Aerial Applicator's Manual

Aerial Applicator’s Manual

A national Pesticide applicator certification study Guide

Aerial Applicator’s Manual A National Pesticide Applicator Certification Study Guide

Written By Patrick J. O’Connor-Marer, PhD

Published by the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation This publication was developed under Cooperative Agreement No. X8-83235401 awarded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation. EPA made comments and suggestions on the document intended to improve the scientific analysis and technical accuracy of the document. However, the views expressed in this document are those of its authors and EPA does not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this publication.

ii Acknowledgments

This manual was produced thanks to the support of the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs. The following people generously gave their time and contributed their expertise by serving on a Technical Advisory Committee and reviewing and contributing to the manual. Ron Cline, Central Valley Helicopters, Ellensburg, Washington Adolfo Gallo, California Department of Pesticide Regulation, Sacramento, California Paul Liemandt, Minnesota Department of Agriculture, Pesticides, St. Paul, Minnesota Drew Martin, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Glenn Martin, Helicopter Applicators Inc., Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Scott Schertz, Schertz Aerial Service Inc., Hudson, Illinois Russell Stocker, Bob’s Flying Service, Davis, California Dennie Stokes, Stokes Flying Service, Parkin, Arkansas Dale Thomas, Thomas Helicopters, Inc., Gooding, Idaho Mike Thompson, Arkansas State Plant Board, Little Rock, Arkansas Michael Weaver, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia Robert Wolf, Kansas State University, Manhatttan, Kansas

The following individuals served as ad hoc members of the Technical Advisory Committee and contributed valuable information and made meetings with the committee possible. Kenneth Degg, National Agricultural Aviation Association, Hillsboro, Illinois Richard Herrett, National Association of State Deptartments of Agriculture, Washington, DC Carol Parker, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC Carolyn Schroeder, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC Mike Walsh, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

Several individuals and organizations generously provided photographs used in this manual. Dennis Gardisser, WRK of Arkansas, Lonoke, AR Tom Hoffmann, Washington State Department of Agriculture, Moses Lake, WA Glenn Martin, Helicopter Applicators Inc., Gettysburg, Pennsylvania John Mateski, Western Helicopter Services, Newberg, OR Dale Thomas, Thomas Helicopters, Inc., Gooding, Idaho Michael Weaver, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia Robert Wolf, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas California Agricultural Aircraft Association Minnesota Department of Agriculture U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Image Library

A special thank you to the following people who provided careful reviews, helpful suggestions, and additional information. Scott Bretthauer, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Joseph Spitzmueller, Minnesota Department of Agriculture, St. Paul, Minnesota acknowledgments iii iv Contents acknowledgments ...... iii CONTEnts ...... v introduction ...... 1 The National Examination ...... 2 Scope of this Manual ...... 2 How to Use this Manual ...... 2 Detailed Content Outline ...... 3 CHAPTER 1 Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator Pilot ...... 9 Requirements for Pilot Certification ...... 10 EPA Requirements ...... 10 The Pesticide Label ...... 12 Review Questions ...... 15 CHAPTER 2 Operation and Application Safety . . . . 17 Aircraft and Pesticide Security ...... 18 Evaluating Aerial Application Operation Security ...... 18 Timely Coordination with Authorities ...... 19 Protecting People and the Environment ...... 19 Employee Training ...... 20 Employee Habits ...... 21 Application Safety ...... 22 The Equipment ...... 22 Understanding the Work Order ...... 23 Scouting the Target Site ...... 25 Understanding Pesticide Label Restrictions ...... 25 Resolving Conflicts ...... 27 Reviewing and Documenting the Application ...... 27 Planning for Emergencies ...... 28 Emergency Information ...... 28 Flight Hazards ...... 28 Plans in Case of Aircraft Crash ...... 29 Application Equipment Malfunction ...... 29 Ground Crew Emergencies ...... 29 Overspray, Drift, and Other Misapplication ...... 29 Spray or Dust Contacting Bystanders or Vehicles ...... 30

iv CONTENTS v Communications ...... 30 Review Questions ...... 31

CHAPTER 3 PREVENTING PESTICIDE DRIFT ...... 33

Factors that Contribute to Drift ...... 34 Classification of Droplet Size ...... 35 Spray Mixture Physical Properties ...... 36 External Factors Affecting Droplet Size and Drift ...... 37 Minimizing Off-Target Drift ...... 39 Application Techniques ...... 40 Smoke Generators ...... 40 Review Questions ...... 41

CHAPTER 4 Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems . . . . 43 Dispersal System Requirements ...... 43 Equipment and Component Factors ...... 44 Liquid Dispersal System Components ...... 44 Spray Pumps ...... 44 Pesticide Tanks and Hoppers ...... 45 Filters and Screens ...... 46 Pipes, Hoses, and Fittings ...... 46 Spray Booms ...... 47 Flow Meters, Valves, and Pressure Gauges ...... 48 Nozzles ...... 49 Nozzle Anti-Drip Devices ...... 52 Electronics ...... 52 GPS Systems ...... 52 Computers ...... 53 Flow Volume Controllers ...... 53 Mapping Systems ...... 54 Positioning Booms and Nozzles ...... 54 Nozzle Adjustments ...... 54 Pattern Testing a Spray Boom ...... 55 Spraying System Operating Pressure ...... 57 Dry Material Spreaders ...... 57 Ram-Air Spreader ...... 58 Centrifugal Spreader ...... 60 Review Questions ...... 61

CHAPTER 5 Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 63 Why You Need to Calibrate Equipment ...... 64 Improper Application Rate ...... 64 Equipment Calibration Methods ...... 65 Calibrating Liquid Sprayers ...... 65 Calculating Sprayer Flow Volume per Mile (Rotary-Wing Aircraft) . . 67 Calculating Sprayer Flow Volume per Mile (Fixed-Wing Aircraft) . . 68 Calculating Acres Treated per Minute ...... 69 Determining Gallons per Acre ...... 70 Determining the Amount of Pesticide to Put Into the Tank . . . . . 70 Calculating the Area of a Rectangular or Square Application Site . . . 71 vi contents Calculating the Area of a Triangular Application Site ...... 72 Calculating the Area of a Circular Application Site ...... 73 Calculating the Area of an Irregularly-Shaped Application Site . . . . 74 Calibrating Granule Applicators ...... 75 Computing Granule Application Rate per Acre ...... 76 Review Questions ...... 79

CHAPTER 6 Making an Aerial Pesticide Application . . 81

Ferrying ...... 82 Checking the Application Site ...... 82 What to Watch for During an Application ...... 83 Monitor Changes ...... 83 Importance of Onsite Ground Crew During an Application . . . . 84 Pilot Checklist ...... 85 Ground Crew Checklist ...... 86 Application Methods ...... 86 Application Speed ...... 87 Altitude ...... 87 Obstructions ...... 87 Flight Patterns ...... 88 The Turnaround ...... 89 Applying Granules ...... 90 Factors Influencing the Aircraft ...... 90 Estimating Density Altitude ...... 91 Density Altitude ...... 92 Operation S.A.F.E...... 93 Review Questions ...... 95 Review Question Answers ...... 97 Appendix 1: Pesticide Regulatory Agency Contact Information ...... 98 Appendix 2: FAA Requirements for Agricultural Aircraft Operators ...... 101 Appendix 3: Heat Stress ...... 105 Appendix 4: Steps to Follow in Cleaning Up a Pesticide Spill ...... 107 Appendix 5: Global Positioning Systems ...... 108 Glossary ...... 111 Index ...... 117

contents vii viii Introduction

Applying pesticides by air is an National Aerial Pesticide Applicator important part of many agricultural Pilot Certification Examination as their pest management activities. If you are tool for pilot certification. a pilot and plan to engage in this type In addition to the National Aerial of work, you must become proficient Pesticide Applicator Pilot Certification in making safe, legal, accurate, and Examination, state pesticide regulatory effective pesticide applications from agencies may require pilots to pass an aircraft. However, before you begin a core examination and possibly one applying federal restricted-use pesti- or more category-specific examina- cides for hire, you have to demonstrate tions (agriculture, forest, right-of-way, your skills and knowledge through a aquatic, etc.) as part of their cer- certification process administered by a tification process. Check with the pesticide regulatory agency. pesticide regulatory agency in whose Pesticide regulatory agencies jurisdiction you will be working for within states, tribes, and territories, as complete certification requirements. well as federal departments or agencies, (See Appendix 1 for pesticide regu- are responsible for certifying pilots who latory agency contact information). intend to apply restricted-use pesticides Requirements may differ from one to agricultural crops from aircraft. jurisdiction to another, and you may This federally-mandated certification need to participate in separate certifi- process applies to pilots who make cation processes for each jurisdiction. applications of restricted-use pesticides In addition to the aerial applicator pilot for hire and those who work for com- certification requirements, Chapter 1 mercial pest control operators. State, of this book covers the general stan- tribal, and territorial pesticide regu- dards set by Federal regulations for latory agencies may require certification certifying all commercial pesticide of pilots who apply other pesticides as applicator pilots and aerial pest control well. Many state pesticide regulatory operators who apply federal restricted- agencies in the U.S. have adopted the use pesticides for hire.

Robert Wolf—Kansas State University

introduction 1 The NATIONAL Examination

A team of experienced pilots and busi- The committee developed a ness owners who are actively engaged Detailed Content Outline, included in aerial application of pesticides on pages 3 through 7, which serves participated with an examination spe- as the blueprint for all examination cialist to develop the National Aerial questions and for this study manual. Pesticide Applicator Pilot Certification Before taking the examination, review Examination. This committee iden- this document so you understand the tified the essential knowledge and skills scope of knowledge and skills expected each entry-level pilot applicator needs of you as you apply pesticides from an to competently, safely, and legally aircraft. The examination tests you on perform all aspects of aerial pesticide this knowledge and required skills. application.

scope of this manual

This manual focuses on how to Also included in this manual is a apply pesticides properly and safely glossary of terms, an index, and several from an aircraft. It includes all the appendices that provide additional content found on the National Aerial information that may prove useful as Pesticide Applicator Pilot Certification you prepare for the examination. Examination and consists of the following six chapters: How to Use this Manual Since this is a study manual, the 1 — Laws and Regulations for the Aerial end of each chapter has a number of Applicator Pilot review questions to help test your 2 — Operation and Application Safety understanding of the information you just read. These review questions are 3 — Preventing Pesticide Drift similar to the types of questions on the actual examination so they will 4 — Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems help you become familiar with the 5 — Calibrating Aerial Application examination style and process. Each Equipment chapter begins with a set of objectives corresponding to certain skills and 6 — Making an Aerial Pesticide knowledge expected of you as an aerial Application pesticide applicator pilot.

John Mateski—Newberg, OR 2 introduction Read a chapter and then test that covers that information. Repeat your understanding of the material this process for each of the chapters. presented by answering the review Information of special interest is orga- questions. Check your answers to nized into sidebars throughout the these questions by turning to page 97. manual. You may find this information If you miss some questions, go back helpful in your work as an aerial appli- and review sections of the chapter cation pilot.

DETAILED CONTENT OUTLINE

for Licensed/Certified Aerial Applicator pilots

I. OPERATIONS A. Federal and State Regulation Compliance 1. Maintain requirements for a commercial pilot’s certification for aerial application (e.g., biennial flight review, medical) 2. Comply with all FAA regulations 3. Recognize an area that may be construed as congested by the FAA 4. Plan flight patterns to avoid passes over residences, schools, communities, field workers, or animals 5. Comply with state regulations regarding aerial pesticide applications 6. Operate according to government regulations while applying good judgment during each application 7. Maintain aircraft according to generally-accepted maintenance practices 8. Tailor application plans to the job situation and locale while addressing requirements of regulatory agencies 9. Obtain the required FAA Part 137 knowledge and skills endorsement from the business owner/operator 10. For agricultural operations, communicate with the business owner/operator and grower: a. regarding job scheduling, rescheduling, and special considerations to meet Worker Protection Standard regulations b. ensuring they have proper documentation (label) regarding the application as required by the Worker Protection Standard regulations 11. Ensure proper notification is given, including required field posting, before starting an application B. Field Operations 1. Secure aircraft so it cannot be accessed or flown by unauthorized personnel 2. Ensure:

a. ground-support crew members can implement their job responsibilities

introduction 3 b. the area to be treated is clear c. unplanned conditions have not arisen at the time of an application 3. Resist pressure to apply a product that presents unacceptable risk for the pilot, aircraft, public, surrounding crops, or wildlife 4. Refuse jobs that are unsafe or illegal 5. Participate in pre-application planning sessions and in post-application debriefings 6. Document special precautions required to protect sensitive areas or situations

II. COMMUNICATIONS A. Mixer/Loader Supervision 1. Review responsibilities of the mixing-loading crew at the base and satellite locations 2. Ensure the proper product is loaded into the aircraft for each application 3. Perform minor in-field repairs on ground-support equipment 4. React in a positive and helpful way in an emergency situation (e.g., broken loading hose) B. Pilot and Ground Crew 1. Use radio transceivers to communicate with the ground crew 2. Communicate information on work order changes in the field directly between the customer/field men and the business owner/operator or crew leader 3. Contact appropriate personnel when uncertain about any aspect of an application 4. Practice procedures and contingency plans to ensure necessary communications are detailed, quick, and accurate 5. Develop a strategy to notify a pilot when an aircraft should not be flown because of maintenance problems

III. APPLICATION SAFETY A. Emergency Planning 1. Anticipate types of accidents or incidents that can happen during the course of an aerial application or loading operation 2. Devise a contingency plan for evacuating the aircraft in case of emergency 3. Review pilot and ground crew procedures for an aircraft crash B. Pre- and Post-Flight Preparations 1. Check aircraft fuel and oil levels 2. Seek local advice regarding topography and sensitive areas when an application will occur in an unfamiliar location 3. Review an application job order to determine whether the job can be accomplished safely and adequately with reasonable precautions and work procedures 4. Inspect flight suits, safety harnesses, and flight helmets for proper operating condition 5. Wear a proper aviation flight helmet

4 introduction 6. Check the operation of seat restraints 7. Inspect: a. the fire extinguisher b. dispersal equipment (e.g., nozzles, hoses, connections) for signs of leakage and mechanical damage 8. Develop a procedure to ensure contaminates are not carried on clothes into the cockpit 9. Maintain maps and aerial photos if available and mark any obstacles, hazards, and sensitive areas 10. Survey a field before treatment noting sensitive situations including • field crews • domestic animals and wildlife • traffic or individuals • aquatic areas • crops in the vicinity • private residences 11. Check each field for in-flight hazards (e.g., towers, power lines, guy wires, irrigation pipes, and vent pipes) before each application begins 12. Report equipment deficiencies to the business owner/operator 13. Ensure known equipment deficiencies have been addressed 14. Protect employees from chemical exposure while changing nozzles and spray equipment configurations C. Scheduling 1. Implement work schedules that provide adequate rest periods 2. Perform the most difficult and sensitive jobs when rested 3. Help the business owner/operator plan equipment overhaul activities prior to periods of high demand D. Pesticide Label 1. Comply with label requirements and restrictions for aerial application of pesticides including: a. spray volumes (Gallons per Acre — GPA) b. buffers and no-spray zones c. weather conditions specific to wind and inversions 2. Interpret labels that do not include a reference to aerial use

IV. DISPERSAL EQUIPMENT A. Selection 1. Inspect dispersal system components for proper operating condition including hopper/tank, pump, filters, pipes, and fittings 2. Select proper nozzles for desirable coverage and drift minimization 3. Describe: a. major components of an aerial application liquid dispersal system b. desirable features of pesticide hoppers and tanks c. primary ways pumps are powered, and requirements for location and output capacity

introduction 5 d. features, advantages, and disadvantages of a fan-driven pump e. desirable features of pipes and fittings in an aerial dispersal system 4. List primary types of spray patterns produced by hydraulic nozzles 5. Describe: a. features of filters and screens b. hollow cone and flat fan patterns 6. Determine the number of nozzles for required sprayer output using manufacturer’s specified nozzle flow volume chart, aircraft speed, and swath width B. Position 1. Describe where: a. filters/screens should be located in the system b. pressure gauges should be positioned 2. Ensure a. booms and nozzles are positioned to release spray into a laminar airflow b. nozzles are placed to compensate for uneven dispersal from uneven airflow from: • wing tip vortices • high or low helicopter rotor speeds • aircraft propeller turbulence 3. Drop nozzles to either side of, or below, airflow obstructions (e.g., landing gear, oil coolers, boom hangers, pumps and swath markers) to minimize distortion of the spray pattern 4. Place nozzles: a. in the air stream to produce the appropriate droplet size consistent with boom pressure to give acceptable performance for each job while adhering to label restrictions b. along the boom to produce a uniform deposition on the target when the aircraft is flown at the normal spraying airspeed and altitude 5. Check swath pattern uniformity for each nozzle configuration used for various flows C. Maintenance 1. Check dispersal system pressure gauge accuracy 2. Maintain appropriate dispersal system filter cleaning schedule 3. Check nozzles for excessive wear 4. Correct leaking nozzles, fittings, and diaphragms on the ground during loading by cleaning or replacing parts as often as needed 5. Keep: a. spray system connections and fittings tight and in good repair to minimize leaks b. the boom suck-back valve adjusted and in working order to ensure a positive shut-off and safeguard against leaking nozzles

6 introduction D. Performance Measurement and Adjustment 1. Change nozzle tips and orifices as required for various flows 2. Calculate required and actual flow volumes, and actual output 3. Verify flow volume using fixed timing, open timing, known distance, or a flow meter 4. Adjust and calibrate: a. the aircraft dispersal system prior to use on a job b. after any modification is made to the aircraft or dispersal system

V. APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS A. Site-Specific Meteorological Criteria 1. Recognize application limits imposed by weather 2. Determine wind velocity, direction, and air density at the job site 3. Identify climatic conditions that: a. can affect aircraft engine power, take-off distance, and climb rate b. promote spray droplet evaporation 4. Anticipate air temperature and humidity effects on spray droplet size 5. Describe conditions associated with: a. thermals b. a temperature inversion B. Minimizing Off-Target Product Movement 1. Assess risks of off-target movement 2. Refer to USDA Agricultural Research Service spreadsheet information and nozzle manufacturer fact sheets to facilitate nozzle selection and spray droplet size 3. Select proper nozzles, operating pressure, orientation, and placement to minimize spray drift 4. Relate: a. volume-median-diameter (VMD) and relative span to desired deposition b. physical properties of a product to on-target deposition 5. Using a smoke generator, determine if the spray has a potential to drift 6. Evaluate vertical and horizontal smoke plumes to assess wind direction, speed, and concentration 7. Identify positive air movement away from critical areas 8. Relate dispersal equipment configurations to airflow around the aircraft 9. Select techniques (e.g., boom shut-offs, cross-wind applications, buffer zones) that minimize product movement out of the treatment area 10. Apply product to headlands and edges of fields when drift potential is minimal 11. Document special equipment configurations or flight patterns used to reduce off-target movement

introduction 7 C. Making the Application 1. Select a flight altitude that minimizes streaking and off-target movement 2. Choose a flight pattern that provides the best performance and safety level for job conditions and operation mode 3. Engage and disengage spray precisely when entering and exiting a predetermined swath pattern 4. Utilize swath marking tools (e.g., GPS, flags) 5. Continuously evaluate an application to ensure uniform dispersal 6. Document the product(s) applied and application conditions

Glenn Martin—Gettysburg, PA

8 introduction CHAPTER 1

Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator Pilot

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Studying this chapter will help you to: • Understand why you must comply with federal, state, and local regulations regarding aerial pesticide applications while using good judgment, best management, and safety practices during each application. • U nderstand the requirements for applying for a private or commercial pilot certification for aerial application of pesticides and how to maintain a valid certificate. • K now the requirements and processes for maintaining an aircraft according to applicable regulations, safety practices, and aircraft manufacturer guidelines and recommendations. • T ailor aerial pesticide applications to the job situation and locale while following the requirements of regulatory agencies. • R ecognize congested areas and the importance of planning flight patterns that avoid passes over residences, schools, communities, field workers, and animals. • C omply with label requirements and restrictions for aerial application of pesticides and interpreting labels that do not include specific use directions for aerial use.

As an aerial pesticide applicator local laws and regulations address the pilot, you must abide by all regulatory handling and application of pesticides requirements and restrictions that in the United States. These laws and pertain to pesticide handling and aerial regulations help: pesticide application. Only under an extreme emergency, where the public • Provide for the proper, safe, and or environment may be in danger, can efficient uses of pesticides essential you vary from any legal flight and air- for the production of food and craft handling requirements. Federal, fiber and protecting public health state, tribal, territorial, and sometimes and safety.

Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator pilot 9 • Protect the environment by pro- lations focus on applicator (pilot) job hibiting, regulating, or controlling knowledge including pesticide han- certain pesticide uses. dling and protecting people and the environment. State licensing, use, • Assure agricultural and pest storage, handling, and disposal regu- control workers of safe working lations, as well as tribal, territorial, conditions where pesticides are and local regulations, often further present. regulate application procedures and • Assure that aerial agricultural pesticide uses in order to protect pest control is performed by people and vulnerable sensitive areas qualified, competent, and or organisms. responsible individuals. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certifies • Assure users that pesticides are agricultural aircraft operations and appropriate for the use desig- enforces Federal Aviation Regulations nated by the label. (FARS) pertaining to aircraft oper- • Require that pesticide and ation. FARS Section 14, part 137 of service containers are properly the Code of Federal Regulations spe- labeled. cifically addresses agricultural aircraft operations. An agricultural aircraft • Encourage the development operation is a business that operates and implementation of pest aircraft for the purpose of: management systems that stress the incorporation of biological • Dispensing any economic poison. and cultural pest control tech- • Dispensing any other substance niques with selective pesticide intended for plant nourishment, uses when necessary to achieve soil treatment, propagation of acceptable levels of control plant life, or pest control. with the least possible harm to nontarget organisms and the • Engaging in dispensing activities environment. directly affecting agriculture, horticulture, or forest preser- Federal regulations appli- vation. cable to the certification of people who apply pesticides and to pesticide FAA regulations concern such handling and application are part of areas as aircraft operation, aircraft the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and inspection and maintenance, fer- Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The U.S. rying routes, operation altitude, Environmental Protection Agency pilot licensing, and medical exams. (EPA) and state, tribal, and territorial Appendix 2 provides a summary of pesticide regulatory agencies enforce the FAA agricultural aircraft operator the provisions of FIFRA. EPA regu- certification requirements and process.

REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOT CERTIFICATION

Applicants for aerial applicator pilot EPA Requirements certification must hold and maintain a State-administered EPA pesticide commercial pilot’s license and have a applicator certification determines the current Class II Medical Certificate. If competency of individual pilots who you work as a pilot-in-command for an will be applying pesticides. You must agricultural aircraft operator, you also demonstrate your knowledge of general need an endorsement letter from that aspects of pesticide handling and appli- operator or a person designated by that cation as well as your knowledge of the operator. The aircraft you fly must be specialized area or areas of application equipped with approved and properly where you intend to work, e.g., agri- labeled seat belts and shoulder har- cultural crops, forests, rights-of-way, nesses for each pilot station. public health pest control. 10 CHAPTER 1 Determination of Competency • Types and causes of common pes- State pesticide regulatory agencies ticide accidents. use written examinations to determine • The precautions necessary to your competency in using and handling guard against injury to applicators pesticides. State competency standards and other individuals in or near must, at a minimum, conform to federal treated areas. regulations. To prepare for examinations testing your knowledge of general aspects • The need for and proper use of proof pesticide handling and application, tective clothing and equipment. obtain a copy of the National Pesticide • First aid and other procedures Applicator Certification Core Manual to follow in case of a pesticide published by the National Association accident. of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation, Washington, • Proper identification, storage, DC. You can download PDF versions transport, handling, mixing proof manual chapters at http://www.nasda. cedures, and disposal methods org/StaticContent/workersafety/. The for pesticides and used pesticide manual covers the general standards containers, including precautions listed below. States may also have addi- to prevent children from having tional study materials available to assist access to pesticides and pesticide in preparing for the exam. containers. General Standards for All Certified Environment. You must recognize Commercial Applicators how the following factors possibly influence the environmental fate of To become a certified commercial pesticides: applicator, you must demonstrate practical knowledge of the principles • Weather and other climatic condi- and practices of pest control and safe tions. pesticide use and handling. General standards of competency include the • Types of terrain, soil, or other following categories. substrate. Label and Labeling Comprehension. • Drainage patterns. You must know the format and • Presence of fish, wildlife, and terminology of pesticide labels and other non-target organisms. labeling, including: Pests. For effective pest control, you • Understanding instructions, need to be able to identify relevant warnings, terms, symbols, and pests and recognize the common other information commonly characteristics of pest organisms and appearing on pesticide labels. their damage symptoms and signs. You • Recognizing product classification: must also understand pest development “general-use” or “restricted-use.” and biology relevant to identification and control. • Adhering to the requirement to use pesticides consistent with their Pesticides. Your knowledge of pesti- label instructions. cides must include:

Safety Factors. Regulations require you • Knowing the general types of to understand: pesticides. • Being familiar with various types • Pesticide toxicity and hazards to of formulations. people. • Understanding compatibility, • Symptoms of pesticide poisoning. synergism, persistence, and • The usual pesticide exposure animal and plant toxicity of the routes. formulations.

Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator pilot 11 • Recognizing hazards and residues application methods for various associated with use. formulations of pesticides, their • Being aware of factors that solutions, and choose the correct influence effectiveness or lead to application technique to use in a given such problems as pesticide resis- situation. You must demonstrate how tance. to prevent drift and pesticide loss into the environment. • Knowing the proper procedures for diluting pesticide concentrates. Laws and Regulations. You must also demonstrate your knowledge Equipment. You must demonstrate of applicable state and federal laws your familiarity with types of application and mixing equipment and and regulations. States may require know the advantages and limitations certification (examinations) in addi- of each. You must be proficient in tional categories over and above the calibrating and maintaining pesticide general standards. These additional application equipment. categories align with various pesticide uses, such as agricultural pest control, Application Techniques. Regulations rights-of-way vegetation control, require you to demonstrate proper vector control, or forest pest control.

the PESTicide label

The pesticide container label and applicable to aerial application. Other associated labeling are important legal labels and associated labeling contain documents that contain directions information pertaining to any type of and restrictions you must follow when application method and do not provide making an aerial application. Some labels specific instructions or precautions for refer to other documents, such as endan- aerial application. Certain pesticide gered species area protection maps or labels prohibit the aerial application of the Worker Protection Standard provi- the labeled material, so you must never sions of the Code of Federal Regulations apply these materials by air, even when applicable to agricultural operations (40 mixed with other pesticides approved CFR part 170). These and other docu- for aerial application. ments referred to on pesticide labels Labels having specific aerial appli- become part of the pesticide labeling. cation information are usually easier to Some labels and associated labeling interpret than those that only provide contain information specifically general information. Examples of

The use of 80-degree or 110-degree flat-fan nozzles is highly recommended for optimum spray coverage and canopy penetration. To achieve uniform spray coverage, use nozzles and pressure that deliver MEDIUM spray droplets as indicated in nozzle manufacturer's catalogs and in accordance with ASAE standard S-572. Use screens that are 50 mesh or larger. AERIAL APPLICATION Herbicide should be applied in a minimum of 5 gallons of water per broadcast acre. Weed infestations should be treated before they become competitive with the crop. To achieve uniform spray coverage, use nozzles and pressure that deliver MEDIUM spray droplets as indicated in nozzle manufacturer's catalogs and in accordance with ASAE standard S-572. DO NOT use raindrop nozzles. Aerial applications with this product should be made at a maximum height of 10 feet above the crop with low drift nozzles at a maximum pressure of 40 psi. Avoid application under conditions where uniform coverage cannot be obtained or where excessive spray drift may occur. Flagmen and loaders should avoid inhalation of spray mist and prolonged contact with skin. See the SPRAY DRIFT MANAGEMENT section of this label for additional information on proper application of herbicide. MIXING INSTRUCTIONS Herbicide must be applied with clean and properly calibrated equipment. Prior to adding herbicide to the spray tank, ensure that the spray tank, filters, and nozzles have been thoroughly cleaned. In-line strainers and nozzle screens should be 50 mesh or coarser.

12 CHAPTER 1 aerial-specific information covered in applicators can buy, use, or supervise the labels may include: use of a federal restricted-use pesticide (RUP). States may also have specific reg- • Statements that refer to or allow istration and labeling requirements and aerial application. may restrict the use of other products • Specific use directions, such as for not classified as restricted-use by the rate and dilution that apply directly EPA. to aerial applications without inter- Regulations set the format for pretation or calculations. pesticide labels and prescribe what information they contain. Some pes- • Allowable weather conditions for ticide containers are too small, however, applications. to have all this information printed on • Restrictions pertaining to spray them. In these cases, the EPA requires volume and dilution. registrants or manufacturers to attach additional labeling. On metal and plastic • Droplet size information based on containers, registrants or manufactures ASABE S-572.1 (see Page 37) Spray put such packets into plastic sleeves Nozzle Classification by Droplet glued to the sides of the containers. Spectra. Paper packages usually have label direc- • Drift management requirements. tions inserted under the bottom flaps of the package. • Off-target and especially sensitive States or local regulatory agencies area precautions. may impose additional restrictions • Buffer zone requirements. or prohibitions on aerial applications that may or may not be included on Manufacturers must register pes- the pesticide label. For example, local ticide products with the EPA before regulations may be more restrictive anyone can buy or use them. The EPA on requirements such as buffer areas, registers specific products, not generic no-spray zones, and dilution rates. pesticide materials. This registration Always follow the requirements that procedure protects people and the envi- are most restrictive in the location ronment from ineffective or harmful where you are making an application. chemicals. The registration procedure For example, local agencies might includes an evaluation of each chemical prohibit aerial applications regardless and establishes how the EPA classifies of label use directions, or they might the material at the federal level. This prohibit fixed-wing applications under evaluation determines whether the EPA certain circumstances and require that classifies a pesticide as restricted-use only rotary-winged aircraft make aerial or general-use. Only certified pesticide applications in these situations.

Professional Aerial Applicator’s Support System (PAASS) A pesticide drift mitigation and education project initiated in 1996 by the National Agricultural Aviation Association (NAAA). PAASS is an industry-based collaborative educational effort that focuses on outreach to pilots and operators of aerial applicator businesses. The program’s primary goals are to reduce the number of pesticide agricultural aviation accidents, improve pilot safety, and reduce pesticide drift incidents by fostering professionally-sound decision-making. The PAASS interactive program improves critical decision-making skills sensitive to environmental factors. The agricultural aviation industry regards the PAASS program as the single relevant recurring training source for modern agricultural aviation pilots. Many companies providing insurance to agricultural aviators require pilots to participate in this training as a condition of insurability. Statistics show that aerial application accidents and drift incidents have notably declined since the PAASS program first began.

Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator pilot 13 14 CHAPTER 1 Review Questions

CHAPTER 1: L aws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator Pilot

1. Pesticide laws and regulations help to: 5. One purpose of federal pesticide regulations is to: A. Encourage pesticide use. A. Require public notification about pesticide B. Protect the environment. applications. C. Avoid dependence on alternative pest control B. P rovide health benefits to agricultural workers. methods. C. Establish safety standards for pesticide D. Prevent pests from developing control application equipment. resistance. D. Prevent agricultural workers from handling pesticides or working in pesticide-treated areas. 2. Knowing the proper procedures for diluting pesticide concentrates is: 6. State pesticide regulatory agencies generally have the responsibility for: A. An FAA requirement. B. The requirement of local pesticide A. Certifying commercial pesticide applicators. regulatory agencies. B. Determining the personal protective C. Part of the federal Worker Protection equipment required on pesticide labels. Standard provisions. C. Developing material safety data sheets D. An EPA general standard for certified (MSDS). applicators. D. Identifying endangered species.

3. The format of pesticide labels is established by: 7. In addition to the actual pesticide label, A. Pesticide manufacturer guidelines. which of the following is part of the pesticide labeling? B. Federal regulations. C. State laws. A. Any product sales brochures. D. ASABE professional standards. B. The job work order. C. Worker Protection Standard provisions. 4. Knowing how to properly handle, mix, store, D. The Material Safety Data Sheet. and dispose of pesticides is a requirement of the: 8. Which of the following is one of the require- A. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). ments for pesticide applicator certification? B. Occupational Safety and Health A. Knowing how to use appropriate application Administration (OSHA). methods for various pesticide formulations. C. United States Department of Agriculture B. Demonstrating safe aircraft operation. (USDA). C. Following recommended aircraft inspection D. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). and maintenance schedules. D. Making applications at altitudes specified in regulations.

Laws and Regulations for the Aerial Applicator pilot 15 9. From the choices below, what pesticide use 10. Having a current Class II Medical Certificate information found on a product label would be is a requirement of the for all specific to an aerial application? pilots making aerial pesticide applications. A. PPE requirements. A. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency B. ASABE droplet size requirements. (EPA). C. Field posting requirements. B. State Lead Agency (SLA). D. Restricted-entry interval requirements. C. Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). D. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

16 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2

Operation and Application Safety

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will assist you to: • Understand the importance of preventing security threats to the operations and reducing hazards to the public from unauthorized or illegal access to the aircraft, pesticide materials, and equipment. • Understand the importance of protecting people and the environment from hazards associated with aerial application of pesticides. • Know steps to make pesticide applications that are safe for you and the ground operations crew. • Understand what precautions to take to protect sensitive areas while making pesticide applications from an aircraft. • Recognize the importance of good communications with the ground operations crew and others before, during, and after making pesticide applications. • Prepare for emergencies, including knowing proper first-aid procedures for pesticide exposure and related illnesses or injuries, and heat-related illnesses.

Safety awareness and practices in all vandalism. There is also the possibility as-pects of an aerial pesticide appli- that people are unaware of the hazards cation operation protects employees, associated with a pesticide application the public, and the environment. operation while inadvertently gaining Your operation needs procedures to access to the facility. An example would secure the aircraft, ground equipment, be children who might be curious and pesticide materials when not in about and attracted to aircraft or use to prevent unauthorized access. other pesticide use equipment, thereby Unauthorized access can range from trespassing to inspect the equipment individuals wanting to damage or when company personnel are not at burglarize property to crimes of the facility. In addition to securing opportunity, such as unplanned acts of the facility, you can protect people and

Operation and Application Safety 17 the environment by carefully planning alert, and not under the influence of each function of the application oper- alcohol or drugs. Develop reliable ation to avoid accidents and hazards. methods of communication between Provide safety training to ground crew you, the customers, and ground opera- members so they know how to handle tions. In case an accident or mishap pesticides properly and work carefully should occur, take immediate steps to around aircraft and other associated reduce damage and injury, including equipment. performing proper first aid and decon- Make sure each person involved in tamination procedures for pesticide the application operation is well rested, exposure.

Aircraft and pesticide security

Progressive and conscientious opera- out of areas used for pesticide storage. tions that handle pesticides work to Elements of an effective security plan actively manage risks to ensure the safety can range from basic fencing, lighting, of their employees, their customers, and and locks, to intrusion detection systems their communities. They focus on safely and cameras. Inventory management operating aircraft and mixing-loading policies help limit the amount of pesti- equipment. To achieve these goals, they cides stored on site, reducing the risks of use preventative maintenance, up-to-date accidental or intentional release or theft. operating procedures, and well-trained Securing Pesticide Application staff. Because of heightened concerns Aircraft, Vehicles, and Equipment about terrorism and sabotage, the operation must also pay more attention to the The operation you work for needs security of aerial application equipment, appropriate security protections to facility sites, and pesticide storage areas. prevent intruder access to equipment All aerial application operations need used for mixing, loading, and applying some measure of site security in place to pesticides. Accepted methods to prevent minimize crime, prevent unauthorized unauthorized flying of aircraft include access, and protect company assets. installing hidden electrical system shut- While many of the steps you take off switches, parking disabled trucks or to ensure an effective security program other equipment in front and back of seem routine, they are important to aircraft, removing batteries from air- the health and safety of the aerial craft, using devices that lock propellers application operation staff and the sur- or rotors, and disabling engines in rounding community. Without effective unused aircraft. Use similar methods to security procedures, the business risks prevent intruders from operating ground being vulnerable to both internal and vehicles, such as trucks, tractors, fork- external threats, which can pose hazards lifts, and other motorized equipment. to you and the employees, sensitive Always park the aircraft in a secure business information, the facilities and place when it is not in use. In addition, equipment, and stored pesticides. establish methods to know at all times the location and status of all equipment Evaluating Aerial used in the operation. Routinely update Application Operation equipment records. Security awareness is particularly Security important for large-scale pesticide There are several important application equipment, like aircraft. The security needs and critical control points Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) for an aerial application operation. requests that aerial operators be vigilant to any suspicious activity relative to the Securing Facilities, Storage Areas, use, training in, or acquisition of dan- and Surrounding Property gerous pesticide chemicals or airborne One of the most fundamental application of these materials. This security needs is keeping intruders includes threats, unusual purchases, 18 CHAPTER 2 suspicious behavior by employees or customers, and unusual contacts with the public. If you observe any suspicious behavior, irregular circumstances, or unusual requests for information, immediately report this to a local law enforcement agency and the FBI. Employees Effective hiring and labor relations policies are important to obtain and retain good employees who will support and follow the operation’s safety precau- Minnesota Department of Agriculture tions. The hiring process should ensure that pesticide handlers have all requisite threats that target the operation, and training necessary to handle pesticides potential widespread terrorist activity safely. Background checks of employees that involves the equipment or pesticides. who will have access to secure areas, par- Timely Coordination with ticularly those areas where pesticides are stored, can be an important employee Authorities selection tool. If a breach of security or suspicious activity does occur, immediately contact Emergency Response the local police or sheriff’s department. Effective emergency response pro- The U.S. Department of Homeland cedures help to ensure that the operation Security requests that operations also manager and employees understand report security breaches, threats, or how to respond and whom to contact suspicious behavior to the local FBI in the case of an emergency. Aside from field office. Information on the location accidents, such plans need to consider of the nearest FBI office is available at vandalism, burglary, arson and bomb http://www.fbi.gov.

protecting people and the environment

The aerial application operation you regulations that require employers work for depends on your piloting to train employees on how to safely skills as well as competent ground crew operate equipment and avoid hazards members who safely and responsibly associated with their work. The EPA carry out their duties. Proper training Worker Protection Standard (WPS) and enforcing safety practices within mandates specific training requirements the operation help reduce hazards to for employees who handle pesticides in ground crew members working around agricultural operations. According to equipment and aircraft. In addition, a this regulation, a pesticide handler in well-developed safety program provides an aerial application operation is any the structure to protect the public and employee who: nontarget areas from pesticide exposure. Providing training, assuring good • Mixes, loads, transfers, or applies employee habits, checking areas before pesticides. an application, and resisting pressure to make unsafe or illegal applications are • Maintains, services, repairs, cleans, important components of the operation or handles equipment that may that protect people, areas surrounding contain residues or that has been treatment sites, and the environment. used in pesticide mixing or application activities. Employee Training • Works with opened pesticide con- States have Occupational Safety tainers, including emptied but not and Health Administration (OSHA) rinsed containers.

Operation and Application Safety 19 • Understanding the health hazards associated with pesticides handled by employees, including acute and chronic effects, delayed effects, and sensitization, as identified in pesticide product labeling. • Knowing the routes by which pesticides can enter the body. • Recognizing how exposure occurs and being familiar with signs and symptoms of exposure-related injury or illness. • Knowing specific emergency first- aid procedures for overexposure to the pesticides that employees handle. California Agricultural Aircraft Association • Knowing how to obtain emergency medical care when a pesticide injury or illness occurs. • Knowing routine and emergency decontamination procedures, including spill clean up and the need to thoroughly shower with soap and warm water after the pesticide handling exposure period. • Understanding the pesticide label requirements for using personal protective equipment (PPE), recognizing its limitations, knowing how to use and clean it properly, and knowing how and when to repair or California Agricultural Aircraft Association replace it. • Flags during aerial applications. • Knowing how to prevent, recognize, and provide first aid for The Worker Protection Standard heat-related illness. requires that employers in agricultural operations provide training to pesticide • Understanding safety require- handlers working in their operations. ments and procedures for pesticide Employers must either provide the handling, including the use of engi- training themselves or arrange for neering controls (such as closed someone else to provide it. mixing systems and enclosed cabs), and proper ways to transport, The Training Program store, and dispose of pesticides and The WPS requires that a pesticide properly rinsed containers. handler training program address the following topics as they apply to the specific • Recognizing how drift and runoff pesticide materials employees handle: cause environmental damage and hazards to wildlife. • Understanding the format and • Understanding why it is unsafe to meaning of information, such as take pesticides or pesticide con- precautionary statements about tainers home. human health hazards, contained in the labeling of the pesticide • Knowing what is required to handle products. pesticides safely. 20 CHAPTER 2 • Knowing the employee’s rights, including the right: w To personally receive information about pesticides to which he or she may be exposed. w For his or her physician or employee representative to receive information about pesticides to which he or she may be exposed. w To be protected against retal- iatory action due to the exercise of any of his or her rights.

