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Global Changes During Carboniferous–Permian Glaciation of Gondwana: Linking Polar and Equatorial Climate Evolution by Geochemical Proxies

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Global Changes During Carboniferous–Permian Glaciation of Gondwana: Linking Polar and Equatorial Climate Evolution by Geochemical Proxies Global changes during Carboniferous±Permian glaciation of Gondwana: Linking polar and equatorial climate evolution by geochemical proxies K. Schef¯er Mineralogical-Petrological Institute, Bonn University, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, 53115 Bonn, Germany S. Hoernes L. Schwark Geological Institute, Cologne University, Zuelpicher Strasse 49a, 50674 Cologne, Germany ABSTRACT terglacial sequence in the Karoo Basin of The most prevalent Phanerozoic glaciation occurred during the Carboniferous±Permian South Africa. By comparing climate proxy on the Southern Hemisphere Gondwana supercontinent. Sediments from the Pennsylva- signatures from polar and equatorial regions, nian Dwyka Group deposited in the Karoo Basin of South Africa provide a complete we gain insight into the synchronicity of cli- record of glaciation and deglaciation phases. The direct correlation of glaciation events in mate processes. Because geochemical proxies southern Gondwana basins with the well-studied climate evolution of equatorial regions are affected by diagenesis, provenance was previously hampered by lack of precise radiometric dating. As dating has now become change, or weathering, we tried to extract re- available for the Karoo Basin, the Gondwana glaciation can be viewed in a global paleo- liable information on climatic and sedimen- climatic framework with high temporal resolution. Element geochemical proxies (CIA tary evolution by combining several indepen- [chemical index of alteration], Zr/Ti, Rb/K, V/Cr) record three con®ned shifts in climate dent proxies. and paleoenvironment of the Karoo Basin. These shifts were induced by changes in sea level, weathering rate, provenance, and redox conditions. Because of the low availability RESULTS and diagenetic overprint of carbonates, ocean and atmosphere pCO2 variations had to be Geologic Overview 13 13 reconstructed from d Corg values of marine organic matter. The d Corg signatures are The geology of the Karoo Basin was sum- affected by variable proportions of marine versus terrestrially derived organic matter and marized by Visser (1997) and Visser and its state of preservation. Organic geochemical investigations (TOC [total organic carbon], Young (1990). The Dwyka Group can be dif- C/N, lipid biomarkers) indicate the organic matter in the central Karoo Basin was pri- ferentiated into four deglaciation sequences 13 marily of algal origin. In agreement with element proxies, the varying d Corg values (DS I±IV, Fig. 2A), each with a glacial and mirror shifts in pCO2, rather than variations of organic-matter type. A covariation trend an interstadial phase (Visser, 1997). Absolute 13 between carbon isotope signatures of equatorial carbonates and d Corg values from the age determinations based on sensitive high- Karoo Basin argues against local forcing factors and instead implies a global climate- resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) analysis control mechanism. The 5±7 m.y. duration of a complete glacial cycle is not in tune with of single zircons de®ned the duration of each any known orbital frequency. Processes such as changes in equator-pole temperature gra- cycle to ;5±7 m.y. (Bangert et al., 1999; dients or newly developing atmosphere-ocean circulation pathways can be regarded as Stollhofen et al., 2000). Each deglaciation se- controlling factors. quence consists of a basal zone with massive diamictites overlain by a terminal mudrock Keywords: paleoclimate, Paleozoic, Carboniferous±Permian glaciation, Karoo Basin, Dwyka (Fig. 2A). Visser (1997) documented changes Group. in ice-¯ow direction over southern Africa during DS I±IV (Fig. 1). Interpretation of INTRODUCTION these global changes because of isotopic ex- geochemical proxy signatures must differen- The global climate comprises a complex in- change among atmospheric, organic, and in- tiate climatically induced from provenance- terplay between atmosphere, land, and ocean. organic carbon reservoirs (Hayes et al., 1999). controlled variations. For a better understanding of global interac- The in¯uence of the Gondwana glaciation on tion of climate-forcing factors, it is important global climate is documented by variations in Geochemical Proxies 13 to investigate paleoclimate records (Crowley and d C measured on brachiopods from equato- Multiple geochemical investigations reveal Baum, 1992; Berner, 1994; Frakes et al., 1992; rial regions (Bruckschen et al., 1999; Veizer climate variations during deposition of the Martini, 1997). In the view of today's discussion et al., 1999). Pennsylvanian Dwyka and Lower Permian on future climate change (IPCC, 