs is awarded a $750,000 grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness of a "systemic approach" for increasing the number of persons of color in the educational pipeline for biomedical research careers in psychology.

Proposed Cross-Cultural Competencies and Objectives of the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development

I. Counselor Awareness of Own Cultural Values and Biases

A. Attitudes and Beliefs

1. Culturally skilled counselors have moved from being culturally unaware to being aware and sensitive to their own cultural heritage and to valuing and respecting differences.

2. Culturally skilled counselors are aware of how their own cultural backgrounds and experiences and attitudes, values, and biases influence psychological processes.

3. Culturally skilled counselors are able to recognize the limits of their competencies and expertise. 4. Culturally skilled counselors are comfortable with differences that exist between themselves and clients in terms of race, ethnicity, culture, and beliefs.

B. Knowledge

1. Culturally skilled counselors have specific knowledge about their own racial and cultural heritage and how it personally and professionally affects their definitions of normality-abnormality and the process of counseling.

2. Culturally skilled counselors possess knowledge and understanding about how oppression, racism, discrimination, and stereotyping affects them personally and in their work. This allows them to acknowledge their own racist attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. Although this standard applies to all groups, for White counselors it may mean that they understand how they may have directly or indirectly benefitted from individual, institutional, and cultural racism (White identity development models).

3. Culturally skilled counselors possess knowledge about their social impact on others. They are knowledgeable about communication style differences, how their style may clash or foster the counseling process with minority clients, and how to anticipate the impact it may have on others.

C. Skills

1. Culturally skilled counselors seek out educational, consultative, and training experience to improve their understanding and effectiveness in working with culturally different populations. Being able to recognize the limits of their competencies, they (a) seek consultation, (b) seek further training or education, (c) refer out to more qualified individuals or resources, or (d) engage in a combination of these.

2. Culturally skilled counselors are constantly seeking to understand themselves as racial and cultural beings and are actively seeking a nonracist identity.

II. Counselor Awareness of Client's Worldview

A. Attitudes and Beliefs

1. Culturally skilled counselors are aware of their negative emotional reactions toward other racial and ethnic groups that may prove detrimental to their clients in counseling. They are willing to contrast their own beliefs and attitudes with those of their culturally different clients in a nonjudgmental fashion.

2. Culturally skilled counselors are aware of their stereotypes and preconceived notions that they may hold toward other racial and ethnic minority groups.

B. Knowledge 1. Culturally skilled counselors possess specific knowledge and information about the particular group they are working with. They are aware of the life experiences, cultural heritage, and historical background of their culturally different clients. This particular competency is strongly linked to the "minority identity development models" available in the literature.

2. Culturally skilled counselors understand how race, culture, ethnicity, and so forth may affect personality formation, vocational choices, manifestation of psychological disorders, help-seeking behavior, and the appropriateness or inappropriateness of counseling approaches.

3. Culturally skilled counselors understand and have knowledge about sociopolitical influences that impinge upon the life of racial and ethnic minorities. Immigration issues, poverty, racism, stereotyping, and powerlessness all leave major scars that may influence the counseling process.

C. Skills

1. Culturally skilled counselors should familiarize themselves with relevant research and the latest findings regarding mental health and mental disorders of various ethnic and racial groups. They should actively seek out educational experiences that foster their knowledge, understanding, and cross-cultural skills.

2. Culturally skilled counselors become actively involved with minority individuals outside of the counseling setting (community events, social and political functions, celebrations, friendships, neighborhood groups, and so forth) so that their perspective of minorities is more than an academic or helping exercise.

III. Culturally Appropriate Intervention Strategies

A. Attitudes and Beliefs

1. Culturally skilled counselors respect clients' religious and/or spiritual beliefs and values, including attributions and taboos, because they affect worldview, psychosocial functioning, and expressions of distress.

2. Culturally skilled counselors respect indigenous helping practices and respect minority community intrinsic help-giving networks.

3. Culturally skilled counselors value bilingualism and do not view another language as an impediment to counseling (monolingualism may be the culprit).

B. Knowledge 1. Culturally skilled counselors have a clear and explicit knowledge and understanding of the generic characteristics of counseling and therapy (culture bound, class bound, and monolingual) and how they may clash with the cultural values of various minority groups.

2. Culturally skilled counselors are aware of institutional barriers that prevent minorities from using mental health services.

3. Culturally skilled counselors have knowledge of the potential bias in assessment instruments and use procedures and interpret findings keeping in mind the cultural and linguistic characteristics of the clients.