Other Important Topics Training must include the following general pesticide handling procedures that apply to all pesticide products:

• Understanding the importance of wearing clean work clothing daily. • Knowing how to properly and safely handle, open, and lift containers. • Knowing how to properly pour pesticides out of containers. Consult with your state pesticide • Knowing how to operate mixing regulatory agency to see if there are any and application equipment. additional training requirements for pesticide handlers. • Knowing procedures for triple Federal WPS regulations require rinsing containers. pesticide handlers receive training • Knowing how to legally recycle or every five years at a minimum. States dispose of empty containers. may require more frequent training. Training must take place before any • Knowing how to confine spray to pesticide handling activities. Employees the target area. who are certified as pesticide applicators are exempt from this training • Knowing how to avoid contami- requirement. nating people, animals, waterways, and other non-target objects and Employee Habits areas. Every aerial pesticide application • Knowing how and where to requires alertness and attention to properly and safely store containers detail. Before and during work periods, that hold pesticides or have been you and the ground crew members emptied but not rinsed. should never use alcohol or any drugs or medications that impair judgment or • Understanding and following pro- decrease mental alertness. Employees cedures to prevent unauthorized who wear personal protective equipment access when containers cannot be must also take steps to avoid heat- locked up or otherwise secured. related illnesses. • Understanding the importance of washing hands thoroughly before Avoiding Use of Alcohol and Drugs eating, smoking, drinking, or using Alcohol, drugs, and certain the restroom. over-the-counter and prescription Operation and Application Safety 21 medications cause drowsiness, impair stress should not participate in aerial judgment, and often influence the application operations. ability to handle or apply pesticides safely. These substances may also alter Preventing Dehydration and the toxicity of pesticides in case of Heat-Related Illness exposure. Make your physician aware Drinking insufficient water of your occupation handling pesticides coupled with wearing personal pro- so that is considered when prescribing tective equipment during hot weather medications. Do not use alcohol or may lead to heat-related illness that drugs before, during, or immediately may mimic certain types of pesticide after handling pesticides, or before or poisoning. Symptoms of heat illness during flight operations. include tiredness, weakness, headache, sweating, nausea, dizziness, and Staying Alert fainting. Severe heat illness can cause Physical and mental alertness a person to act confused, get angry requires that you and the ground easily, or behave strangely. Along crew get sufficient sleep before an with training on recognizing pesticide application operation and avoid other illness, WPS regulations require that activities prior to the operation that pesticide handlers receive training on cause fatigue. In addition, stress from recognizing, avoiding, and treating work or personal activities distracts and heat stress. Appendix 3 describes interferes with alertness. Therefore, useful methods to avoid and treat heat individuals experiencing high levels of stress.

application safety

Aerial application safety processes and Therefore, you and the ground crew procedures involve the highly important must begin by clearly understanding components of the aircraft, the pesticide the work order and the pesticide label. dispersal system installed on the aircraft, Arrange to scout the target site and and ground equipment used to mix pes- surrounding areas so you can plan the ticides and load them into the aircraft. application before scheduling it. Review Each pesticide application you the pesticide label to understand appli- make is possibly unique for you because cation restrictions and precautions and of differences between application site to prepare for emergencies or other locations, obstacles, non-target areas, problems. Some pesticide materials may weather, pesticide materials, crops have local application restrictions such or target areas, and other variables. as time of use, height of application, prohibitions due to nearby sensitive crops, and requirements for buffer zones. Check with state or local pesticide regulatory agencies if you need information about additional restrictions. The Equipment As a pilot, you must understand the importance of, and legal requirements for, scheduled inspections, servicing, and maintenance of the aircraft you fly. Take responsibility to assure the aircraft meets these requirements. This includes a preflight fuel and oil check, taking responsibility for proper fueling of the aircraft, and inspecting the aircraft for maintenance items each time you Glenn Martin—Gettysburg, PA stop the operation for the day or for a 22 CHAPTER 2 rest break. In addition, any aircraft you yourself and the ground crew. Take operate over congested areas must have into account the following factors when had, within the preceding 100 hours of evaluating a work order. time in service, a 100-hour or annual inspection by an authorized person, Features and Limitations of the or been inspected under a progressive Aircraft inspection system. Congested areas The aircraft must be operationally include populated areas where chances ready to perform the aerial pesticide of personal injury or property damage application. Be sure that the operator are greater if the aircraft should crash or you work for has a procedure in place to if you must dump the pesticide load. prevent use of an unsafe aircraft or faulty Have the aircraft’s application dispersal equipment and to notify you equipment inspected and maintained in situations when you or others should regularly to assure that it functions not fly the aircraft due to maintenance properly and accurately and does not issues or mechanical malfunctions. have leaks or other problems. When This includes involving the company’s something malfunctions, repair it job scheduler in all company proce- immediately. Make a daily inspection dures for grounding an aircraft. Take of the aircraft’s application equipment, responsibility for notifying the operator the same as you do for the aircraft. After of problems that may affect the safety winter storage of the aircraft’s dispersal or efficient operation of the aircraft or system, carefully inspect it for wear and involve your safety equipment. This leaks. Make sure all hoses are in good includes: condition and tighten all fittings. Look • Developing a way to communicate for seepage around the pump housing details of the problem to the person that indicates a leaking gasket or loose in charge. connections. Also, establish an inspection and • Establishing a timeline in which maintenance program for ground the problem needs to be corrected. equipment used for mixing and loading • Verifying that the problem is cor- pesticide materials into the aircraft, as rected before putting the aircraft or well as ground vehicles used to transport equipment back into service. people, pesticides, and equipment. Keep all associated equipment in good repair. The aircraft must be capable of Any breakdown in this equipment will safely delivering the appropriate amount delay the pesticide application, wreak of pesticide to the target site. It must: havoc with scheduling, and could be • Have the power and perfor- costly to the business and customers. mance capabilities for the routine Keep on hand spare parts and sup- maneuvers needed to carry out the plies, such as nozzles, hoses, fittings, application, as well as being able to drive belts, fuel, lubricants, and other perform emergency maneuvers. components that are critical to the oper- • Have a maximum load capacity ation. Replace spare parts and supplies that will accommodate the weight used during a breakdown so you always of the pesticide and, if needed, be are ready for future operations. able to handle takeoffs and landings Understanding the Work from short, rough, or temporary airstrips. Order Review the work order carefully to • Be properly equipped to discharge be certain you can make the application the recommended amount of pes- safely, correctly, and legally, according ticide product per unit (acre) of target site area. to the label and state and federal regulations. You should be able to perform • Be able to produce and deliver spray the requested work with reasonable droplets that provide an effective precaution and within the expectations application and have low spray drift of normal work procedures for both potential at the intended location. Operation and Application Safety 23 Pilot Qualifications and Limitations • Able to determine the best direction Your competence, alertness, in which to apply the pesticide to and capacity for timely and accurate reduce its off-target movement. judgment largely determine the safety • Capable of immediate and clear of the operation and the quality of the communication exchanges with application. In addition, your attitude on-site ground crew members and about making safe and legal applications others. goes a long way in positively influencing others to accept and follow the safety • Sufficiently rested to accomplish procedures. You must be: the job safely. • Aware of your personal limitations • Able to establish and follow realistic in operating the aircraft and be task deadlines and work patterns. fully aware of the features and limi- • Knowledgeable of weather factors tations of the aircraft. and their influence on aerial application work. • Able to correctly interpret and follow the pesticide label directions and work order and observe any state regulations regarding aircraft setup or product restrictions. • Familiar with each pesticide product label to know first-aid measures in the event of accidental overexposure, special precautions required for aerial application, and registered crops or sites. • Able to recognize different types of crops from the air in order to California Agricultural Aircraft Association ensure the correct site is treated. • Able to delineate boundaries of adjacent nontarget areas. Take the following measures to reduce the potential for spray droplets to drift off the application site: • Use a nozzle type, size, pressure, and orientation that maintains the desired droplet spectrum. • Ensure that positive shut-off valves are working properly. • Achieve good field-end coverage on initial spray runs (crossing the ends Robert Wolf—Kansas State University of fields that are bordered by trees • Capable of executing emergency or other obstacles usually means maneuvers appropriate to common flying higher and increasing the emergency situations that you chance of drift). might experience. • Maintain applications at the appro- • Capable of safely maneuvering priate height for the aircraft type the aircraft under normal flight and speed. conditions when it is loaded to its • Use a boom length that does not maximum legal weight. exceed 75% of the wingspan of

24 CHAPTER 2 fixed-wing aircraft or the rotor diameter of rotary-wing aircraft in order to reduce drift caused by wing tip and rotor vortices. • Consult the pesticide label for recommendations on boom type and setup requirements.

Scouting the Target Site Each application site may contain unique obstacles and hazards. Before committing to make an application, someone from the operation should visit the target site to identify obstacles, hazards, and sensitive areas. Do this by ground, by air, or both. Afterwards, coordinate visual observations with maps and photographs of the area. USDA—ARS Image Library Should the application site and surroundings be unfamiliar, seek more • Proximity of the site to honey bee information regarding weather pat- hives and other commercial pol- terns, topography, and sensitive areas linating insects. from the property operator and other • Safety hazards such as power lines, people familiar with the area. During guy wires, vent pipes, antennas, scouting, collect information about the: towers, trees, and other obstacles • Location of the site and the size and adjacent to the site and within the shape of the area to be treated. site itself. • Current cultural practices taking • Types of crops adjacent to the place at the site and other adjacent application site. agricultural areas. • Proximity of the site to adjacent • Possible limitations to the oper- fields and other areas where field ation, such as ground crew access workers may be present. to the site. • General local weather conditions. Charting all sensitive areas and • Proximity of the site to areas used obstacles will prove useful during the or inhabited by people, including operation and for future reference. residences, parks, schools, play- Established aerial pest control operators grounds, shopping centers, often have a collection of maps and businesses, roadways, adjacent aerial photographs that identify hazards fields, work crews, and other and sensitive areas. Be sure to keep these areas. up-to-date. Prior to the actual application, make a final check to confirm • Proximity of the site to environ- there are no recent changes that would mentally sensitive areas such as put you, other people, the property, or lakes, streams, ponds, irrigation the surrounding areas at risk. canals, riparian zones, wildlife habitats, sensitive plants, nearby Understanding Pesticide crops, and organic farms. Label Restrictions • Proximity of the site to farms, Review the pesticide label to under- ranches, or other businesses stand the legal requirements and use with livestock or other domestic restrictions for that material and desig- animals, such as dairies, feedlots, nations of which type of aircraft is or is swine operations, dog kennels, and not acceptable. If the recommendation horse stables. or work order calls for a tank mix of two Operation and Application Safety 25 or more pesticide products, review the clients. Never begin an application labels of all the products to ensure you until the grower, property manager, or can combine them legally and that there you meet the notification and posting are no compatibility issues. Follow the requirements. directions of each label having the most restrictive requirements for application, Honey Bee and Other Pollinating mixing, personal protective equipment, Insect Restrictions and other factors. You must understand Check the labels to see if the the pesticide label. materials you are applying are harmful to foraging honey bees and other pol- Application Instructions linating insects. If the label has such Confirm that there are no prohibi- warnings or restrictions, adjust the tions to applying any of the prescribed application time to coincide with times materials by air. Check to see if there these insects are most predictably not in are restrictions such as buffer areas, the field you are treating. spray material dilution parameters, air temperature requirements during appli- Environmental Hazards P. O’Connor-Marer—Roseville, CA cation, and time of day spraying. Check for precautions relating PREVENTING to environmentally sensitive areas, ENVIRONMENTAL Personal Protective Equipment protecting natural enemies and ben- HAZARDS Requirements eficial insects, and other environmental Understand the PPE requirements hazards. on the label or labels and have available the most restrictive PPE required for Cleaning Application Equipment handlers and you when you are outside After each use, clean and decon- of the aircraft cockpit. Make sure your taminate application equipment. Even flight suit, safety harness, and flight some very small quantities of residues helmet are in good condition. Remove remaining in a tank can contam- pesticide PPE before entering the air- inate subsequent pesticide mixtures craft cockpit. resulting in crop damage. Other times residues may affect tank mix compat- First Aid and Decontamination ibility or the toxicity of a subsequent Requirements product. Be particularly careful and Read the label or labels for instruc- clean between herbicides. Some her- tions on what type of first aid and bicide labels bear explicit instructions decontamination procedures to follow on tank cleaning; make sure you follow in case of pesticide exposure. their instructions and use their prescribed cleaning materials. Sensitive Crop Restrictions Rinse the inside of the tank with Review all label precautions water. If necessary, decontaminate it regarding applying the material onto or by using an appropriate tank cleaning near sensitive crops or other plants. material; common cleaners are ammonia or commercial tank cleaning Notification and Posting Require- product (e.g., 1 quart of household ments ammonia to each 25 gallons of water). Understand the responsibilities for Buy commercial pesticide tank cleaning informing people about hazards prior to and neutralizing compounds from making an application and any require- chemical suppliers and farm equipment ments for preventing entry by workers dealers. Be sure to check the pesticide or people from the surrounding areas. label for any precautions regarding Pesticide labels may require oral notifi- the use and disposal of cleaning and cation, field posting, or both. According decontaminating chemicals. Follow the to the Worker Protection Standard, directions for the amount of cleaner to agricultural employers are responsible use for your spray tank. Be sure to run for this notification and, when required, pumps and agitators, and flush all hoses posting. However, aerial operations and booms. Wear appropriate PPE and often post fields as a service to their eye protection. 26 CHAPTER 2 Pesticide residue on the outside of use (www.pesticidestewardship.org). application equipment can be hazardous To comply with federal record keeping to people who must operate or repair when you make an application of fed- this equipment. Wash the outside of erally restricted-use pesticides, you must spray equipment with water, using a have a record of the: small amount of detergent if necessary. • Date (month, day, and year) of the Clean equipment in an area where you application. can contain runoff. Otherwise, clean the equipment at the application site. • Brand or product name of the pesticide material applied. Resolving Conflicts • EPA registration number. If the work order appears to be in conflict with any of the previously-listed • Total quantity of pesticide product factors, or if you or others have any used. safety concerns, delay the application • Location where you made the until you and the property manager application. agree on modifications that resolve the conflicts and concerns. Resist pressure • Size of the treated area. to perform an aerial application that • Name and certification number of presents high levels of risk. Also, refuse the applicator. any job that is clearly illegal or not in compliance with any of the pesticide Regulations require the operator labels. Never apply a material for pest to provide this information to the control that the EPA has not registered grower or property manager for whom as a pesticide. This includes household you made the application within 30 days and other products whose labels do not of the application. Federal regulations have EPA Registration numbers, such require the operator to keep copies of as soaps, spices, and vinegars. these records for a minimum of two years; state requirements may differ. Reviewing and In addition to meeting federal and Documenting the state requirements, application records Application are useful and important information for future reference and should ques- After completing an application, tions or problems show up after an especially a challenging one, spend time application. Consider including in the with the ground crew to identify parts application records some or all of the of the operation that went especially following additional or more detailed well and things you could improve when information about the application. working in another similar situation. This documentation will serve in your Examine possibilities of better planning, defense in case of possible legal action better communication, making different due to crop damage or off-target adjustments to the equipment, using movement of the pesticide: different equipment, becoming more familiar with the target site, or changing • Description of the application other aspects of the application process. site, including type of site or crop A debriefing such as this will take a little treated. time, but will improve efficiency and • Proximity of the treated area to fine-tune future operations. roads, structures, other crops, field workers, hazards, and sensitive Record Keeping sites. Keep records of every application. • Recent or ongoing cultural prac- Federal regulations require keeping tices (such as irrigation) at the records of certain information when you application site. make applications of federally restricted- use pesticides, and some states require • The date and time the application keeping records of all agricultural pesticide started and the time the application applications—restricted- and general- finished. Operation and Application Safety 27 • Weather conditions at the time • Precautions taken to protect sen- of application—air stability, tem- sitive areas. perature, humidity, wind speed, • Location of the mixing-loading and wind direction recorded in site. degrees using a compass. • Routes taken for ferrying between • Any changes in weather con- the loading site and target area. ditions occurring during the • Names of ground crew members application. and people present at the site • Names and amounts of all pesti- during the application. cides and adjuvants applied, and • Observations made by you, the the dilution rate. ground crew, or others that may have had any influence on the • Application equipment configu- operation. ration, including nozzle type, size, Save all electronic files from an spacing, pressure, and orientation. application, including flight data and • Application pattern and directions the as-applied map files from the GPS in which you flew the swaths. system. These files serve as documentation for much of the information • Application speed and height. included in your records.

planning for emergencies

A very important part of the application crewmember with instructions on planning includes being prepared for any how to get there. A good strategy is to emergency that might occur during the discuss the type of operation and its operation. Having a written emergency hazards with staff of nearby medical response plan, and sharing and dis- facilities to prepare them in advance for cussing this plan with the ground crew, possible pesticide emergencies. Train helps everyone know how to respond all members of the ground crew how and reduces the possibility of injury to direct emergency responders to the or death. Emergency planning must application or mixing-loading site. Equip include providing ground crew members members of the application operation at the loading zone and satellite strips with cell phones or radios to call for with emergency telephone numbers. emergency help or to arrange transport Equip the aircraft and loading areas with of an injured person to a medical facility. first-aid kits and ensure the aircraft has a Provide them with telephone numbers working and properly-labeled fire extin- of the local hospital, fire department, guisher. Have a complete spill cleanup police or sheriff’s department, and kit at the loading area. Develop a plan local Flight Standards District Office of action for ground crew members to (FSDO). These numbers may change follow in case your aircraft is overdue at when using different landing areas, so the loading site or home base. prepare lists for each specific location. Train everyone in emergency response by actually play acting on how Flight Hazards to deal with different emergency situa- Whenever possible, have a ground tions. Practicing also helps to point out crew member present at the application deficiencies in the emergency response site who is able to communicate with you plan so you and the ground crew can during the entire operation. This person correct them. can warn you of hazards and notify you of problems on the ground that require Emergency Information stopping or delaying the application. Locate the nearest medical facility The ground crew member should com- to the application site and provide each municate with anyone on the ground 28 CHAPTER 2 who might be at risk during the appli- It could also be a fire involving cation, and take action to warn them or pesticide materials. These serious escort them from the area. Provide this problems require immediate action to ground crew member with a map that protect people and the environment. shows the hazards and sensitive areas Regulations require that pesticide labels within the application site and in sur- be at the use site, which includes the rounding areas. area you are spraying, in addition to the mixing-loading site. There is an Plans in Case of Aircraft exemption to this requirement for aerial Crash applications as long as you maintain Make emergency plans for cata- radio contact with the ground crew and strophic events such as aircraft engine or any flaggers. Labels serve as references landing gear failure leading to a forced for emergency personnel responding landing or crash. This requires training to accidents involving spills and they every member of the ground crew to provide first-aid information in case of respond immediately, act promptly, stay pesticide exposure. calm, and focus on helping you. Should The ground crew must first take a crash occur, switch off the aircraft’s steps to prevent any human exposure and batteries and shut off its fuel line. If you then immediately control, contain, and are uninjured yet unable to open the clean up spills or leaks to prevent further cockpit door, break open a window and contamination of the mixing-loading exit the aircraft as quickly as possible. area. Preparations for a leak or spill Instruct ground crew to get to the crash emergency includes training and prac- site immediately with a fire extinguisher ticing cleanup procedures and having and to communicate the exact location an adequately equipped spill cleanup kit of the site to emergency responders and at the mixing-loading site at all times. others by cell phone or radio. Train handlers performing the mixing- loading jobs on proper ways to clean up a Application Equipment spill (see Appendix 4). Provide them with Malfunction a cell phone or radio to summon help for major spills or in case of a pesticide fire Application equipment mal- or other emergency. Keep instruction function could include ruptured hoses or lines, a tank leak, pump failure, nozzle sheets at the mixing-loading site for and check valve leaks, or electronic con- cleaning up spills, dealing with pesticide troller failure. Any of these problems fires, and situations requiring assistance risk contaminating areas outside of the from fire fighters or emergency medical target area and may require a load jet- technicians. tison before the aircraft can return to Train handlers how to follow the an airport for repairs. Prepare for this first-aid information on the pesticide type of emergency by locating pos- label if someone involved in mixing- sible places to jettison the load or to set loading activities gets exposed to a down the aircraft. Any route you take pesticide. Be sure there is sufficient with an aircraft having a pesticide leak clean water for emergency eye washing should be over areas not occupied by and decontamination of the entire people or animals. To protect the public body. Have soap and single use towels when experiencing any emergency of available at the mixing-loading site this type, FAA regulations permit you along with changes of clothing for each to deviate from required flight patterns crew member. and other restrictions. Overspray, Drift, and Ground Crew Emergencies Other Misapplication Ground crew emergencies include As the applicator, you assume leaks and spills of concentrated pesti- responsibility for any pesticide mis- cides or diluted spray materials as well as application. Overspray, off-target splashes or spills that contaminate one movement, and other types of misap- or more of the ground crew members. plication may damage surrounding Operation and Application Safety 29 crops, residential plantings, landscapes, change rapidly, causing pesticide from and other property, as well as cause the application to move off site and environmental contamination. These possibly onto workers or other people are all violations of pesticide labels as nearby. For example, you might plan well as many state pesticide control laws. and begin an application based on Train ground crews to be alert during the wind blowing away from nearby an application and quickly communicate areas where people are present. with you if they spot any potential for However, during the application the such problems. Considerable financial wind direction could change and liability and legal consequences may blow towards these areas. Therefore, result from any damage caused by mis- develop a plan that includes commu- application. nication between you and the ground crew to delay or stop the application Spray or Dust Contacting if anyone spots people nearby, and Bystanders or Vehicles only make applications if no one is in adjacent areas where they might be It is illegal to apply any subject to exposure. Inspect the appli- pesticide in a manner that exposes cation site and adjoining areas before people, livestock, vehicles, and beginning an application to confirm other objects to the spray or dust. no one is around the site. Unfortunately, farm workers, joggers, In the emergency plan, include trespassers, and others may not rec- instructions to follow if spray con- ognize the hazard of entering an area tacts bystanders. This should involve until an aircraft making an application decontamination methods and proce- flies over them. Weather patterns, dures for obtaining medical care for especially wind direction, can also exposure victims.

communications

Operational problems can result from • Developing a system for accepting poor communications or sketchy infor- or transmitting information mation about jobs the ground crew between you and the ground crew performs. It is risky to assume that on work order changes in the field. ground crew employees already possess • Filling out mix sheets and deter- all the vital information they need to mining the order of mixing spray carry out their jobs safely. Job delays, batches. having to return for forgotten materials, • Ensuring that mixer/loaders are treating the wrong fields, or spraying trained in calculating tank batches, improper pesticide types, formulations, pesticide handling procedures, and or concentrations are examples of mis- the use and care of personal pro- takes that may occur when ground crew tective equipment. employees are operating with incom- Provide the ground crew with plete information. essential site-specific job information Involve the supervisor and ground and make sure they have a checklist crew in: outlining the steps to take to comply with applicable regulations and company • Developing maps of all areas to be policies. Develop and complete an up- treated and charting all hazards, to-date Standard Operating Procedures adjacent crops, and environmental (SOP) for ground crew members to sensitive areas. use and make sure it is available at the loading site. This is especially useful • Scouting all new areas and keeping when communication with you is maps up to date so you can identify impaired and ground crew members dis- new obstacles or changes in condi- agree or are uncertain about procedures tions promptly. such as mixing batches of pesticide spray. 30 CHAPTER 2 Review Questions

CHAPTER 2: O peration and Application Safety

1. The type of first aid given to a pesticide 5. First-aid instructions to use for pesticide exposure victim depends on the: exposure is found on: A. Type of exposure. A. Pesticide labels. B. Age of the victim. B. OSHA’s Emergency Response website. C. Training of the person administering first C. Supplemental labeling. aid. D. Manufacturer literature. D. Work situation where the person received the exposure. 6. An up-to-date Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) document is useful to ground crew 2. If a person shows signs of pesticide poisoning, members especially when: he or she should: A. The communication channel with the pilot A. Stop working for the day. is lost. B. Receive immediate medical attention. B. The pilot begins applying the pesticide in a C. Be assigned to another job not involving manner inconsistent with the work order. pesticides. C. Trying to determine the best time for D. Be scheduled for a blood test. applying the pesticide. D. The pilot applies the pesticide to a site not 3. If a person spills liquid pesticide onto his or listed on the label. her arm, the amount of exposure and injury can often be reduced by: 7. For protection of the surrounding community, A. Wiping arm with antibacterial wipes. a good reason for securing pesticide application aircraft and other equipment when not in B. Wiping the liquid off the person’s arm. use is to: C. Covering the exposed area with a damp cloth. A. Prevent weather damage to the equipment. D. Washing the exposed area with soap and B. Protect employees from pesticide exposure. water. C. Prevent intruder access to the equipment. D. Comply with regulatory agency mandates. 4. During an application operation, pilots must wear the label-required personal protective equipment for pesticide handlers: A. Only while making an aerial application. B. Anytime they are in the aircraft cockpit. C. While making nozzle adjustments. D. Only when mixing and loading.