2001), the The Karoo Basin of South Africa was part Ecca Group in the Karoo Basin. Zr/Ti ratios study of a fossil icehouse-greenhouse transition of a major depocenter during the late Paleo- indicate provenance change (Fig. 2B) for the may prove valuable. The most extensive zoic (Fig. 1). Equivalent glacial sedimentary interstadial phases (DS II median Zr/Ti 5 Phanerozoic glaciation lasted 90 m.y. (Crow- deposits exist in South America, South Africa, 0.076; DS III median Zr/Ti 5 0.044), whereas ell, 1978) and its termination occurred during Namibia, Tanzania, Antarctica, India, and glacial phases exhibit constant Zr/Ti ratios the Carboniferous±Permian on the southern Australia (Crowell, 1978; Caputo and Crow- (median 0.058). Higher Zr contents point to a hemispherical Gondwana supercontinent. ell, 1985; Veevers and Powell, 1987). Sedi- granitic rock composition, thus identifying the Glacial conditions in the Southern Hemi- mentological and mineralogical investigations northern highlands as sediment source region sphere and their contemporaneous effect on (BuÈhmann and BuÈhmann, 1990) have been during the interglacial phases of DS I and II. marine and terrestrial life in equatorial regions carried out for glacial sedimentary sequences Sequences DS III and IV received clastic de- in¯uenced the atmospheric CO2 content. The of the Karoo Basin, but only preliminary geo- bris from source regions located near the drop in pCO2 (Berner, 1994) at the end of the chemical analyses of the Dwyka Group sedi- southern magmatic arc associated with sub- Carboniferous coincides with times of con- mentary rocks exist (Visser and Young, 1990). duction along the paleo-Paci®c plate margin trasting climate evolution between polar and This study provides the ®rst detailed geo- (Visser, 1997). equatorial regions. Carbon isotopes record chemical record covering the entire glacial-in- Glacial deposits are interrupted by intersta- q 2003 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or [email protected]. Geology; July 2003; v. 31; no. 7; p. 605±608; 4 ®gures. 605 dial sedimentary units representing temperate climate conditions. Cyclic climate variations during DS I±IV induced severe sea-level change because the ice volume accumulated almost exclusively on land. These changes are recorded by various proxy signatures, includ- ing the chemical index of alteration (CIA; af- ter Nesbitt and Young, 1982), Rb/K ratio (Campbell and Williams, 1965), V/Cr ratio (Jones and Manning, 1994), and organic- matter content (Figs. 2C±2F). Variations in CIA indicate rapid transitions from glacial to interglacial phases (Fig. 2C). Low temperatures and rare vegetation favor physical weathering during glacial periods. The diamictites were deposited as subaqueous aprons and fans forming close to the ice- grounding line (Visser, 1997). Vegetation ex- pansion, soil formation, and warmer and more humid climate during interstadials increased chemical weathering rates, as indicated by el- evated CIAs. Differentiation between fully marine phases during the interstadials and limnic or brackish conditions induced by sea-level drawdown during glaciation is re¯ected by the Rb/K ratio (Fig. 2D). Stadial phases reveal median Rb/K ratios of 4.09, DS I and II interstadials yield Rb/K ratios of 4.78, and DS III and IV inter- Figure 1. Paleogeographic reconstruction of Karoo Basin dur- stadials give Rb/K ratios of 5.56 (Fig. 2D). ing late Paleozoic (after Visser and Praekelt, 1996). Major ice- This agrees with the most pronounced sea- ¯ow directions recorded in deglaciation sequences I, II, and III level rise, the Eurydesma-transgression of DS (after Visser, 1997) indicate clockwise change in provenance. III (Visser, 1997) inducing oxygen de®cient PÐParana Basin; KÐKaroo Basin; KHÐKalahari Basin. bottom water conditions associated with water column strati®cation upon sea-level highstand. Anoxia is indicated by higher V/Cr ratios cor- relating with elevated accumulation and pres- ervation of organic carbon (Fig. 2E and F). Figure 2. Stratigraphy and facies evolution of glacial Dwyka Group sedimentary succession; shading indicates interstadial phases. EÐ Eurydesma transgression; ®lled starsÐsensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) ages after Bangert et al. (1999); open starÐage by Visser (1997). A: Simpli®ed lithology and climate. B: Zr/Ti (a provenance proxy). C: CIA (chemical index of alteration; weathering proxy). D: Rb/K (salinity proxy). E and F: V/Cr and total organic carbon (TOC) (redox proxies). 606 GEOLOGY, July 2003 re¯ect the cyclicity shown by the element ra- tios. The transition from the upper Dwyka Group (mean d13Cof222.75½) into postgla- cial Ecca Group (mean d13Cof222.25½) is characterized by a conspicuous excursion to lighter d13C values of 226.5½. This excur- sion correlates with enhanced tectonic and volcanic activity, which is documented by de- creasing 87Sr/86Sr ratios ca. 290 Ma (Veizer et al., 1999). Climate
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