4. Culturally skilled counselors have knowledge of minority family structures, hierarchies, values, and beliefs. They are knowledgeable about the community characteristics and the resources in the community as well as the family.

5. Culturally skilled counselors should be aware of relevant discriminatory practices at the social and community level that may be affecting the psychological welfare of the population being served.

C. Skills

1. Culturally skilled counselors are able to engage in a variety of verbal and nonverbal helping responses. They are able to send and receive both verbal and nonverbal messages accurately and appropriately. They are not tied down to only one method or approach to helping but recognize that helping styles and approaches may be culture bound. When they sense that their helping style is limited and potentially inappropriate, they can anticipate and ameliorate its negative impact.

2. Culturally skilled counselors are able to exercise institutional intervention skills on behalf of their clients. They can help clients determine whether a "problem" stems from racism or bias in others (the concept of health paranoia) so that clients do not inappropriately personalize problems.

3. Culturally skilled counselors are not averse to seeking consultation with traditional healers and religious and spiritual leaders and practitioners in the treatment of culturally different clients when appropriate.

4. Culturally skilled counselors take responsibility for interacting in the language requested by the client and, if not feasible, make appropriate referral. A serious problem arises when the linguistic skills of a counselor do not match the language of the client. This being the case, counselors should (a) seek a translator with cultural knowledge and appropriate professional background and (b) refer to a knowledgeable and competent bilingual counselor. 5. Culturally skilled counselors have training and expertise in the use of traditional assessment and testing instruments. They not only understand the technical aspects of the instruments but are also aware of the cultural limitations. This allows them to use test instruments for the welfare of the diverse clients.

6. Culturally skilled counselors should attend to as well as work to eliminate biases, prejudices, and discriminatory practices. They should be cognizant of sociopolitical contexts in conducting evaluation and providing interventions and should develop sensitivity to issues of oppression, sexism, elitism, and racism.

7. Culturally skilled counselors take responsibility in educating their clients to the processes of psychological intervention, such as goals, expectations, legal rights, and the counselor's orientation. A Typology of Philosophical Assumptions in Multicultural Counseling and Training (Carter, R. & Qureshi, A., 1995)

Universal

 Assumptions: All people are basically the same; intragroup differences are greater than intergroup differences  Approach: Affirm human similarities through universal constructs; focus on shared human experience  Method: counselors should transcend construct of race  Disadvantage: can result in the counselor’s taking a client’s culture for the client and not seeing the client as a unique individual, but solely culturally determined.

Ubiquitous

 Assumptions: All loci of identity or shared circumstance are constitutive of culture; people can belong to multiple cultures, which are situationally determined.  Approach: Make counselor comfortable with difference; foster cultural sensitivity  Method: Acknowledge and celebrate differences; increase awareness of others’ cultures and expose stereotypes (e.g. sexism).  Disadvantage: can lead to avoidance and denial of groups’ sociopolitical histories, intergroup dynamics, and the salience of various group memberships. For example, women and African Americans would be considered in a sense equal, since they both belong to “oppressed” groups.

Traditional (Anthropological)

 Assumptions: Culture equals country: It is determined by birth, upbringing, and environment and is defined by common experience of socialization and environment. Race as a social construct is ignored; culture is an adaptive phenomenon."  Approach: An individual’s circumstances are superseded by the general culture; cultural membership circumscribes possible personality dynamics  Method: Trainee should experience new culture through exposure; use of cultural informants  Disadvantage: This approach does not specifically address intergroup power dynamics by deemphasizing similar processes that occur within a particular country or that evolve as a consequence of racism. For example, would we assume similarities between Okinawans and mainland Japanese?

Race-Based

 Assumptions: Race is the super-ordinate locus of culture; experience of belonging to a racial group transcends all other experiences; culture is a function of the values of the racial group and of the values, reactions, and institutions of the larger society.  Approach: Racial awareness; recognize the effect of racism and oppression; and foster racial identity development for all racial groups.  Method: Trainee should learn about racism and their own racial identity development  Disadvantage: Race is not definitive of culture outside the U. S. and is not agreed by scholars as applicable within the U. S.

Pan-National

 Assumption: Culture is a function of a dynamic other than geosocial; racial group membership determines one's place in the distribution of power; culture is viewed globally.  Approach: Teach about the history of racial-cultural groups dating back to ancient times. Students should know the psychology of oppression and the history of imperialism and colonialism.  Method: Teach trainees about how psychology of oppression and domination influences counseling process.  Disadvantage: by viewing racial oppression as the primary construct for cultural difference, one may overlook the role of other important reference groups, such as religion and social class.