Operation and Application Safety 31 8. At a minimum, the training that ground crews 10. Good communication with the ground crew must receive as pesticide handlers is required before and during an application operation to be performed: may result in: A. At the beginning of each operation. A. Greater chances of accidents. B. Annually, before performing handling B. Inability for the ground crew to perform their activities. tasks properly. C. Every two years, before performing C. Fewer job delays. handling activities. D. Improper spray mixes. D. Every five years, before performing handling activities.

9. Chances of pesticide exposure greatly increases if a pesticide handler fails to: A. Read the Statement of Practical Treatment on the pesticide label. B. Take frequent breaks during handling activities. C. Drink adequate water during handling activities. D. Wear the required personal protective equipment.

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

32 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3

Preventing Pesticide Drift

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will assist you to: • Understand what off-target pesticide movement is and knowing the difference between drift and off-target pesticide movement. • Recognize the way droplet size contributes to drift or reduces drift potential. • Recognize the factors and conditions that contribute to drift and off-target pesticide movement. • Learn how to minimize drift and off-target pesticide movement.

Pesticides are essential tools in man- quickly after you have applied them will aging pests in a particular location, be less likely to move off the application but confining the pesticide to the site than pesticides that are highly per- intended target during application is sistent in the environment. an important responsibility. Reducing Pesticides and pesticide residues drift and off-target pesticide movement can move off the application site in is necessary when you make any type of several ways after they are applied. pesticide application because, if not con- These include: trolled, this off-target movement can • Post-application volatilization into contribute significantly to the pesticide the atmosphere of the pesticide load in the environment. However, you that adhered to treated surfaces, must take steps to control drift of the the crop plants, the soil in between pesticide material away from the target the plants, or bare ground—pesti- area during an application. cides with high volatility are more Off-target movement of pesticides likely move off the application site is the condition where pesticides or pes- than pesticides with low volatility. ticide residues leave the application site at any time and in any manner other • Leaching through the soil at the than during a pesticide application. application site and moving into Often the physical and chemical char- surface or ground water after acteristics of the pesticide contribute to application—pesticides with low or reduce the chances that the material solubility in water will not leach as may move offsite after an application. much as those that are very soluble For example, pesticides that break down in water.

Preventing Pesticide Drift 33 • Rainfall or irrigation water site, excluding pesticide movements washing residues off the application by erosion, migration, volatility, or site into surface waters after appli- windblown soil particles after application—pesticides that have a high cation.” Pesticide drift includes pesticide absorption potential are less likely droplets, vapors, or dust particles that to wash off plant surfaces. move off the application site after leaving • Blowing off the site attached to the dispersal system but before adhering soil particles or dead plant material to the intended treatment site during after application. a pesticide application. This includes vapor or droplets that concentrate in an • Leaving the application site as inversion layer during an application. residues on harvested crops. During any application, a certain • Being carried off the application site percentage of the spray droplets will on vehicles, equipment, animals, drift. If this drift is confined to the and people. treatment site so that it is part of the pesticide application, there is generally • Being carried off the application site little hazard to the surrounding areas as fine droplets in an inversion cloud. that are not part of the application. The National Coalition on Drift Pesticide drift, however, increases Minimization (NCODM) defines spray the hazard to people and other living drift to be “the movement of pesticide organisms outside of the treatment site. through the air at the time of pesticide The following information pertains to application or soon thereafter from recognizing the causes of pesticide drift the target site to any non- or off-target and ways to reduce this problem.

factors that contribute to drift

The spray droplets and the percentage To illustrate the relative size of one of droplets within a certain size range micron, a single sheet of paper is about are the key factors affecting off-target 100 microns thick. drift. You can control some of these The longer a spray droplet remains factors when making aerial applica- airborne or suspended in the air, the tions. greater the chance it will drift from the The unit of measure for the application site. A small spray droplet is diameter of a spray droplet is a micron more susceptible to drift than a larger (also referred to as a micrometer). The droplet because the small droplet is mathematical symbol for a micron lighter and therefore remains airborne or micrometer is µ. One micron is much longer. For example, while it 1/25,000 or 0.00003937 of an inch. takes approximately 4 minutes for a

COMPARISON OF DROPLET FALL RATES

DROPLET DIAMETER 20 100 240 400 microns microns microns microns

TIME TO FALL 10 FEET 4 minutes 11 seconds 5 seconds 2 seconds

34 CHAPTER 3 10 ft LATERAL MOVEMENT OF DIFFERENT SIZE DROPLETS 20 microns WIND SPEED = 3 MPH 50 microns

100 microns

150 microns

400 microns

8 ft 22 ft 45 ft 178 ft 1056 ft

20-micron droplet to fall a vertical dis- Droplets below 50 microns in tance of 10 feet, it takes only 2 seconds diameter remain suspended in the air for a 400-micron droplet to travel the indefinitely or until they evaporate. same distance. Droplets of this size have no benefit There is a rapid decrease in to a pest control program, other than the drift potential of droplets larger certain vector control operations, than about 200 microns. Conversely, because they are never likely to reach research has proven that droplets target surfaces. Avoid using nozzles or smaller than 200 microns are very nozzle orientations and configurations prone to drift. People who study drift that produce droplets in this size range classify droplets that are 150 to 200 because there is no way to assure that microns or smaller as driftable fines. In these droplets will remain on or near wind speeds ranging from 1 to 9 mph, the application site. droplets that are 200 microns or larger have an insignificant drift potential. Classification of Droplet For example, the theoretical distance Size that spray droplets move laterally while All nozzles produce a range of falling from 10 feet above the ground droplet sizes, known as the droplet-size in air moving at 3 mph would be only spectrum. This means that even when about 8 feet for 400-micron droplets. you use a nozzle having a large orifice However, this distance increases to that mainly produces large droplets, about 1,000 feet for 20-micron droplets. some percentage of the droplets in the Higher velocity winds increase the spray are going to be small enough to drift potential of all droplets. be prone to drift. A common classification method LESS used to describe the droplet-size THAN 400 µ spectrum produced by a nozzle is the volume median diameter (VMD). This means that half of the total spray volume of that nozzle consists of spray droplets smaller than the VMD numerical value, while the other half is larger than the VMD numerical value. For instance, a nozzle with a VMD of 400 GREATER microns sprays out half its total volume THAN 400 µ in droplets having a diameter greater than 400 microns and the other half in droplets having a diameter smaller than Volume Median Diameter = 400 Microns 400 microns. However, this does not Preventing Pesticide Drift 35 tell you how much of the spray volume Consult the pesticide label for is made up of droplets that are smaller specific instructions when selecting than 200 microns. nozzles. Using the droplet-size Another way of classifying the spectrum categories, determine which droplet sizes produced by a nozzle is to nozzle to use to reduce drift and provide identify the percentage of the total spray adequate coverage in a particular volume that contains droplets smaller application operation. By selecting the or larger than a specific diameter, appropriate category based on the type usually 200 microns. This directly and use of a pesticide, you get acceptable addresses those droplets at risk for drift. results while keeping the risk of drift to For instance, a nozzle may produce a minimum. 2 percent of its total spray volume in droplets smaller than 200 microns in Spray Mixture Physical diameter. This means that only a small Properties portion of the droplets produced by this nozzle are at risk for drift. This type Three key physical properties of a of description, however, tells nothing spray mixture have a significant effect about the size of the remaining droplets on droplet size in aerial applications. produced, which is the information you Dynamic Surface Tension need to determine the type of coverage you can expect. Surface tension is the force that The most useful way to describe the keeps a droplet together. When the droplet sizes produced by a nozzle is to fluid that makes up the droplet con- use droplet-size categories based on the tains adjuvants or other substances the entire droplet-size spectrum of a nozzle, normal surface tension changes, but it rather than just the VMD or a specific takes a certain amount of time for the size droplet by percentage of volume. molecules in the adjuvants to move to This spray-classification system is the the surface of the droplets. Therefore, American Society of Agricultural and the surface tension of spray droplets can Biological Engineers (ASABE) standard change after the droplets are formed, S-572.1: Spray Nozzle Classification causing a larger droplet to split into by Droplet Spectra. This classification smaller droplets. system has eight categories: extra fine, Extensional Viscosity very fine, fine, medium, coarse, very coarse, extra coarse, and ultra coarse When the pump forces spray (see chart on next page). Using these liquid through a nozzle orifice, it categories, you can select a nozzle, stretches to a certain point before orifice size, and operating pressure breaking off to form a droplet. The that produces the label-recommended amount of stretching or “stringiness” droplet-size spectrum. is the extensional viscosity. Pressure All pesticide labels will eventually in the system, which regulates the contain nozzle specifications and/or the ejection speed of the liquid, affects the required droplet-size spectrum. The extensional viscosity. Higher pressure chart on page 37 shows the standard lowers this viscosity, therefore pro- droplet size categories and color coding. ducing smaller droplets.

DYNAMIC SURFACE TENSION

SHEAR VISCOSITY EXTENSIONAL VISCOSITY

36 CHAPTER 3 ASABE STANDARD S-572.1 Droplet Spectrum Symbol Color Code Spray Droplet Spectrum Categories Category This standard defines droplet spectrum categories Extra Fine XF PURPLE for the classification of spray nozzles relative to the specified reference fan nozzle. The purpose of this Very fine VF RED classification is to provide the nozzle user with droplet size information primarily to indicate off-site spray drift Fine F ORANGE potential and secondarily for application efficacy. Medium M YELLOW Refer to product labels for specific guidelines on a droplet spectra category required for a given appli- Coarse C BLUE cation situation. Very Coarse VC GREEN Nozzle manufacturers provide information necessary to place nozzle types into a droplet spectrum category XC Extra Coarse WHITE based at least on orifice size and pressure. The color code is an industry standard. Ultra Coarse UC BLACK

Shear Viscosity as drift control adjuvants actually do Shear viscosity is a liquid’s resistance not perform as such. Spray drift control to flow. Some liquids are thicker and adjuvants are a specific class of chemical adjuvants, so do not confuse these with therefore resist flow or flow more slowly other adjuvants such as surfactants, than less thick, or less viscous, liquids. wetting agents, spreaders, and stickers. Spray drift control adjuvants, when These other adjuvants, and formula- added to the spray mixture, may help tions containing alcohol or certain water reduce the number of driftable droplets miscible solvents, tend to reduce the under certain conditions. However, dynamic surface tension of spray droplets, reports indicate that some types of drift resulting in smaller droplet sizes. control agents lose their effectiveness when circulated through a sprayer pump. External Factors Affecting Studies show that some materials sold Droplet Size and Drift Certain factors remain beyond EFFECTS OF EVAPORATION ON your control. These external factors DROPLET SIZE include weather such as humidity, rain, extremely high or low temperatures, wind, or conditions leading to an inversion layer. Effects of Evaporation on Droplet Size Once exposed to the atmosphere, individual spray droplets will generally begin to evaporate. Evaporation removes water or other carriers, making the spray droplet smaller than it was when it left the nozzle. As the droplet becomes smaller, it becomes more prone to drift. Conditions that contribute to evaporation include: • Air temperature–evaporation is more rapid as temperature increases. Preventing Pesticide Drift 37 • Humidity —evaporation is more droplets, increasing the probability that rapid as humidity decreases. they will drift away from the application site. Thermals occur as the ground • Air movement—evaporation is more heats up, usually in the afternoon, and rapid as air movement increases. especially after cool night temperatures. • Distance from discharge to the This causes air near the ground to rise, target—the further the droplet has since warm air is lighter (molecules are to fall the more time is available for further apart) than cool air. evaporation. Temperature Inversions • Spray carrier—water will evaporate faster than oil carriers. Differing air temperatures in stratified layers of the atmosphere The optimum time to make an are responsible for the inversion phe- aerial application when evaporation of nomenon that can exacerbate the spray droplets is a concern is during the problem of off-target pesticide drift. coolest part of the day. Early morning is Inversions occur when an upper layer of usually ideal because it is generally more air is warmer than the air below it. This humid at this time and wind speeds warm air cap may start at 20 to 100 or are often low. However, temperature more feet above the ground and block inversion conditions may be greater the cooler air below it, preventing ver- during early mornings. Avoid making tical air movement. applications during hot, dry periods of Over a wide area, it may be pos- the day. Keep the application height sible to identify the presence of an between 8 and 12 feet from the target to inversion condition by checking with shorten the distance that spray droplets the National Weather Service. In must fall. To minimize the risk of drift some areas, during certain times of caused by evaporation, small droplet the year, temperature inversions occur sprays require lower application heights. regularly. One method for detecting Co-Distillation a temperature inversion in a localized area is to observe a column of smoke Pesticides can also move offsite rising into the air. Sometimes, dust through a process called co-distillation. from agricultural operations may This phenomenon occurs when the pes- serve the same purpose. If the rising ticide contacts very hot surfaces, usually smoke column or dust cloud flattens soil with no vegetation. Pesticides, even and begins moving sideways or col- those that are not highly volatile, leave lects in one area above the ground, an the soil surface with water molecules inversion condition probably exists. during rapid evaporation that occurs Do not make applications during immediately after irrigation. Fog also an inversion condition because is able to pick up pesticides from the the inversion layer traps fine spray application site and carry them offsite.

Effect of Wind and Thermals on 30 ft WARM AIR Drift and Off-Target Movement Air movement from wind or thermals is a major contributing factor to off-target pesticide drift. Wind 20 ft carries lighter and smaller droplets away from the target site where they accumulate until they saturate a given volume of air with the pesticide. As 10 ft winds become stronger, the air traps more and more larger droplets and may COOL AIR move them away from the target before they return to the ground. 0 ft Upward air movement caused by thermals also entraps and moves small Temperature inversion 38 CHAPTER 3 droplets and pesticide vapors. These problems for people, non-treated become concentrated, similar to smoke crops, and other living organisms. particles in the smoke column. Rather An inversion condition can occur than dispersing somewhat evenly when the air is calm with very little throughout the atmosphere over a air mixing. This condition makes it relatively large area, the pesticide often possible for the cloud of spray droplets moves as a concentrated cloud away or vapor to move slowly downwind. from the treatment site. Afterwards, Temperature inversions generally begin the concentrated pesticide cloud will before sunset and remain into early return to the ground and may cause morning or near bodies of water.

minimizing off-target drift

Drift research shows that nozzles and before wind shear impacts the size of other spray components can produce spray droplets. large spray droplets that have less of In addition to selecting proper a tendency to drift. However, when nozzles and finding the balance improperly used, wind shear effects on between proper airspeed to minimize nozzles result in drift-prone smaller atomization of large droplets, the other droplets. Appropriate airspeed and challenge you face is to find a balance proper nozzle orientation are the two between drift reduction provided by factors that reduce wind shear effects. large droplets and good coverage asso- You need to find a balance between the ciated with smaller droplets. aircraft’s minimum airspeed needed for Research conducted by pesticide covering the desired acreage in a given manufacturers, the pesticide application period and the maximum airspeed industry, universities, and state and federal regulatory agencies demonstrate that you can minimize off-target TRAVEL DIRECTION pesticide drift during any application operation by: • Selecting nozzle types with orifice sizes that produce large droplets— wider spray angles typically 0 degrees— produce finer sprays. largest droplets • Using a nozzle orientation straight back in relation to the aircraft’s level flight line so that the discharged spray is least affected by wind shear across the nozzle face, therefore maintaining the rated desired droplet size (some research is showing that a slight angle of 45 degrees— about 5 degrees allows the spray smaller droplets to be directed downward without affecting droplet size). • Confining boom length to no more than 75 percent of the wingspan of a fixed-wing aircraft or the rotor diameter on rotary-wing aircraft, to reduce drift caused by wing tip and rotor vortices. 90 degrees— • Increasing system pressure when smallest droplets flying at faster speeds to reduce the amount of smaller droplets. Preventing Pesticide Drift 39 • Making sure the positive shut-off • Keeping application height and suck-back systems are working between 8 and 12 feet above the properly. target crop. • Accurately calibrating application • Avoiding applications during equipment, including using a weather conditions that promote system pressure that is appropriate off-target drift, such as high winds to the airspeed of the aircraft for or inversion conditions. maintaining a droplet size that results in optimal spray coverage. Smoke Generators • Using spray drift control adjuvants You use smoke generators on the when appropriate to increase spray aircraft to visualize air movement at droplet size. the application site. You can also use it Spray droplets are normally finer to identify inversion conditions below at greater flight speeds, especially when the application height. The smoke using wide-angle fan nozzles or a nozzle generator injects oil into the aircraft’s orientation that is not straight back in exhaust system, which burns to produce relation to the level flight of the aircraft. smoke. You control the oil injector with However, for applications using straight a switch inside the cockpit. stream or narrow angle (20 to 40°) flat When you activate the smoke fan nozzles pointed backward, increasing generator, you can watch the smoke the spray pressure can actually result in movement to estimate the off-site a coarser spray if the exit velocity from movement potential for spray you are the nozzle becomes closer to the speed applying. Although of limited effec- of the aircraft. Doing this reduces the tiveness, you can also use the smoke air shear effect. to locate the position of the previous pass to estimate where to begin the Application Techniques next pass. However, due to possible movement of the smoke in air currents, Some application techniques for this method is less reliable for swath reducing off-target pesticide drift marking. during an aerial application include: Smoke generators are a common • Leaving untreated buffer zones part of the onboard equipment found one, two, or more swath passes on most agricultural aircraft. One wide within the treated site or reason for this is that GPS systems have field, along the downwind edges so eliminated the need for human flaggers that any pesticide that drifts will at the application site to position the stay on the treated site; treat these aircraft for each swath. However, a buffer zones later, when the wind flagger typically also provided you direction reverses into the field. with information about wind speed and direction. Since off-target pes- • Getting good field-end coverage on ticide drift is a major concern during initial spray runs; end passes made aerial applications, a smoke generator to fields that are bordered by trees provides a better visual picture of wind or other obstacles usually means direction and relative wind speed at the flying higher, which increases the time of spray release. Using a smoke chance of drift. generator before beginning the first • Flying at the optimum airspeed pass of an application allows you to that will, when combined with make immediate local wind condition pump output pressure, help to evaluations without depending on maintain larger droplets. someone on the ground.

40 CHAPTER 3 Review Questions

CHAPTER 3: P reventing Pesticide Drift

1. Managing off-target pesticide drift during an 5. Which of the following factors has NO effect on aerial application is: off-target pesticide drift? A. The ground crew’s responsibility. A. Nozzle orientation. B. The property owner’s responsibility. B. Spray pressure. C. The pilot’s responsibility. C. Constant 3 mph wind. D. A requirement of a pilot’s FAA licensing. D. Physical properties of the spray mixture.

2. Off-target pesticide drift is the offsite 6. Wider-angle spray nozzles usually produce movement of the pesticide that occurs: droplets than narrower spray nozzles. A. Any time after an application. B. At the time of pesticide application or soon A. Coarser. thereafter. B. More uniform. C. As residues on objects moving from the C. Less uniform. application site. D. Finer. D. Several hours to several days after an application. 7. The most effective boom lengths for reducing the amount of drift are: 3. The color code for a nozzle that produces spray droplets in the extra fine category is: A. 90% of the wingspan or the rotor span. B. 75% of the wingspan or the rotor span. A. B l a c k . C. 65% of the wingspan or the rotor span. B. Red. D. 50% of the wingspan or the rotor span. C. Purple. D. Orange. 8. Aside from external factors, the most important factors affecting off-target drift are: 4. Generally, the optimum time for making an aerial application of a liquid when droplet A. Physical properties of the spray mixture. evaporation is a concern is: B. Extremely high or low temperatures. A. Early morning. C. The size of the spray droplets and the B. Mid morning. percentage of droplets within a certain size range. C. Early afternoon. D. Conditions leading to a temperature D. Late afternoon. inversion layer.

Preventing Pesticide Drift 41 9. Driftable fines are droplets in the size range of: 10. The droplet size at which spray drift becomes a concern is: A. Larger than 500 microns. B. 300 to 500 microns. A. 50 microns and below. C. 200 to 300 microns. B. 100 microns and below. D. 50 to 200 microns. C. 200 microns and below. D. 300 microns and below.

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

42 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4

Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will assist you to: • Understand the desirable requirements of an aircraft pesticide dispersal system for liquid and dry pesticide formulations. • Become familiar with the components of an aircraft pesticide dispersal system for liquid and dry pesticide formulations. • Understand the importance of inspecting, servicing, and maintaining dispersal systems. • Become familiar with spray nozzles and how to correctly position them on spray booms. • Know how to test dispersal systems for appropriate spray patterns. • Understand the features of, and how to change the settings on, dry material spreaders.

Accurate metering and application of than rotary-wing craft. A limitation of pesticides are the key purpose of all a fixed-wing aircraft is the need for a aircraft dispersal systems. Dispersal designated landing area, which may not equipment has to deliver the labeled always be close to the application site. rate of a liquid or dry pesticide formu- Rotary-wing aircraft used for pesticide lation uniformly and accurately. application are more maneuverable Pesticide materials and the dis- but slower than fixed-wing aircraft, persal system add considerable weight, and can operate over a range of speeds requiring aircraft that can safely lift, and in almost any area since they do transport, and make applications not require a runway for takeoff or when fully loaded. Fixed-wing aircraft landing. This allows ground crews to used for pesticide application are fast, perform loading operations at or near maneuverable, and carry heavier loads the application site.

dispersal system requirements

The main function of a dispersal as efficiently as possible. Liquid dis- system is to allow you to apply an persal systems include a pump, a tank or accurate and uniform amount of pes- hopper, hoses and/or metal lines, control ticide material over the application site valves with suck-back features, a pressure Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 43 gauge, filters, one or more booms, and pumps, agitators, bearings and seals, nozzles. Pumps in these systems may hoses, and hose fittings. The presence be electric or hydraulic motor powered, of pesticide residues on the belly of the wind-driven, or directly powered from aircraft could be an indicator of a leaking the aircraft engine. hose or connection somewhere in the system. Leaks endanger you and can Equipment and damage parts of the aircraft. In addition, Component Factors leaks can expose workers to pesticide materials, contaminate places and objects Consider several factors for dis- used by people, and render runways, persal equipment and components used hangars, and other areas unusable until for aerial application of pesticides. They decontaminated. Leaks may also cause must be durable. damage to crops and other plantings Corrosion Resistant outside of the treatment area. Many pesticide materials are cor- Allow You to Make Accurate rosive, so only use corrosion resistant Volume Measurements components in the dispersal system. The dispersal equipment has to Stainless steel, fiberglass, polyethylene, include a way to measure accurate and polypropylene are non-corrosive, volumes of pesticide materials in order while steel, iron, and aluminum will for you to apply the correct amount to corrode. In addition, acidic liquids may the treated area. react with steel or iron to produce highly explosive hydrogen gas. Even though Able to Produce Uniform Flow application components are corrosion Volumes resistant, the rest of the aircraft may not The dispersal system should be, so regularly clean, inspect, maintain, provide a uniform flow of the pesticide and protect these parts. through the nozzles for even distribution of liquid sprays over treatment Leak Proof areas. Systems that adjust the flow Make sure all components of the volume according to the application aircraft’s pesticide dispersal system can air speed (referred to as flow control) resist leaks during the rigors of takeoffs, provide the greatest application volume landings, and flight. This includes tanks, uniformity, but can affect droplet size.

liquid dispersal system components

Important qualities of liquid dispersal Spray Pumps systems include being dependable and The spray pump maintains the durable, as well as being uncomplicated pressure in the system to ensure a to service and repair. Descriptions of uniform flow volume and proper atom- major dispersal system components ization by the nozzles. The pump also follow. may power the tank agitation system

Fan Driven PUMP HYDRAULIC POWERED PUMP

Tom Hoffmann—Washington State Department of Agriculture M. J. Weaver—Virginia Tech 44 CHAPTER 4 that keeps the pesticide mixture in durable than plastic suspension. On fixed-wing aircraft, or fiberglass, but they the most common power source for are heavier, therefore the pump is a fan mounted under the adding additional aircraft, below the tank. The aircraft’s weight to the air- propeller slipstream drives this fan. craft. Overall, tanks Some fan-driven pumps have variable and hoppers made of pitch blades so you can change the stainless steel require pump speed, and thus output, for dif- less maintenance ferent application requirements. Ultra and can withstand low volume (ULV) applications may rougher handling require modifications to the pumping than those made of EXTERNAL SPRAY TANK WITH QUICK system to make it suitable for such low plastic or fiberglass. COUPLING DISCONNECT output. Although most Other types of power sources for popular because of M. J. Weaver—Virginia Tech aircraft spray pumps include the air- less weight, a disadvantage of fiberglass craft’s hydraulic system or an electric is that it absorbs pesticide liquids if its motor that drives the pump. surface is scratched or abraded, pos- Pumps need enough power and sibly contaminating future tank loads. capacity to meet the system’s nozzle However, scratches, small cracks, or pressure, flow volume, and tank agi- punctures in fiberglass are easy to tation requirements. The pump needs repair, while cracks or punctures in some extra capacity to make up for polypropylene and polyethylene tanks pressure loss due to friction in the lines are difficult to fix. and to operate nozzle anti-drip check Most tanks serve a dual use: they valves. If you use a pump with too little hold liquids for spraying and are hoppers capacity, you need to reduce the swath for dry materials such as granular pesti- width to get adequate uniform coverage. cides, fertilizers, and seeds. Tanks have However, this wastes time and fuel. top openings for filling, but it is easier The centrifugal pumps commonly to pump liquids through a pipe that has used on aircraft produce high volumes a quick coupling disconnect protruding of spray material (up to 200 gallons per through the side of the aircraft fuselage. minute or more, depending on the size A gauge or visual level that shows of the pump) at low pressure, usually the amount of material in the tank or ranging between 10 and 70 pounds per hopper is necessary. This gauge has to square inch (psi). Centrifugal pumps be conveniently located so it is visible made from aluminum with bronze or from the cockpit. steel internal parts are most common. Interior baffles in tanks limit the Centrifugal pumps have a high range sloshing of liquid during flight and of applications, including spraying dampen the effect of load shift on the abrasive wettable powders and flowable aircraft’s stability. In case of an emer- formulations, because there is no close gency when a load must be dumped in contact between moving parts. These a matter of seconds, the tank needs a pumps usually require operating speeds large valve or port at the bottom that between 1,000 and 5,000 revolutions you can open quickly. Tank vents are per minute (rpm). necessary and these should accommodate a large enough passage of air Pesticide Tanks and to prevent a vacuum that would slow or Hoppers stop the normal flow of liquid through the nozzles or bottom port. Adequate Tanks and hoppers have to be cor- ventilation of the tank also prevents the rosion resistant, and most tanks used in buildup of hazardous fumes, explosive aircraft are fiberglass. Other materials gases, or dusts that could damage the used for tanks and hoppers include aircraft and even endanger your life. stainless steel, high-density polypro- On fixed-wing aircraft, mounting pylene, or polyethylene. Stainless steel the tank or hopper in front of the tanks or hoppers generally are more cockpit and as close as possible to the Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 45 aircraft’s center of also require mechanical agitation to gravity reduces the prevent packing or caking on the top effect on the aircraft’s surface of the material during flight. trim as the tank This occurrence, known as bridging, empties. Small rotary- creates voids under this top layer and wing aircraft have leads to uneven flow of the dry material either a pair of tanks, from the hopper. with one mounted on each side of the Filters and Screens fuselage, or a single Filters and screens protect the belly tank. With dispersal system from damage and keep two tanks, a pipe or nozzles from clogging. Clogged filters hose connects them result in uneven applications. Screens and allows the pump require daily cleaning during spray to draw the spray operations and additional cleaning mixture equally from any time flow volume or change in California Agricultural Aircraft Association both, keeping the aircraft balanced. Larger rotary-wing system pressure indicates clogging. aircraft have a tank mounted on the Filter screens range in size from 10 to inside. Tank or hopper size depends on 200 mesh. A 10-mesh size denotes 10 the load capacity of the aircraft. openings per inch, therefore the larger the mesh number the finer the screen. Tank Agitation Nozzle Screens Many pesticide formulations, such Generally, agricultural aircraft do as emulsifiable concentrates, wettable not use nozzle screens because aerial powders, and flowables, require agi- applications call for larger nozzle tation of the liquid mixture in the spray orifice sizes than ground applications tank to maintain uniformity. Without do. However, certain types of nozzles agitation, the pesticide product may and nozzles with smaller orifice sizes settle out from the water with which require screens or slotted strainers. The it is mixed. A common method of tank nozzle orifice size and the type of liquid agitation is the recirculation of all or you are spraying also determine the size part of the pump output back into the of the nozzle screen. tank (hydraulic agitation). A valve that diverts the flow from the spray boom Line Screens back into the tank or hopper usually When using a centrifugal pump, does this. Commonly, this boom valve place a line screen on the output side provides a low negative pressure, or of the pump, in the line between the suck-back, to the boom when in the pump and the spray boom. For other closed position. In another type of types of pumps, locate the line screen agitator, some external source powers on the suction side of the pump to help a propeller mounted inside the tank prevent damage from sand or other (mechanical agitation). Mechanical foreign particles, which can also cause agitation is not common on aircraft nozzle check valves to leak. because the power required robs engine Never store the dispersal system at performance and adds extra weight. the end of a season without thoroughly Keep agitators running during flushing out the booms. This reduces ferrying to the worksite and during the likelihood of material accumu- turnarounds. When the pump has suffi- lating on the inside surfaces of booms cient capacity, some of the pump output downstream from the line screen. This recirculates back into the tank during material can flake off later and clog spraying as well. Recirculated material nozzles or nozzle screens. enters near the bottom of the tank to prevent settling of the spray mixture. If you apply dusts or powders, be Pipes, Hoses, and Fittings aware that fine dry materials (60-mesh Main piping and fittings should be and above) in the aircraft hopper may of a large diameter (up to 3 inches) to 46 CHAPTER 4 Tom Hoffmann—Washington State Department of Agriculture be able to apply high volumes of liquids. valve is one that incorporates a suck- Smaller diameter pipes and fittings back feature so that the pump applies a (approximately 1 to 1-½ inch) work for slight negative pressure to the liquid in low-volume applications. Smaller piping the boom. The negative pressure aids is compatible with rotary-wing aircraft the nozzle check valves in preventing because their slower speed makes it any dripping. The system pressure possible to use lower flow volumes. gauge will register this slight negative Whatever the size, piping must be able pressure. If nozzles are not equipped to handle the maximum pump volume. with check valves, you may need to Hoses used in the dispersal system increase the negative pressure. Keep the need to be large enough to carry the negative pressure low enough so that it desired flow and must resist corrosion. does not remove all the liquid from the Hoses are less likely to blow off if ends spray boom, otherwise there will be too of the connecting tubes are beaded or long of a delay as the boom refills when flared. Using double clamps on hose starting a new spray pass. connections also helps to keep them secure. Position hoses in such a way Spray Booms as to avoid sharp bends. Replace hoses The spray boom is the structure if they swell, develop surface cracks, that supports nozzles along the or otherwise show wear. Sometimes, wingspan or rotor span of the aircraft hoses may not show external signs of and usually carries liquid spray to wear or fatigue but they become brittle the nozzles. It may be round, airfoil and hard after extended exposure to shaped, or streamlined. Streamlined sunlight, high temperatures, vibration, booms create the least amount of tur- and the various pesticides and other bulence, followed by airfoil booms and chemicals used in the system. Even then round booms. To place nozzles in when they look serviceable, hoses used cleaner airflow on fixed wing aircraft, beyond their life expectancy may fail position the booms behind and below without warning. Therefore, regularly the trailing edge of the wings. For some replace hoses even if they look intact configurations, use drop pipes from and free of defects or wear. the boom to keep nozzles in clean air. A positive shut-off valve, installed Research shows that this lower position in the hose or line that delivers spray is likely to give a better deposition material to the nozzles, eliminates pattern. Securely attach spray booms to dripping when you shut off the spray. the aircraft to prevent bouncing. Make The most effective positive shut-off sure booms are durable enough to Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 47 HELICOPTER SPRAY BOOM

M. J. Weaver—Virginia Tech handle the output pressure of the pump. Having removable caps on the Some booms have separate right and left ends of a boom is useful for periodic sections. Using a control valve, you can flushing of sediment buildup inside the direct spray to either or both of these boom. However, a boom with end caps sections, making it easier to regulate prevents positioning nozzles at or near spray placement in sensitive areas. the boom ends. Trapped pressurized Operators of rotary-wing aircraft air in this space between the boom sometimes use special boom and nozzle ends and the outermost nozzles causes combinations because of their ability to the spray to continue flowing for a produce large, uniformly sized droplets short while even after you close the at slower speeds. Operators use this spray valve. To eliminate this problem, type of boom most often for applying install air bleed lines to each end of the herbicides to rights-of-ways. Droplets boom. Attach the other ends of these form as the spray exits multiple bleed lines to one of the nozzles near needlelike nozzle tubes on the boom. the ends of the boom, making sure The airstream pulls droplets into the these nozzles only receive spray fluid air behind the boom. from the bleed lines. Effective spray booms are approximately 75 percent as long as Flow Meters, Valves, and the wingspan for fixed-wing aircraft Pressure Gauges or the diameter of the main rotor blade The spraying system should of rotary-wing aircraft. If booms are include the following components to longer than this, wing tip or main rotor improve application ability. vortices capture a large amount of the output from nozzles at the boom tips, Flow Meters causing distortions in the spray pattern An accurate flow meter monitors and contributing to drift. the discharge volume of liquid from Position the boom and nozzles so the pump through the nozzles. The that the spray will not strike any part of flow meter alerts you to changes in the aircraft or boom attachments. If the the spraying system such as clogged spray does strike structural parts of the nozzles, leaks, and pump malfunction. aircraft, it will likely: Valves • Collect and fall off in large drops. Valves in the system start, stop, • Distort the spray pattern. prevent dripping, and direct and regulate the flow of the liquid. Some valves • Waste material. have control levers that you manually • Corrode aircraft surfaces. move to turn on or shut off the spray. 48 CHAPTER 4 Check valves are spring loaded and application volume, droplet size, and have a diaphragm, a ball, or needle and spray pattern. It is important for nozzles seat that starts or stops the liquid flow to operate within the range of pressures depending on whether the pressure in and flow volumes prescribed by their the system exceeds a preset minimum manufacturers. Therefore, be sure that pressure. Electronic flow volume con- the spraying system is compatible with trollers employ motorized ball valves to the specified pressure and flow volume regulate the amount of flow. ranges for the nozzles you use and the Inspect valves in the dispersal aircraft’s speed. Manufacturers produce system frequently to confirm they are many types of nozzles for various liquid working correctly and are not leaking. pesticide application situations. Sediments or debris in the plumbing of The application volume influences the system may prevent some valves from the type of nozzle used in an aerial shutting off completely or may restrict application. Aerial application volumes the flow of liquid passing through them. fall into three categories: Make sure all nozzle check valves have • Conventional (5 to 15 or more the same size outlet diameter to provide gallons per acre). uniform flow volumes along the length of the boom. • Low volume (LV) (0.5 to 5 gallons per acre). Pressure Gauges • Ultra low volume (ULV) (less than Use a pressure gauge as another 0.5 gallons per acre). tool to monitor the spraying system. A pressure gauge helps you determine Traditionally, amounts less than the correct pump speed or spray valve 8 gallons per acre were the norm for opening in order to achieve the proper conventional volume aerial applications. nozzle output, droplet size, and spray Pilots made these types of applications pattern. You can use the pressure with cone pattern nozzles. However, gauge to monitor and maintain system aerial spray drift studies indicate that pressure during application should the spray output from cone pattern nozzles electronic flow control system in the are likely to emit drift-prone droplets aircraft stop working. A pressure change unless configured to produce coarser in the system during spraying indicates droplets. Many pilots now make con- potential problems. For instance, clogged ventional applications using straight nozzles or filter screens could increase stream nozzles, variable orifice flood pressure. A drop in pressure might nozzles, or flat fan nozzles. indicate a broken nozzle, a disconnected Application volumes in the low line, another type of leak, or pump volume (LV) range are often suitable malfunction. When a pressure change occurs, inspect the system to determine the cause and make necessary repairs. To assure precise readings of pressure at the nozzles, connect the pressure gauge sensor line to the spray boom. The pressure gauge in the aircraft needs periodic checking. When con- nected to the same pressure source, compare readings from the aircraft’s gauge to another gauge known to be accurate. Nozzles Nozzles provide the primary means of controlling three factors that BOOM-MOUNTED PRESSURE GAUGE affect any application and possible off- target movement of the pesticide: the M. J. Weaver—Virginia Tech

Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 49 for certain situations, such as applying 80, or 110 degrees. In general, fan nozzle particular fungicides. You may use flat tips that produce wide angles generate fan or variable orifice flood nozzles set more drift-prone spray droplets. For to a suitable deflection angle, based on this reason, fan nozzle tips designed to orifice size, pressure, and aircraft speed, emit no more than an 80-degree spray for LV applications. Drift studies show pattern are better suited for aerial spray that properly installed straight-stream applications. Typically, 40-degree flat or variable orifice flood nozzles reduce fans are recommended for the higher the amount of small droplets that are speeds associated with fixed winged prone to drift. aircraft and 80 degree flat fans are rec- When using vegetable oil carriers, ommended for slower speeds associated or when you apply concentrates in forest with rotary wing aircraft. Compared to or public health pest control, such as standard flat fan nozzles, even flat fan mosquito abatement spraying, ULV nozzles have little effect on the spray application volumes may be around one distribution applied by an aircraft. The to a few ounces per acre. Rotary atom- more critical consideration when using izers work well for ULV applications as flat fan nozzles on an aerial boom is well as LV applications. that the nozzle tip produces a narrow spray angle. Straight Stream Nozzles Straight stream nozzles oriented Variable Flow Rate Flat Fan Nozzles straight back often produce the largest Typically, nozzle orifice sizes droplets and the lowest drift compared are fixed and the only way to increase to other nozzle types. These nozzles or decrease nozzle flow volume and provide a way to produce large droplets maintain a desired spray droplet size at higher airspeeds when you match range at a certain spray pressure is to the flow volume of the stream from change the size of the nozzle orifice. the nozzle with the airspeed. However, With standard nozzles, slightly at very high speeds the large droplets increasing or decreasing the spray produced by straight stream nozzles can pressure allows minor adjustments in shatter and create driftable fines. nozzle flow volume, but this adversely affects the optimum spray pattern. Fan-Pattern Nozzles Variable flow rate nozzles overcome Spray drift studies indicate that this problem because the nozzle orifice nozzles that emit fan-shaped spray pat- size is flexible and enlarges or gets terns typically produce fewer small, smaller as the system pressure increases drift-prone spray droplets than do cone- or decreases. This maintains greater pattern nozzles. integrity of the droplet size spectrum Flat fan and even flat fan nozzle tips and spray pattern as system pressure produce flat, fan-shaped spray patterns. changes. The advantages of variable Flat fan patterns have the highest depo- flow rate nozzles include: sition in the center of the pattern and • The ability to change application deposition tapers off towards the edges. volume on the fly by increasing or Even flat fan nozzle decreasing system pressure instead patterns are uniform of replacing nozzle orifices. across the whole width of the nozzle pattern. • Better spray droplet uniformity The exact angle of the that is less affected by system fan-shaped pattern pressure changes. produced by these • A more uniform application nozzle tips depends volume and spray pattern even on nozzle design, FLAT FAN EVEN FAN when application airspeed varies. NOZZLE NOZZLE spray pressure, and characteristics of the pesticide spray mix. Variable Orifice Flood Nozzles Nozzle tips designed to produce fan- A variable orifice flood nozzle dis- shaped patterns have angles of 25, 40, 65, perses liquid in a flood type wide-angle 50 CHAPTER 4 speed of fixed-wing aircraft favors the use of fan-driven rotary atomizers. Most fan-drive units have adjustable fan blade pitch so you can achieve the optimum cylinder rotation relative to the aircraft’s speed. The slower speeds of rotary-wing VARIABLE ORIFICE FLOOD NOZZLE aircraft require motor driven cylinders. Spray droplets that flat fan pattern or a straight stream. emerge from the screen The nozzle body has two manual mesh cylinder are adjustments, one for orifice size and relatively uniform in the other for deflection angle. Four size. Rotary atomizer orifices can be selected, plus an “off” nozzles deliver a wide position. The orifice size and pressure range of application Glenn Martin—Gettysburg, PA determine the nozzle flow volume. volumes. Because they have relatively Spray from the selected orifice hits an large metering orifices, their nozzles adjustable deflector that you adjust to do not clog as easily as conventional produce fine, medium, or coarse spray nozzles when applying low-volume droplets. There are two common types sprays containing a high concentration of variable orifice flood nozzles. One of chemicals in suspension. Uniformity has deflection angles of 30, 55, and 90 also depends on droplet size and nozzle degrees and the other has a straight spacing. The number of nozzles you stream setting and deflection angles of need is based on how wide a swath 5 and 30 degrees. Slower aircraft typi- you intend to cover. Typically, a single cally require larger deflection angles rotary atomizer can generate a swath of than faster aircraft. 10 to 15 feet. Hollow-Cone Pattern Nozzles Rotary Atomizers Hollow-cone pattern nozzles A rotary atomizer consists of include the disc-core type and the a screen mesh cylinder that rotates whirl-chamber type. Recent spray drift around the nozzle orifice. Its own fan or research indicates that using hollow- an electric or hydraulic motor powers cone nozzles on an aerial spray boom this rotating cylinder. The higher air- yields a disproportionate amount of very fine, drift-prone droplets. Because cone nozzles emit spray in a conical pattern, the effect of wind shear is greater than its effect on straight stream or flat fan spray nozzles. The orifice of a hollow-cone nozzle is located in a disc that fits into the nozzle body. Discs are available in various orifice sizes to accommodate application needs. Located behind the disc is a core, or spinner plate, that puts a high rotational spin on the liquid passing through the orifice. The size of the disc-core combination determines the gallons per minute (gpm) rating of the nozzle at a given pressure. A whirl chamber nozzle consists of a specialized nozzle body and nozzle Glenn Martin—Gettysburg, PA cap. When liquid enters the nozzle Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 51 the nozzles seal shut when pressure drops to about 15 psi. Never switch on and off an electric motor driven pump in a rotary-wing aircraft to start or stop spraying. Using the boom valve to start and stop the spray and leaving the pump running allows the suck- back feature to work properly and provides hydraulic agitation for the spray tank. Inspect and frequently clean check valves to assure they work properly and are not leaking. Replace diaphragms when they show wear. You can flush HOLLOW CONE SOLID CONE needle and seat types of anti-drip check valves without disassembling the nozzle by pulling on the needle, which typically clears the valve of debris and stops body, the interior structure causes the the leak. liquid to whirl rapidly before exiting as a cone-shaped spray pattern. Whirl chamber nozzles are relatively free from clogging problems. SPRING LOADED DIAPHRAGM Nozzle Anti-Drip Devices Equip all the nozzles on the spray boom with check valves to prevent dripping when you shut the spray off. These valves have spring-loaded NOZZLE FILTER diaphragms, needles, or steel balls that stop the nozzle flow when spray pressure drops below a certain preset amount, usually about 7 psi. Use anti- drip check valves in combination with shut-off valves that have the suck-back NOZZLE ORIFICE feature. In systems where suck-back is unavailable, use a stronger spring so

electronics

Electronic equipment such as global their aircraft because they provide the positioning systems, flow volume high degree of precision needed for controllers, and mapping systems are aerial application. The amount and kind important components of aircraft of navigational information available dispersal systems. This equipment for aircraft-mounted DGPS equipment increases precision application, reduces depends on the features incorporated error and drift, and prevents waste of into the systems. As with other naviga- pesticide materials. These systems also tional devices, an FAA-certified aircraft provide permanent records of various maintenance technician must install, aspects of the application for site test, and repair DGPS equipment mapping, customer billing, and envi- and components. See Appendix 5 for ronmental and regulatory reporting. descriptions of types of global positioning systems and how they operate GPS Systems and are managed. Operators choose differential Before purchasing mobile DGPS global positioning systems (DGPS) for hardware and software for an appli- 52 CHAPTER 4 After completing a pass, advance the GPS setting to the next swath. When the aircraft is exactly over the centerline of that swath, the center-most LEDs of the light bar illuminate. If the path of the aircraft shifts to the left of the swath centerline, the illuminated sector of the light bar shifts towards the right. You correct the flight course by steering toward the illuminated LEDs. You restore the correct flight path when only the center most LEDs glow. Once you line up the aircraft with GPS INSTALLATION the next swath centerline, use tradi-

M. J. Weaver—Virginia Tech tional landmark navigation to begin and perform the spray pass by selecting a cation aircraft, find out if the equipment distant visual object and flying toward it. processes signals for the type of DGPS Occasionally check the light bar during service that is available in the area where the spray pass to fine-tune your course. the aircraft operates. In addition, learn what kinds of DGPS peripheral devices, Computers such as light bars and flow controllers, The advantages of DGPS computer the equipment accommodates. systems include mapping, waypoint An aircraft fitted with basic DGPS navigation, and spray operation record components provides you with the keeping. The computer provides ability to perform DGPS-aided pre- options for you to select a desired cision aerial swathing. A basic DGPS application pattern, such as racetrack. includes a: The computer then uses the GPS posi- • DGPS mobile receiver. tioning data to continuously calculate and display the aircraft’s location with • GPS antenna. respect to the target site and application • Light bar. pattern. This eliminates the need for flagging or marking devices or human • Computer processor (CPU)—in flaggers. some units, the CPU and light bar The computer system records the are combined into one unit. precise in-field location of each spray swath. For jobs requiring multiple spray Using the GPS Light Bar loads, its mapping system guides you to The GPS light bar is a linear array where to begin applying the next load. of light emitting diodes (LEDs) that Throughout the spray operation, the produce a visual representation of the computer system collects data and con- position of the aircraft in relation to the structs records. swath you are spraying. It allows you to easily visualize off-track errors and Flow Volume Controllers quickly make flight path corrections. Manufacturers of DGPS com- The onboard DGPS receiver con- puter systems offer software programs tinuously sends about 5 updated signals and computer hardware interfaces that per second to the light bar. These signals provide precision spray boom opera- activate specific LEDs, with the center tions. The aircraft DGPS computer of the light bar indicating the aircraft combines continuously updated ground is lined up with the swath centerline. speed data with the spray swath width The other LEDs on the left and right of and sends correction signals to the center represent a certain distance away flow volume controller. The controller from the swath centerline. This distance regulates boom output by increasing or is usually 2 feet per LED, but can be set decreasing pressure and/or flow volume to as little as 6 inches per LED. so that it maintains a preset application

Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 53 volume per acre. More sophisticated volume controller to construct an units even control output on indi- on-site record of the output perfor- vidual nozzles. Flow volume controller mance of the spray boom. systems include means for measuring, Mapping Systems computing, and recording: Producing maps of the targeted area • Total liquid volume. is one of the features of the global posi- • Liquid pressure. tioning systems in many aircraft. These systems enable you to define boundaries, • Liquid flow volume. mark hazards, and produce as-applied maps that document your work. These • Total spray time. maps are useful references for future • Relative humidity. applications. In addition, during an application, the on-screen map in the With this equipment, you can aircraft shows you where you turned deliver the spray uniformly for the the spray on and off. This gives you the duration of the job in progress even accuracy to separate an area of the same when travel speed of the aircraft varies. field and fly it in a different direction to You use feedback data from the flow help you protect sensitive areas.

positioning booms and nozzles

Improper positioning of nozzles along the spray boom negates the advantages derived from pilot skill, advanced electronics, other application aids, and modern nozzle engineering and manu- facturing technology. Determining the proper position for each spray nozzle helps achieve uniform spray PROP WASH DISPLACEMENT deposition. Be sure nozzles are in the aircraft’s laminar airflow where there is undisturbed air. Adjust the spacing of the nozzles along the boom to compensate for uneven spray deposition caused by air movement over aircraft surfaces. After positioning the nozzles PROP WASH OVERCOMPENSATION according to accepted application industry standards, evaluate the setup by conducting pattern testing of the dispersal system. Do this before making any pesticide applications. WING TIP VORTEX Nozzle Adjustments There are several factors to consider when adjusting nozzle positions. the left wing. This problem is most evident on aircraft fitted with spray Prop Wash Displacement booms that have a symmetrical nozzle On fixed-wing aircraft, propeller arrangement. The conventional cor- rotation produces a spiral slipstream rection for prop wash displacement is about the fuselage. This spiral slipstream to add nozzles to the right side of the moves spray particles from right to left boom and remove noz-zles from the left under the aircraft. The result is a reduced side of the boom. You usually determine application volume under the right wing the correct number and location of the and a higher application volume under nozzles by trial and error, preferably 54 CHAPTER 4 Dale Thomas—Gooding, ID while conducting pattern testing, not wing aircraft or the rotor diameter of during pesticide application. Generally, rotary-wing aircraft. the nozzles that need alteration are those positioned within 3 to 6 feet of the Rotor Distortion fuselage. Rotary-wing aircraft may display a spray pattern having a low application Prop Wash Overcompensation volume in the middle of the swath and The emphasis on spray pattern heavier patterns at each end of the spray distortion due to prop wash has boom. Normally, you can correct this prompted some pilots to overcom- by adding nozzles under the aircraft pensate for propeller-induced effects. between the skids. You can often correct a pronounced spray peak developing on the left of the Pattern Testing a Spray fuselage by turning off one or more Boom nozzles mounted within 3 to 6 feet of the right side of the fuselage. Conduct When evaluating the spray pattern pattern testing to assure you have not and determining the effective swath overcompensated. of an aircraft, the application height, power setting, spray pressure, and Wing Tip and Rotor Vortex nozzle location should duplicate field Wing tip and rotor vortexes conditions. The best time for spray usually produce spray patterns with pattern testing is early in the morning high peaks at its edges. This pattern before the sun heats the ground and can occur on either fixed- or rotary- causes thermal turbulence or convective wing aircraft. The vortex captures instability. During testing, fly the air- and propels upward the spray emitted craft directly into the wind. Conduct from the outermost nozzles on booms pattern test flights only when ambient that extend to the full wing or rotor wind speed is less than 10 mph. span. Spray droplets so captured do One method for spray pattern not contribute to the effective swath testing consists of a detector (fluo- width, but are a significant source rometer) that reads the intensity of of spray drift. In almost every case, fluorescent dye deposited onto a string you can overcome a wing tip or rotor or tape positioned across a test site. A vortex induced spray pattern problem computer converts the fluorescence by keeping the spray boom length at to data points and displays these in a 75 percent of the wingspan for fixed- graphical spray pattern representation. Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 55 PATTERN TESTING

California Agricultural Aircraft Association Use this graph to assess nozzle posi- or cards. To minimize control surface tioning along the boom, determine induced air disturbance, maintain spray deposition uniformity, and straight and level flight during spray measure the effective swath width. You boom operation—this will help assure need to know the effective swath width a representative pattern. After the pass, to program a DGPS guidance system. have a ground crew member collect the If computerized pattern testing sprayed cards in the order the ground equipment is not available, you can crew laid them out. Put new cards on determine the spray pattern by other the wood blocks and repeat the test to means. The Course Layout figure (next make sure the run was representative of page) depicts a suitable test layout for typical spray deposition. spray pattern evaluation. Determine the Visual evaluation of treated cards wind direction and place several flags, reveals common problems with spray visible to you from the aircraft, about uniformity and swath width. Especially 100 feet apart along the centerline look for: of the direction of travel. Staple and • A region of light spray droplet sequentially number squares of water density in the vicinity of the flight sensitive paper to small blocks of wood centerline. along an 80- to 100-foot line that runs perpendicular to the line of travel. You • Uneven spray droplet densities can substitute plain white cards for the toward the wing tips, indicating water sensitive paper if you add dye to prop or rotor distortion (see pre- the spray tank to visualize the droplets. vious section). When flying a spray pattern test, • Light spray droplet density cor- make sure that the nozzle tips, filter responding to boom hangars or screens, and check valves are clean. Put other structures that interrupt about 30 gallons of water into the spray airf low. tank. Before takeoff, operate the pump and briefly engage the boom to check Correct uneven patterns by repo- for leaks. sitioning nozzles on the spray boom. After takeoff, purge the boom and Conduct a new pattern test to verify make sure that water from the system that you have improved the pattern. reaches the end nozzles. Align the air- With a proper nozzle setup, you craft with the centerline flags on a spray will notice that the number of spray run that duplicates an actual field appli- droplets per card is reasonably con- cation. Operate the boom for at least stant for some distance on each side 100 yards both before and after passing of the centerline path and then they over the line of water sensitive paper gradually diminish until no spray is 56 CHAPTER 4 COURSE LAYOUT FOR PATTERN TESTING

Spaced on 5 centers Wind 40

Center line

20 100 Sampling Spaced on width Spaced on 2 centers 5 centers

evident. The typical pattern forms a When it is necessary to increase trapezoidal shape. The effective swath the output volume of the nozzles, is the distance between the midpoints you can make very small changes by on the sloping ends of the pattern. increasing or decreasing the system Each midpoint corresponds to a spray operating pressure, often by changing deposition that is approximately one- the pump speed. Electronic spray half the average amount of spray volume controllers increase or decrease deposited in the more uniform portion system pressure to change the output of the spray pattern. In an actual appli- volume of the system when there are cation, this midpoint is the border slight changes in the aircraft’s speed. between adjacent swaths. This produces an application that is more even than if the pressure remains Spraying System constant as the aircraft’s speed varies. Operating Pressure However, this adjustment has limitations because, in order to double the Drift reduction requires directing spray output, you must quadruple the nozzles straight back and setting the spray pressure. This will have a major spraying system operating pressure to impact on droplet size. In most cases, match the speed of the aircraft with the the best way to make significant changes exit speed of the pesticide liquid from in boom output volume is by changing the nozzles. A pressure of 40 to 60 psi nozzle tip size, nozzle orifice size, or by may produce larger droplets due to less changing the number of nozzles in use. wind shear and minimizes the pro- Typically, you should change the spray duction of droplet sizes prone to drift. system pressure only to make minor Drift prone droplets are those that are changes (alterations of 10 percent or smaller than 200 microns in diameter. less) in boom output.

DRY MATERIAL SPREADERS

O n fixed-wing aircraft, ram-air such as granules or pellets. You would spreaders disperse dry formulations, use these spreaders also for applications Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 57 of fertilizers and seeds. On rotary-wing When using a spreader equipped aircraft, you typically use a centrifugal with a hinged metering gate, you use spreader to apply dry formulations. a cable or rod to rotate the trailing margin of the gate downward to open it Ram-Air Spreader to whatever setting you want. Material A fixed-wing aircraft fitted with a escapes from the hopper by flowing properly configured ram-air spreader over the lowered edge of the gate. can apply dry formulation pesticides Usually, hinged metering gates require very uniformly. However, setup and more frequent calibration adjustment operation may be more complex than than do sliding hatch types. Some that required for applying liquid pes- hinged metering gate units are capable ticide products. General limitations of dispensing liquid materials. imposed by ram-air spreaders include Sliding hatch styles of hopper higher engine power requirements and metering gates generally are easier to high aerodynamic drag, which affect adjust, especially for low application aircraft performance and maneuver- rates. However, these units tend to ability. be more prone to wear than hinged Ram-air spreaders are compara- metering gates. tively simple, versatile, and reasonably The hopper metering gate must priced. You would typically attach a provide even feed of the pellets or ram-air spreader beneath the fuselage granules across its opening; otherwise, in such a way that you can remove it the aircraft will produce an uneven easily to restore the liquid spraying swath pattern. It is unreasonable to capability of the aircraft. The hopper expect any combination of ram-air is the same one used to hold liquid pes- spreader adjustments to compensate ticide sprays. entirely for swath pattern problems An unsatisfactory distribution caused by improper gate adjustment. pattern of dry materials results from Substantially increasing the most ram-air devices if you attempt to hopper-to-spreader feed rate beyond apply more than 250 pounds per acre its design maximum is a poor strategy of material or increase the feed rate to for increasing application rate. If you more than 35 pounds per second. meter too much dry pesticide product into the spreader, ducting becomes choked and less air is able to flow RAM-AIR SPREADER through the unit. Increasing the amount of dry pesticide entering the spreader requires more air to propel the material through the spreader. Spreader Vanes The air channel of a typical ram-air spreader consists of from 5 to 13 laterally adjacent, curved ducts. The partitions that form the walls of these ducts are the spreader vanes. Each Feed Rate spreader vane typically has adjustable In a ram-air spreader, the dry pes- sections located at its front and rear. ticide product drops from the hopper These adjustable sections allow for into a ducted airstream, where the lateral repositioning of the inlet and airflow ejects it rearward and laterally. exit portions of a given vane within the A metering gate situated between the spreader body. Vane adjustment allows hopper floor and the spreader throat you to fine tune a ram-air spreader to governs the feed rate of pesticide a particular aircraft’s airflow and slip- granules or pellets. The spreader has stream characteristics. either a hinged metering gate or a In a ram-air spreader, the material sliding hatch between the hopper and metered from the hopper flows the spreader. through the ducts as a thin, sheet- 58 CHAPTER 4 like layer of particles. Air entering repositioning of an inlet vane should the spreader inlet forces the product never exceed a 15-degree angle of inci- rearward, where it flows along the dence as measured in relation to the internal upper surface (ceiling) of the path of forward flight. spreader. Spreading of this particle Altering the spreader’s exit con- layer is the main job of the spreader figuration requires repositioning the vanes. When functioning correctly, adjustable rear portion of one or more the vanes prevent air and particles spreader vanes if the equipment is set from moving from one duct to another. up for this type of adjustment. Rear The top of each vane, including vane section adjustments provide a way the movable sections, must be in close to fine-tune overall swath pattern uni- contact with the top of the internal formity. This is because the position of surface of the spreader. If any air gap the rear section of a vane mainly influ- occurs between vane and duct ceiling, ences the exit direction of the particles both air and particles can move from passing through that duct. one duct to another during spreader Alignment of the rear section of operation. This will seriously affect a vane should, as much as possible, the even distribution of the pesticide. smoothly follow the arc formed by the Adjusting the inlet vane positions vane’s rigid internal curvature. For helps to make the swath uniform. rear vane adjustment, the key con- Airframe-induced influences are known cepts are smooth, non-obstructive, to affect ram-air spreader performance, non-impeding, exit airflow changes. but that can often be compensated for Generally, you only need to make small by spreader inlet vane adjustment. adjustments. Over-adjustment usually causes particles moving through the • Aircraft oil-cooler-induced duct to slow down, resulting in too turbulence. much material in one part of the swath. • Speed ring effects. Spreader Mounting • Propwash effects. The best possible mounting config- • Turbulence caused by a flagging uration of a ram-air spreader is the one device air deflector. that causes the least turbulence. Having the smoothest airflow into, around, and The propwash effect displaces out of the spreader improves spreader material released near the right of the performance and provides good appli- fuselage towards the left side of the cation results. fuselage. This results in a non-uniform Relative to an aircraft’s roll axis, swath where distribution of granules or a correctly mounted spreader hangs pellets on the right side is sparse and it beneath the fuselage and is level with the is too heavy on the left side. To correct fuselage from side-to-side and parallel a propwash-induced problem, configure to the long axis of the fuselage. Spreader a ram-air spreader to discharge more mounting differs from airframe orien- material from its right side than from its tation only in pitch. The attack angle of left. Do this by moving the spreader’s a ram-air spreader directly influences inlet vanes toward the left, making the the amount of airflow entering the left discharge ports smaller than the spreader inlet. Set the spreader attack right side discharge ports. angle by establishing the pitch of the Shifting inlet vanes too far laterally spreader body during mounting. causes problems, however. As you shift The forward mounting points an inlet vane laterally, the airstream of ram-air spreaders are usually non- attack angle (angle of incidence) of the adjustable. Therefore, change the attack duct wall increases. When the duct wall angle by changing the distance between angle of incidence becomes too great, the aircraft fuselage and the rear part of static air pressure increases inside the the spreader. In general, the lower skin duct and impairs the hopper-to-duct of the spreader is the reference surface flow rate. This causes an undesired for measuring spreader attack angle. reduction of spreader output. Lateral The attack angle of the lower surface Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 59 should be approximately 1 to 3 degrees a reduced swath width, and fly more less than the attack angle of the lower passes per site. surface of the aircraft wing. When a spreader attack angle is either too great Centrifugal Spreader or too small, the likely result is: The centrifugal spreader used by • Increased turbulence and drag. rotary-wing aircraft is a self-contained unit having its own hopper. The rotary- • Increased deposition of the pes- wing aircraft carries the entire unit ticide material on the tail gear of beneath the aircraft, suspended on a the aircraft. cable. The unit meters material from • A non-uniform swath pattern. the hopper onto a spinning disc that dis- tributes the pesticide, seed, or fertilizer. • Swath narrowing due to lowered A hydraulic motor or gasoline engine exit speeds of particles. usually drives the spinner. You control the motor via a hydraulic control cable Application Rate and Swath or by an electrically activated solenoid. Up to the point of its maximum Typically, an operation would have two material handling capability, changing self-contained units so you can spread the application rate of a spreader auto- with one while the ground crew fills matically changes its effective swath the other. Another method involves width. Increasing hopper feed to the using a bag suspended from a boom spreader will cause a decrease in swath that the ground crew fills while the width because the particle stream pilot makes an application to the field exiting a spreader duct becomes heavier with the spreader. When the hopper and less prone to being broken apart. needs refilling, the pilot positions the For high application rates such as jobs unit under the bag and a ground crew requiring more than 250 pounds of member releases the contents of the bag pesticide product per acre, the best into the hopper. The refilling operation strategy is to reduce the per-pass appli- takes only a matter of seconds while the cation rate, configure the spreader for helicopter hovers above.

USDA ARS Image Library

60 CHAPTER 4 Review Questions

CHAPTER 4: Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems

1. Aircraft suitable for aerial application of 5. A proper functioning positive cutoff valve with a pesticides must be: suck-back feature will supply pressure to the boom and nozzles when the spray A. Registered with the U.S. EPA. flow is stopped. B. Constructed entirely of corrosion resistant materials. A. High negative. C. Equipped with DGPS navigational B. Low negative. equipment. C. High positive. D. Able to lift, transport, and disperse D. Low positive. pesticides safely. 6. The purpose of bleed valves at the ends of the 2. One of the reasons for an adequate vent in the spray boom is to: aircraft pesticide tank is to: A. Prevent spray from continuing to flow from A. Release excess pressure. nozzles after the spray valve is closed. B. Allow the pump to function efficiently. B. Prevent pressure from building up from C. Prevent a vacuum from altering the normal trapped air when the spray valve is opened. flow of liquid. C. Make cleaning the inside of the spray boom D. Keep the pesticide mixture uniform. easier. D. Reduce internal corrosion of the spray 3. The purpose of baffles inside a liquid spray boom. tank is to: A. Assure even mixing of the spray material. 7. To accommodate for the influence of prop wash on spray pattern, it is necessary to: B. Prevent extreme pressure changes in the system. A. Regulate the output flow to the nozzles. C. Reduce sloshing of the liquid during flight. B. Adjust the speed of the aircraft. D. Eliminate foaming of the spray mixture. C. Reposition the nozzles on the spray boom. D. Decrease the pump speed. 4. Hydraulic agitation of the mixture in the aircraft spray tank requires: A. An external power source. B. Sufficient pump output capacity. C. Baffles mounted inside the tank. D. Proper tank ventilation.

Aerial Pesticide Dispersal Systems 61 8. The advantage of an electronic sprayer volume 10. The purpose of adjusting ram-air spreader controller is that it: vanes is to: A. Maintains the same spray output as airspeed A. Improve the performance of the aircraft. changes. B. Reduce the aerodynamic drag on the B. Reduces or increases the spray output as aircraft. airspeed changes. C. Improve the granule distribution pattern. C. Maintains the same spray output as altitude D. Change the swath width of the granule changes. application. D. Reduces or increases the spray output as altitude changes.

9. Ram-air spreaders can: A. Compromise fixed wing aircraft performance. B. Improve fixed wing aircraft performance. C. Reduce aerodynamic drag on the aircraft. D. Reduce the aircraft’s power requirements.

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

62 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Reading this chapter will help you understand: • Why you need to calibrate dispersal equipment. • How to calibrate liquid and dry dispersal equipment. • How to make adjustments to the application equipment’s dispersal volume or rate.

Pesticide registrants, manufacturers, The success of each aerial pesticide and regulatory agencies use extensive application depends on accurate cali- research to establish proper application bration. The term calibration refers to volumes and to develop safety pre- setting up and adjusting the application cautions that you must legally follow equipment to ensure that you dilute and when making a pesticide application. apply the pesticide active ingredient Registrants place this mandatory information on the pesticide labeling. On occasion, regulatory agencies identify a reason to evaluate a product’s existing labeling directions, usually because of human safety concerns. As a result, they may impose regulations that supersede the product’s current labeling. This may involve changing application volumes or imposing additional safety requirements. In order to make a legal, safe, and effective aerial application, you are responsible for applying pesticide products uniformly and at the proper volume per unit of area. Pesticide product labels or local regulations CALIBRATION PREVENTS prescribe maximum volumes, so SERIOUS PROBLEMS exceeding these volumes violates federal and state laws. USDA ARS Image Library Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 63 according to regulations. This chapter Technological advances such discusses the steps to take to calibrate, as DGPS systems and electronic test, and adjust a fixed- or rotary-wing controllers make aerial pesticide aircraft’s pesticide dispersal system. application more precise. These tools Sidebar graphics are included to detail reduce calibration errors and auto- useful calculations. matically adjust the spraying system Once you calibrate the aircraft’s to accommodate for changes in pump dispersal system, check and test the output, nozzle wear, and variations in equipment periodically to be sure the application speed. The best resources calibration remains accurate. Heavy for setting up and adjusting these workloads as well as applying abrasive systems are their operation manuals. pesticide formulations contribute to Therefore, this chapter does not cover nozzles and other equipment becoming calibrating or adjusting electronic maladjusted or worn. devices.

why you need to calibrate equipment

The main reason for calibration is to confiscate and destroy an entire crop figure out how much pesticide to put to protect consumers. into the tank or hopper of the aircraft so you can apply the work order recom- Impact on Effective Pest Control mended volume to the target site when Pesticide registrants and/or manu- you operate the aircraft at a deter- facturers of pesticides spend millions mined speed and altitude. Accurate of dollars researching ways to use their calibration is necessary for: products correctly and effectively. This • Assuring compliance with the research includes determining the right requirements in labeling, law, or amount of pesticide to apply to control regulation. target pests. Using less than the labeled • Effective pest control. rate is legal, but may result in inade- quate control, wasting time and money. • Protecting human health, the Application volumes that are too low environment, and treated crops or also may lead to problems such as pest surfaces. resistance and resurgence. Higher than • Preventing waste of resources. label rates are illegal and waste pesticides. Using too much pesticide may • Controlling the volume of water adversely affect natural enemies of the (for liquid applications) applied to pest being controlled. a given area. Improper Application Rate Applicators are legally liable for injuries or damage caused by improper pesticide application. Several problems are associated with applying a pesticide at a volume higher than the maximum legal rate. Illegal Residues Applying higher than legal volumes of a pesticide may result in residues on crop plants that exceed the legal tolerance level. If over-application results in illegal residues on plant sur- APHID PEST faces, regulators have the authority to

64 CHAPTER 5 Human Health Concerns plant surfaces when used at higher than Pesticides applied at higher than label-prescribed rates. Manufacturers label rates could endanger the health evaluate these potential problems while of pesticide handlers, field workers, testing their products so they can yourself, and other people working in or determine safe concentrations. visiting an area where you applied them. Soil Contamination Environmental Concerns Using too much pesticide increases Pesticide concentrations higher the chance of building up excessive than label directions may cause serious residues in the soil. A buildup of certain environmental problems. Calibrating pesticides sometimes seriously limits equipment to maintain application volumes within label requirements the types of future crops that farmers reduces the potential for contaminating can grow in the treated area. surface water, ground water, and the air. Wasting Resources Impact on Treated Plant Surfaces Using the improper amount of pes- Certain pesticides are phytotoxic ticide wastes time and adds unnecessary (injurious to plants) and damage treated costs to the application.

equipment calibration methods

Pesticide materials are expensive, and desired spray output and droplet size for the fuel, labor, and equipment wear and the product you intend to apply. Arrange tear required to make extra applications nozzles on the boom in such a way as to are costly. produce the desired deposition pattern If you apply pesticides improperly, when applying the material from the you are subject to criminal and civil application height selected. Keep the enforcement actions that may result application height constant during each in loss of your pilot certificate, paying swath run to obtain uniform coverage. fines and penalties, serving impris- Avoid adjusting application height to onment time, and the costs and lost either change the swath width or spray time dealing with lawsuits. pattern uniformity. Instead, replace Properly calibrating aerial appli- nozzles to correct swath width and cation equipment is necessary to ensure pattern uniformity. uniform distribution of the pesticide Once the aircraft is properly set up, materials and it helps prevent pesticide measure the following four factors: related problems. The following sections • Tank capacity. discuss different calibration techniques for liquid application equipment and • Application airspeed. granular application equipment. • Flow volume. Calibrating Liquid Sprayers • Effective spray swath width. Calibrating liquid sprayers involves Spray pressure is a component of determining how much area each the flow volume because as the pressure tank of spray covers when the aircraft increases or decreases the flow volume travels at a known speed and the system increases or decreases as well. Spray operates at a known pressure. You begin pressure must never exceed the recom- by matching the desired application mendations of the nozzle manufacturer. volume and droplet size category with Check liquid spraying equipment the number of nozzles, nozzle orifice frequently when applying abrasive pesti- size, application airspeed, and swath cides, such as wettable powders, because width. Use nozzle specifications from these materials cause wear in pumps the manufacturer to select nozzles and nozzles. Pump wear decreases the that, as closely as possible, produce the amount and pressure of fluid output, Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 65 while nozzle wear increases the volume get the best average for weight consid- of output. Alone or in combination, erations), and flying at the same altitude these two occurrences usually lower as an actual spray application. If the air- the output pressure and may produce a craft spraying system is equipped with poor spray pattern. a flow volume controller, the controller will calculate the proper flow volume Tank Capacity and make adjustments if airspeed You need to know exactly how changes. For it to make these adjust- much liquid you can put into the air- ments, you must enter the application craft’s spray tank in order to determine volume and the size of the effective how much area you can spray with swath width into the unit. each load. This requires measuring the capacity of the spray tanks, usually one Flow Volume time only. If you modify the tank, or If the aircraft is not equipped remove or add components inside the with a flow volume controller, measure tank, you will have to re-measure its the actual output of the system when capacity. Never rely on tank size ratings nozzles are new, then periodically provided by the manufacturer because thereafter to accommodate for nozzle these may be approximate volumes, wear. Manufacturers provide charts they may not take into account fittings showing the estimated output of given installed inside the tank, and they do nozzle sizes at specified spray pressures. not account for the attitude of the air- Manufacturer charts are most accurate craft while it is on the ground. when using new nozzles—used nozzles Position the fixed- or rotary-wing may have different output volumes aircraft on a level surface and make sure because of wear. Even new nozzles may there is no liquid in the system. Drain have slight variations in actual output. the system if necessary, then close any Additionally, the pressure gauge in the open valves to prevent water leaks. Start aircraft may not be accurate, which adding measured amounts of clean further adds error to the output estimate water. Keep the pump running to cir- determined from manufacturer charts. culate the liquid. Using a flow meter, These charts express flow volume in bring the water level to the maximum gallons per minute, which you can then operating fill point. This is the level convert to gallons per linear mile at the to which you will always fill the tank prescribed swath width. whenever applying a full load. Once Rotary-wing Aircraft. Rotary-wing air- you determine the actual capacity of craft usually have electric or hydraulic the tank or tanks, paint or engrave this powered pumps, so the aircraft does not amount onto a prominent place near the need to be in flight to measure nozzle tank for permanent reference. output. To find out the combined flow While filling the tank, also volume for all nozzles on a helicopter calibrate the tank sight gauge, or make spray boom, collect liquid from each marks on the tank as you add measured nozzle over a known time (such as 30 volumes of water. Once you calibrate seconds) and add together these amounts. the sight gauge or tank, it is easy to see Use a calibrated container that measures how much liquid is in the tank when it liquid ounces. Once you determine the is not entirely full. Always return the total amount of output, convert the aircraft to a level surface when reading ounce measurement into gallons and the sight gauge or tank marks. The sight then determine the gallons per minute gauge readings while the aircraft is in and mile outputs (see Sidebar 1). flight will differ from readings taken when the aircraft is on the ground due Fixed-wing Aircraft. Most fixed-wing to flight attitude. aircraft use fan driven spray pumps, so the aircraft must be airborne or have Application Airspeed the engine running at high speed while Measure airspeed under actual on the ground. Due to the air blast working conditions, with the aircraft from the propeller, you cannot collect spray tank about half full of water (to spray from the nozzles. Therefore, find 66 CHAPTER 5 Sidebar 1

calculating sprayer flow volume per mile (Rotary-Wing Aircraft)

A helicopter spray boom is equipped with 30 nozzles. Liquid has been collected from each nozzle for 30 seconds. When combined, the total amount of liquid collected is 600 ounces.

Convert the 600 ounces per 30 seconds into gallons per minute.

total ounces collected × 60 seconds/minute = ounces/minute seconds of collection time 600 ounces collected × 60 seconds/minute = 1200 ounces/minute 30 seconds

Next, convert the total ounces per minute into gallons per minute. 1200 ounces/minute = 9.375 gallons/minute 128 ounces/gallon

In this example, the helicopter discharges 9.375 gallons of liquid per minute. This result can be converted to gallons per mile by dividing the airspeed in miles per hour by 60 minutes per hour and then dividing the result into the gallons per minute.

Assume the helicopter is traveling at 50 miles per hour.

50 MPH = 0.833 miles/minute 60 minutes/hour

9.375 gallons/minute = 11.25 gallons/mile 0.833 miles/minute the output of the sprayer over time by close the valve. Record the elapsed measuring how much water you use time, return to the ground, and park during several test flights. Each time the aircraft at the same spot where you you fill the tank, make a run operating originally filled the tank. the sprayer for a timed period. Attach a flow meter to a low- Start by moving the aircraft to a pressure filling hose and refill the tank level surface and fill the tank to a known to the original level. Record the gallons amount with clean water. Fill the tank of water used; this volume is the amount to a level that you can duplicate when of liquid sprayed during the timed run. refilling. Check for leaks around tank Determine the gallons per minute seals, hoses, and hose fittings. Be sure all output of the sprayer and convert the nozzles are clean and operating properly result to gallons per mile as shown in or the results will be inaccurate. Sidebar 2. For more accuracy, repeat Take off and fly to an area where this process two more times to get an you can release the spray water. Operate average of sprayer output. the sprayer at its normal operating speed and pressure. Open the valve to Swath Width the spray boom, starting a stopwatch A crucial step in the calibration at the same time. Continue to run the of an aircraft liquid dispersal system sprayer for several minutes, and then involves determining the effective Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 67 Sidebar 2

calculating sprayer flow volume per mile (Fixed-Wing Aircraft)

For this example, the aircraft’s spray tank is filled with water to its top mark. After takeoff and leveling off, the pilot made four runs at 120 MPH and opened the spray valve for 30 seconds for each run. After landing, the aircraft was returned to the same location where the tank was originally filled. Using a flow meter attached to a water hose, the tank was refilled to the top mark. It took 36 gallons of water to refill the tank.

Calculate the gallons per minute output of the sprayer. 36 gallons = 18 gallons/minute 2 minutes

Convert the gallons per minute into gallons per mile. 120 miles/hour = 2 miles/minute 60 minutes/hour 18 gallons/minute = 9 gallons/mile 2 miles/minute

swath width. Although the actual swath drift of the spray, depending on the width may be wider, the effective swath spray droplet size. Therefore, mini- width includes overlaps made with each mizing off-target drift risk requires pass to achieve a more even application. lower application heights. The greater Measure the amount of overlap leading the application height, the more time to the effective swath width produced it takes for spray droplets to reach the by an aircraft by pattern testing. target and so they are subjected to Whenever you alter the spray boom in evaporation and other forces that create any way or change application height, off-target drift. High temperatures and you must repeat this pattern test and low humidity will increase the evapo- recalculate the effective swath width. ration rate. Application height affects the effective An application height of 8 to 10 spray swath, so the application height feet is usually the maximum suitable used during pattern testing must be for applying spray droplets that have the same as the height flown during an less tendency to drift. For application actual application. heights greater than 8 to 10 feet, you need larger spray droplets to reduce Application Height drift. The pesticide label usually Application height describes the provides application height limits or distance between the nozzle tips and a range of application heights for a the target, be it the plant canopy or particular product. Flying too low can open ground at the target site. The cause additional drift issues because effective swath width usually increases of air turbulence hitting the ground as the application height increases due (ground effect). to air movement. However, there are limits to how high you can go and get Determining the Acres per Minute a wider swath. Spray drift management Treated studies indicate that application height To calculate the number of acres can affect the amount of off-target treated in one minute, use the airspeed 68 CHAPTER 5 Sidebar 3

calculating acres treated per minute

Convert the airspeed from miles per hour to feet per minute using this formula. MPH × 5,280 feet/mile = feet/minute 60 minutes/hour

Assume for this example that the aircraft travels at 120 miles per hour. Convert this speed to feet per minute.

120 MPH × 5,280 feet/mile = 633,600 feet/hour 633,600 feet/hour = 10,560 feet/minute 60 minutes/hour Next, multiply the effective spray swath width by the feet per minute airspeed to determine the area, in square feet, covered in one minute. The effective swath width has been determined to be 50 feet and the travel speed is 10,560 feet per minute.

feet/minute × effective swath width = square feet/minute 10,560 feet/minute × 50 feet = 528,000 square feet/minute

Convert this area into acres by dividing the square feet/minute by 43,560 square feet/acre.

528,000 square feet/minute = 12.1 acres/minute 43,560 square feet/acre and the effective swath width measure- cation pattern to achieve this desired ments in the calculations shown in volume. For example, you may have to Sidebar 3. make more than one pass over a swath to apply the total number of gallons of Determining the Application spray or pounds of granules per acre as Volume per Acre required by the label or job order appli- In the “Flow Volume” section, the cation rate. fixed-wing aircraft example calculation To prevent waste of pesticide (Sidebar 2) showed that a boom with material, you must accurately know the 50 nozzles was discharging 18 gallons size of the area to be treated. Then, mix per minute. At 120 miles per hour, this only the amount of pesticide needed. amounts to 9 gallons per mile. Sidebars Multiply the total acres in the appli- 3 and 4 illustrate how to convert the cation site by the application volume gallons per mile to gallons per acre. to find out how much pesticide will be required for the complete job. Determining the Amount of Use tank volume and the gallons Pesticide to Put into the Tank per minute figure to calculate how much The label or job order prescribes time it will take for you to spray out all how much pesticide to apply per acre. the liquid in the tank. Once you know Be sure to confirm that the job order this time, you can calculate the total does not exceed the legal rate given area covered with each tank of material. on the label. You may have to adjust The result will be the actual acres of nozzle output or modify the appli- treatment site that you can spray with Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 69 Sidebar 4

determining gallons per acre

A spray boom having 50 nozzles discharges 18 gallons of spray per minute. Using the calculations from Sidebar 3, this aircraft covers 12.1 acres per minute.

Divide the gallons per minute by the acres per minute to get gallons per acre.

18 gallons/minute = 1.49 gallons/acre 12.1 acres/minute Therefore, the aircraft in this example will be spraying 1.49 gallons of liquid per acre when traveling at 120 miles per hour and spraying a 50 foot effective swath width.

Sidebar 5

determining the amount of pesticide to put into the tank

A fixed wing aircraft is equipped a with spray tank with a total measured capacity of 300 gallons. The aircraft spraying system will discharge 18 gallons per minute when flown at 120 miles per hour.

Divide the tank capacity by the gallons per minute to determine how many minutes it will take to spray 300 gallons, the tank’s capacity.

300 gallons/tank = 16.7 minutes/tank 18 gallons/minute

Next, calculate the number of acres that can be sprayed with one tankful of liquid. To do this, multiply the minutes per tank figure by the acres per minute figure computed in Sidebar 3.

16.7 minutes/tank × 12.1 acres/minute = 202 acres/tank

In this example, the aircraft can treat 201.7 acres with one tank of spray mixture. Assume the job order prescribes 2 pints of pesticide per acre. Knowing that one tank can cover 201.7 acres, the total amount of pesticide to put into the tank can be calculated.

Multiply the pints per acre by the acres per tank and divide this by 8 pints per gallon to determine the gallons of pesticide to put into the tank.

2 pints/acre × 202 acres/tank = 50.5 gallons/tank 8 pints/gallon

These calculations show that 50.5 gallons of pesticide must be mixed with 249.5 gallons of water to fill the tank with 300 gallons of spray mixture.

70 CHAPTER 5 one tank of pesticide mixture. Knowing • Different plant spacing within the this value and the recommended rate of same field. application (units of pesticide per acre of treatment area) makes it possible to • Special requirements of the determine how much pesticide to mix treatment area such as obstacles or with water in the aircraft’s tank. See sensitive areas. the calculations for this in Sidebar 5. • Compensating for nozzle or pump You also need to calculate the area to be wear. treated (Sidebars 6-9). You can make the adjustments Changing Sprayer Output discussed below, either alone or in Once calibrated, you have deter- combination, to effectively increase or mined the output volume of the aircraft’s decrease sprayer output, but only within spraying system for a specific speed, a limited range. altitude, and pump pressure. However, Changing Speed. Typically, you should there may be times during an operation not adjust application speed in a fixed- when you may need to change the wing aircraft to change the application output volume slightly. These include: volume. However, the simplest way to • Accommodating variations in adjust the volume of spray (and amount foliage density. of pesticide) you are applying in a

Sidebar 6

Calculating the Area of a Rectangular or Square Application Site

To calculate the area of a rectangular (or square) site, you must know the: • Length of the longest side (in feet) • Width of one adjacent side (in feet)

A rectangular field is 800 feet long and 250 feet wide. To find the area of the field (in square feet), multiply the length times the width.

800 feet × 250 feet = 200,000 square feet

Convert the 200,000 square feet to acres by dividing by the number of square feet in one acre (43,560 square feet).

200,000 square feet = 4.59 acres 43,560 square feet per acre width

length

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 71 Sidebar 7

Calculating the Area of a Triangular Application Site

To calculate the area of a triangular site, you must know two dimensions, making sure both of these dimensions are in feet. • The length of the longest side of the triangle (its base). • The width of the triangle at its widest point (its height).

(base × height) area of a triangle = 2

The longest side (base) of a triangular field measures 650 feet. The distance between this side and the point where the two other sides meet (height) is 300 feet.

650 feet × 300 feet = 97,500 square feet 2

Divide the 97,500 square feet by 43,560 square feet per acre to find the number of acres in this triangular site.

97,500 square feet = 2.24 acres 43,560 square feet per acre height

base

72 CHAPTER 5 Sidebar 8

Calculating the Area of a Circular Application Site

To calculate the area of a circular site, you must know two values. • The radius of the circle in feet (see diagram below)

• The value of the constant pi (often indicated by the Greek letter π) which is approximately 3.14

The radius is the length of the straight-line distance from the center of a circle to any given place on the circle’s edge. The radius is equal to one half of the diameter. A diameter is the length of the longest possible straight-line distance across a circle, passing through the center of the circle. Pi is a ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. It is used to determine areas or volumes that involve circles, spheres, and other curved objects.

The area of any circle is determined by multiplying pi (π) times the square of the radius of the circle, where the square of the radius means multiplying the length of the radius by itself. Use this formula.

2 area = π × r

where r is the radius and π = 3.14 Before making any calculations, make sure the length of the radius (or the diameter) is known in feet. If only the diameter is known, divide this by 2 to get the radius.

The diameter of the circular field is 400 feet. This means that the radius is 200 feet. To calculate the area, multiply π (3.14) times the square of the radius (200 feet × 200 feet). area = 3.14 × (200 feet × 200 feet) = 125,600 square feet

To convert this area to acres, divide the 125,600 square feet by 43,560 square feet per acre.

125,600 square feet = 2.88 acres 43,560 square feet per acre

diameter

radius

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 73 Sidebar 9

Calculating the Area of an Irregularly-Shaped Application Site

Many sites are not perfect circles, rectangles, or triangles. Often, agricultural sites have curved corners, have a bulge along one or more sides, or, have a notched area because an obstacle does not allow cultivation or spraying. This can make an accurate area calculation difficult. Here are some guidelines on how to proceed. • First, sketch a general map of the site. This is a key step, yet, in most cases, you do not need many measurements to make a good general map. The main purpose of the map is to let you clearly identify the number and kinds of shapes that together make up the site. • Next, identify the kinds and number of shapes such as triangles, circles, and rectangles that together form the irregular shape. Return to the field and place marker stakes to identify the boundaries of each identified shape or subsection. Record the location of each marker stake on a map. • Take in-field measurements to determine the dimensions of each regularly shaped subsection. Record these measurements on the map. • Calculate the area (in square feet) of each regularly-shaped subsection, following the procedures for calculating the areas of a rectangles, circles, and triangles. • Finally, add together the square feet calculations from all the subsections. This will give you the total size, in square feet, of the irregularly shaped site. This square foot measurement can then be converted to acres. In the example shown here, based on the general map of the site, three regularly shaped subsections (Triangle A, Triangle B, and Rectangle C) can be identified and measured. Then add together the three areas.

B C

74 CHAPTER 5 rotary-wing aircraft is to change the regulator or pump speed. Be aware that speed. A slower speed results in more changes in orifice size will also change material applied, while increasing the the droplet size and spray pattern and speed reduces the application volume. will affect drift potential. A major Changing the travel speed eliminates factor in reducing drift is to reduce the need for altering the concen- the amount of small fines prone to tration of chemicals in the spray tank off-target drift. Considerations must if there is a valid reason for increasing include the effect of airspeed on droplet or decreasing the application volume. atomization as well as the effect of air However, there are limits to the amount shear across the nozzle face. Use tables of speed change that you can make. from nozzle manufacturer web sites or Increasing speed too much is a problem manufacturer literature as guides for because it increases the wind shear estimating output of different nozzle effect on spray droplet sizes, producing and orifice size combinations. When smaller spray droplets. In addition, you change nozzle orifices, remeasure faster speeds may reduce the application the output volume. volume so much that it results in poor coverage and ineffective pest control. Calibrating Granule Flying too slow may possibly result Applicators in over-application by exceeding the The techniques for calibrating maximum label rate. At the very least, it granule applicators are similar in many would increase the amount of pesticide ways to those used for liquids. However, applied, causing runoff and waste, and granules vary in size and shape from increasing application time and cost. one pesticide to the next, influencing Changing Output Pressure. As nozzles their flow rate from the applicator begin to wear, the spray volume will hopper and spreader. Temperature increase from the orifice getting larger. and humidity may also influence However, when a pump begins to wear, granule flow. Due to their lower drift it becomes less efficient as it moves less potentials, you generally can apply volume of spray because of the increase pesticides formulated as granules from in space between the moving parts that greater application heights than what normally force the liquid through the is suitable for liquids. Usually, higher system. As a result, the nozzle output granule application heights produce drops off. Adjusting the pump speed more uniform deposition patterns. to increase or decrease output pressure Before beginning to calibrate will change the spray volume slightly. a granule applicator, be sure that it Increasing pressure increases the output, is clean and all parts are working while decreasing pressure lowers it. In properly. Measure three variables when order to double the output volume, you calibrating a granule applicator: must increase the pressure by a factor • Application airspeed. of four. This is usually beyond the capabilities of the spraying system and • Output rate. a pressure increase negatively affects • Swath width. the droplet size spectrum. The working pressure range of the sprayer pump also Application Airspeed limits this adjustment. Always measure airspeed under Changing Nozzle Orifice Size. The actual working conditions with the most effective way to change the output aircraft loaded to normal operational volume of the aircraft spraying system weight and flying at the altitude that is to install different sized orifices on you will use when making a granule nozzles. Larger orifice sizes increase application. volume, while smaller ones reduce spray output. Changing orifice sizes usually Output Rate alters the pressure of the system and To determine the rate of output, requires an adjustment of the pressure follow the manufacturer’s guidelines

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 75 Sidebar 10

Computing granule application rate per acre

The weight of the granules collected in all 13 pans totals 2 ounces.

Compute the pounds of granules being applied per acre as follows:

43,560 square feet/acre × 2 ounces = 6,701.54 ounces/acre 13 square feet

Convert ounces per acre to pounds per acre by dividing by 16 ounces per pound:

6,701.54 ounces/acre = 418.85 pounds/acre 16 ounces/pound

and set the ram-air spreader gate or Calculate the total area of the 13 pans. centrifugal spreader gate to the desired For example, if each pan is exactly one rate per acre. Place a series of at least square foot, the total area would be 13 13 collection pans at 5-feet intervals in square feet. Sidebar 10 shows how to a straight line on the ground. Set these calculate the granule application rate out perpendicular to the flight line. The per acre. footprint shape of the collection pans is The distribution shown in the unimportant, but the pans should be figure on the next page is an idealized approximately 4 inches deep and have plotting of the amounts caught in an area of at least 1 square foot. All of 13 pans laid out 5-feet apart across a the collection pans must be exactly the 60-foot swath. Another pass centered same size. Pad the bottom of each pan 30 feet to the right of the first pass with a thin foam layer to help prevent produces a 50% overlap of the swaths any granules from bouncing out. and results in an even distribution of granules. This represents an effective Swath Width swath width of 30 feet. Fly a swath test along a centerline Examination of this figure shows oriented at a right angle to the line of that at point A, six units (these could collection pans. If ambient wind speed be pounds, ounces, or any other unit is greater than a sustained 8 mph, of weight) were collected in the pan. orient the line of pans at a right angle At point B, the first swath applied five to the prevailing wind and fly directly units in the pan and the second swath into the wind. added one more for a total of six. At After the swath test flight, use point C, each swath applied three units a small graduated cylinder to collect for six units in the pan. and measure granule volume in each The pattern shown at the bottom individual pan, progressing from left of the next page is a more typical trap- to right. Record each pan’s volume on ezoidal pattern generated by granular a graph in the exact order of collection. spreaders. The effective swath width Plotting these volumes as a graph lets of a pattern having this shape is deter- you visualize the distribution of your mined by adding the distances AD granule application across the swath. and BC together and dividing by 2, as Finally, combine the granules from shown on the next page. all the pans into another container, Once you determine the effective then weigh and record this weight. swath width, you can estimate the

76 CHAPTER 5 7 6 5 4 3 A B 2 C 1 0 60 feet 30 feet VOLUME DISTRIBUTION OF GRANULES

amount of granules, in pounds per ignated for the application of a pesticide acre. The example above is not an ideal is dangerous and irresponsible. If pos- method of calibrating a granule appli- sible, obtain blank granules (granules cator because of the large difference in of the same size, shape, and weight as weight between the granules caught in the pesticide product, but without the the pans and those deposited onto the pesticide active ingredient) from the actual application swath. Unfortunately, manufacturer to use for calibration. If it is often impossible to calibrate dry this is not possible, the only alternative materials accurately unless you are is to rely on the equipment manufac- using the actual materials. Spreading turer recommendations for setting and pesticide granules onto an area not des- adjusting the ram-air spreader gate or

B C

TYPICAL GRANULE APPLICATION PATTERN APPLICATION RATE APPLICATION

A D

If distance AD (the distance between the two end pans containing zero granules) is 60 feet, and distance BC (the distance where granule catch per pan is relatively constant) is 30 feet, calculate the effective swath width.

60 feet + 30 feet effective swath width = = 45 feet 2 In this situation, application passes should be made 45 feet apart.

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 77 centrifugal spreader gate to the desired even more precise by calculating the rate per acre. This setting should amount of pesticide that you applied result in accurate initial application to a known area and comparing that to rates. You can fine-tune this rate to be the desired rate.

78 CHAPTER 5 Review Questions

CHAPTER 5: Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment

1. The purpose of calibration is to: 5. An aircraft spraying system has an output volume of 8 gallons per minute. How many gallons are A. Determine the capacity of the spray tank(s). sprayed per mile when the aircraft travels at 130 B. Prevent off-target pesticide drift. miles per hour? C. Apply the correct amount of pesticide. A. 3.7 D. Protect the environment. B. 4.5 2. Applying a pesticide at a rate that is higher C. 5.8 than the pesticide label rate is: D. 6.5 A. Necessary. 6. An effective swath width is the: B. Careless. A. Total swath made by two passes. C. Illegal. B. Total swath made by a single pass. D. Useful. C. Width of a single pass that includes portions 3. Increasing airspeed without changing the of overlaps from other passes. spray output will result in: D. Distance between the outermost or widest A. More pesticide active ingredient applied points of application across the entire swath. per acre. 7. An aircraft sprays 20.2 gallons per minute. How B. Less pesticide active ingredient applied many minutes of spraying time are needed to per acre. spray out 147 gallons of spray mixture? C. An increase in the pesticide flow volume. A. 6.8 D. A decrease in the pesticide flow volume. B. 7.3 4. If 1700 ounces of material is collected from C. 8.5 nozzles on a helicopter spray boom in 90 D. 9.0 seconds, what is the total flow volume in gallons per minute? 8. Given an application rate of 11.3 gallons per A. 4.42 acre, how many acres can be sprayed with 147 gallons of spray mixture? B. 8.85 C. 13.28 A. 11 D. 17.70 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14

Calibrating Aerial Application Equipment 79 9. If an aircraft treats 14 acres per tank of spray 10. How many acres are in a rectangular field that mixture, how many pints of pesticide liquid measures 620 feet by 1280 feet? should be put into the spray tank to apply at a A. 16.1 volume of 1.5 pints per acre? B. 18.2 A. 11 C. 22.8 B. 15 D. 28.8 C. 21 D. 24

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

80 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6

Making an Aerial Pesticide Application

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Reading this chapter will help you understand: • Safe ferrying techniques. • What to check when arriving at the application site. • How to recognize and work with weather at the application site. • Different types of application patterns. • Special considerations when applying granules.

The reasons for following proper • Fly an effective application pattern aerial pesticide application methods and make safe and efficient turns are to make precise, safe, and legal and passes. aerial applications consistently and to • Recognize the atmospheric factors minimize the off-target movement of that influence the stability and pesticide droplets. Proper application maneuverability of the aircraft. methods include knowing how to: • Use DGPS or other guidance • Recognize the factors and condi- systems. tions that contribute to off-target pesticide drift and other offsite Agricultural aircraft are highly movement, and know how to visible and noisy, and as a result, some minimize off-target pesticide drift people view aerial pesticide applications and other offsite movement. as nuisances or hazards. The sight of an aircraft flying low over fields is a serious • Safely ferry the aircraft between and sometimes anxiety producing home base, the loading site, and concern for some. When you make the application site. aerial applications, be aware of these • Inspect the application site and concerns and, when necessary, be sure surrounding areas for hazards to acknowledge them by taking steps to before beginning the application. foster better communication with the public. Notify people in the area about • Watch for hazards throughout the a planned application and make efforts application operation. to mitigate noise in areas where people

making an aerial pesticide application 81 live and work during ferrying or appli- the day requires that you and ground cation operations. crew members be alert and mentally Preflight, departure, and appli- prepared immediately for the complex- cation checklists are useful tools ities of the operation—with no time to for you, ground crew members, and bring the operation up to maximum others involved in an aerial application performance gradually. Likewise, the operation (see Pages 85 and 86 for pilot last flight of the day must not be rushed and ground crew checklists). These or compromised in any way in order checklists help anyone involved in the to finish quickly—it requires the same operation to organize and manage their attention, care, and time as every other responsibilities and they help to assure flight during that day. However, the that the operation is safe and effective. first flight of the day is the best time For you and the ground crew, the to schedule jobs that are more difficult first and last runs of the day often call since you and the ground crew are for extra attention. The first flight of more rested.

ferrying

When traveling with an empty or full aircraft between the loading area and the application site, fly at an altitude of at least 500 feet above the surface and keep at least 500 feet away from people or personal property. Make every effort to avoid flying over buildings, residential areas, parks or playgrounds, penned animals, and other areas where people or livestock may be present. If the operation requires many trips back Tom Hoffmann—Washington State Department of Agriculture into an area, avoid taking the same tends to minimize the audio and visual route each time. Instead, vary the flight impact of the flights, as opposed to route by one-eighth to one-fourth mile repeatedly flying the same route and during each trip to avoid repeated passes subjecting the same people to the same over the same surroundings. This tactic level of distraction.

checking the application site

Upon arrival at an application site, fly • Crops adjacent to the application an initial inspection pass to verify that: site match those identified on the • Local weather conditions are work order—if in doubt, verify suitable for the prescribed aerial the type of crop with the grower application work. before beginning an application. • Agricultural workers, spectators, • All members of the ground crew trespassers, and others, including assigned to this operation are their vehicles and equipment, are present and ready to begin their not within or immediately adjacent duties. to the application area, especially • The communication link between down-wind of the site. you, the ground crew, and the • Livestock are not in the appli- base location is functioning cor- cation area or adjacent areas rectly and that you have a working where they may come in contact backup communication plan in with the spray. case of equipment failure.

82 CHAPTER 6 • The aircraft DGPS system, if formers. Transformers usually have equipped, is properly functioning. branch wires leading to a house, shop, well, or other structure. A guy wire will If you note any conditions in the application site or adjacent areas that the normally be placed on the opposite side pesticide label does not permit or that of a pole from a branch wire or at the you consider unsafe, and these condi- pole where a main line makes a turn. tions cannot be resolved quickly, abort Branch wires may be obscured or dif- the operation and return to your home ficult to see, so look for a cross arm base. If the area is clear and conditions going in a different direction from the favor an application, circle the field at main wires. If any structures are near a very low altitude, but high enough to the treatment area, look for wires that clear all obstructions by at least 50 feet. provide electrical power and telephone Look for utility poles, guy wires, high service to them. tension power lines and other types Consider the possibility that condi- of utility lines, and other obstructions tions may have changed since someone such as trees, buildings, windmills, made previous inspections or aerial radio antennas, road signs, pipeline applications to this particular field. markers, and fences that are in or near For instance, crops in fields adjacent the treatment area. Carefully check to the application site may be different around trees that may conceal power from those noted on the work order. lines or other obstacles. Look for breaks If this is the case, confirm the appli- in the normal cultivation or planting cation site location. Also, new buildings pattern that may indicate the presence or wells may have necessitated new of power lines or other hazards. Poles, power poles, or the utility company high fences, or other obstructions may may have relocated some power lines. prevent cultivation of weeds or other Sometimes the height of the planted vegetative growth in these areas, so crop or trees may have changed since look for vegetative clues indicating the a previous application. For example, presence of obstructions that may oth- it may have been possible to fly under erwise blend into the background. certain wires in the spring when a crop After circling the field and noting was first planted, but not possible later obvious hazards, fly just above and to in the year when the crop is taller. In one side along power lines and tele- addition, heat causes wires to expand phone wires and check each pole. Look and therefore hang lower to the ground for branch wires, guy wires, and trans- during hot summer days.

what to watch for during an application

Conditions at an application site or surrounding areas may change during the course of an application. For this reason, be constantly alert and keep in contact with someone on the ground at the site. Monitor Changes Changes that may affect the safety or effectiveness of the opeation include the following: Weather Wind speed may increase or decrease or the wind direction may change, creating hazards of drift or John Mateski—Newberg, OR

making an aerial pesticide application 83 Carol Ramsay—Washington State University contamination of sensitive areas. spotting people in the area and helping Alternatively, wind may stop altogether, them to leave quickly. increasing the chances of a temperature inversion condition. The weather may Service People and Others worsen and turn to rain, requiring Various people occasionally have postponement or cancellation of reasons to enter fields or pass through the application. Some pesticides are them as part of their job responsibilities. restricted to applications at times when This includes electric meter readers, temperatures remain below a certain delivery services, people called to make level—if the temperature at ground repairs on equipment, irrigation district level rises above this point, plants may personnel, mosquito control district suffer damage (phytotoxicity) from the personnel, and others. In addition, spray material. Certain pesticide labels some people enjoy walking or running may have humidity restrictions for through rural property, often without application. the permission of the landowner, and may be unaware of the hazards. The Hazards ground crew can assist in spotting and Previously unidentified hazards warning anyone attempting to enter the may become apparent to either you or application site and escort them out of the ground crew, requiring that you the area for their own safety. stop or modify the application at that site. This might include the discovery Importance of Onsite of livestock in the area or a work crew Ground Crew During an arriving to work in an adjacent field or Application nearby. There may also be communi- Each on-site ground crew member cation from the property manager or needs to be able to communicate others with concerns about hazards. directly with you, providing site- Field Workers specific details of current weather conditions, topographical features, Field workers may inadvertently location and dimensions of ground- walk or drive into an area being sprayed based hazards, buffer zone locations, or people working in adjacent fields and other information about hazards unaware of the application operation or sensitive areas. Duties of an on-site could pass through or walk into the ground crew member typically include: field under treatment. In both cases, the operation is required to stop until • Acting as a liaison between you everyone is safely out of the area. This and the property manager to emphasizes the importance and use- ensure aerial application obliga- fulness of ground crew members in tions are met. 84 CHAPTER 6 PILOT CHECKLIST

Things to consider before, during, and after any application. • Inspect the aircraft and all of its safety equipment and your personal safety equipment for proper operation and usable condition. • Be sure the aircraft’s onboard fire extinguisher is in working condition and has a readable inspection tag. • Confirm that the correct pesticide material is mixed with the proper amount of water and put into the aircraft’s spray tank by the ground crew by rechecking the pesticide label and counting the number of empty containers. • Wear an approved safety helmet, long-sleeved shirt, long pants, shoes, socks, and, when out of the cockpit, the other required personal protective equipment specified on the pesticide label or in regulation. • If possible, avoid mixing and loading activities to reduce chances of bringing pesticide residue into the aircraft’s cockpit. • Check the field and surrounding area before applying pesticides to be sure there are no animals, humans, crops, waterways, streams, or ponds that might be injured or contaminated either by direct application or drift. • Whenever possible, avoid flying through the suspended spray of a previous pass. • Stop the application and return at another time if winds rise or other adverse weather conditions develop and create a drift hazard; also stop the application if the wind is too calm, usually less than 2 mph. • Never turn on dispersal equipment or check the flow volume except while over the area you are treating. • Refuse to fly if the customer requires having any pesticide applied in a manner and at a time that may create a hazard to crops, humans, animals, and the surrounding environment. • Make sure every application of a pesticide follows a valid label for a listed crop or site and that the label has no prohibition for application by air. • Read the label and know the hazardous characteristics of the pesticides. • Using a smoke generator or other device, estimate how far and in what direction some of the chemical may move away from the application site. • Never spray over a flagger, other handlers, or anyone else working in the area. • After making an application, if you notice any equipment malfunction or problems, securely fasten a note in the cockpit to alert other pilots and the maintenance crew. • Prepare and keep accurate application records.

making an aerial pesticide application 85 GROUND CREW CHECKLIST

Instruct members of the ground crew to take several precautions before, during, and after any application. • Using extreme care when handling pesticides or cleaning the aircraft or other contaminated equipment. • Reading the labels of all pesticides being mixed and wearing label- or regulation-required work clothing and personal protective equipment. • Insuring that the correct pesticides are properly diluted and mixed before loading into the aircraft’s spray tank. • Tightly securing tanks and hoppers so the pesticides will not blow back over the pilot or the cockpit. • Closing and securing the hopper and covering it as soon as loading is completed. • Removing any pesticide spilled around the aircraft tank fill opening. • Not standing in runoff water and avoiding splashes. • Changing out of work clothing and washing thoroughly at the end of the work day after handling pesticides, washing the aircraft, or cleaning contaminated equipment. • Assisting in preparing and keeping application records. The ground crew should also be familiar with the pilot’s checklist.

• Preventing individuals from • Assisting you in pretreatment entering the site, both imme- target area inspection. diately prior to and during the application operation. • Acting as an in-field reference point for you to identify swath • Immediately reporting the boundaries. presence of unauthorized individuals in the treatment site to • Providing emergency response and you and the on-site field crew summoning emergency services in supervisor or leader. case of a crash incident.

APPLICATION METHODS

Use safe flying procedures during all methods discussed in this manual to phases of the application operation. avoid off-target pesticide drift. Visually Never take risks for the thrills at the check the spray or granule discharge expense of good judgment or safety. To while making applications to spot appli- ensure that the pesticide application cation problems. will be effective, follow label use direc- Straight, parallel passes produce tions and requirements in the label and the most uniform spray pattern. Use regulations. Avoid off-target pesticide a reliable method, such as DGPS, to drift or other off-target movement of mark each swath to ensure uniform the pesticide material. Adhere to the coverage and to avoid excessive overlap

86 CHAPTER 6 or gaps. Whenever possible, make passes perpendicular or at a 45 degree angle to the wind direction to assist in overlap and coverage uniformity. Begin treatments on the downwind side of the treatment site to minimize flying through spray suspended in the air from previous swaths. Also, try to make application passes parallel to the GROUND EFFECT longest dimension of the treated area CAUSED BY FLYING to reduce the number of turnarounds. TOO LOW To prevent spray from contacting sensitive areas, or to avoid flying or turning over residences and other sensitive areas, you may need to wait off target drift because the droplets are for more favorable conditions or alter closer to the ground, however flying the application pattern in relation to too low may cause uneven streaking prevailing wind direction and even due to not allowing enough time for contrary to logical field layout. For the spray pattern to fill in. Flying too instance, consider a rectangular field low over bare ground or over short having its longest width running east crops may produce a ground effect and west. Because the wind is from that forces air displaced by the aircraft the north, it would appear logical to to move upward from the ground. make east-west passes. However, on Ground effect occurs when the aircraft the eastern border of the field is a road is less than ¾ the wing or rotor span with houses on the other side of this from the ground. This upward moving road. East-west passes require making air entraps and lifts some of the spray turns over the road and houses. In this and contributes to off-target pesticide situation, make shorter, north-south movement. Trees and other plants with passes over the field—even though this dense foliage may lower the ground requires making more turns. effect risk. Application altitude also depends Application Speed on atmospheric conditions. It is Maintain constant airspeed, common for an aircraft to fly higher consistent with the calibration of in calm conditions and lower when the aircraft, during each pass of the wind is higher. As the aircraft gets an application. Variations in speed lower, the induced drag decreases, during an application may result in reducing drift. Wing tip vortices, uneven coverage unless you are using which will increase drift, are dependent an electronic flow volume controller on aircraft configuration, speed, and to compensate for speed changes. weight. Slower and heavier aircraft will Flying crosswind or 45 degrees to the have larger wing tip vortices due to crosswind during an application avoids increased induced drag. the adverse effects of head- and tail- Keep the application height con- winds on the application volume. stant during each application pass to maintain the effective swath width Altitude that you determined during calibration Notwithstanding legal require- of the dispersal equipment. Failure to ments in the label, in law, or in do so will result in difficulty obtaining regulation, the type of pesticide you uniform coverage. apply usually determines application altitude. For example, liquid pesticides Obstructions are most effective and off-target drift is If you encounter obstructions at less of a problem when you make appli- the beginning or end of a swath run, cations 8 to 12 feet above the crop or turn the spray on or shut it off one or tree canopy. Flying lower will reduce two swath-widths from the beginning or making an aerial pesticide application 87 end of the field. Then, when you finish widths before reaching the obstruction. all parallel swaths, fly one or two swaths Pull up and fly over the obstruction. crosswise to the rest of the application Then, make a 180-degree turn before direction to finish out the field. Never dropping in to spray, approaching the disperse materials while dropping in obstacle from the other direction. This or pulling out of a field because this will allow better control of the aircraft’s distorts the deposition pattern. Should speed and will avoid overshooting the this happen, the pesticide will be more other side. Complete the application by likely to drift or concentrate in a small spraying one or two swath widths on area. If there are obstructions along the each side of the obstacle, perpendicular sides of a field, fly parallel and as close to the previous swaths. The second to the obstruction as is safe. For safety, method is to stop spraying and pull up leave an untreated buffer strip adjacent as you approach the obstacle, make a to buildings, residences, livestock areas, 360° turn, fly over the obstacle, drop bodies of water, and other sensitive areas. down, and continue spraying. There are two methods for When a high enough wire crosses working around trees, poles, or other a swath that has trees at one end, fly obstructions in the middle of a field. under the wire if possible, and then pull One is to treat them in the same up and fly over the trees. This is safer manner as if they were at the end of the than entering the field over trees and field: stop spraying one or two swath then passing under the wire.

flight patterns

One flight pattern for aerial application pattern, applying swaths over the target is the adjacent swath or back and forth in straight, parallel lines. In areas that

WIND DIRECTION

RACETRACK PATTERN

BACK AND FORTH PATTERN

88 CHAPTER 6 are too rugged for uniform altitude and a stall. Poorly executed turnarounds speed, follow the contours of the slopes cause a considerable number of aerial during application passes. In hilly application accidents. In addition, terrain, or where hills or mountains poorly executed turnarounds do not confine the application area and do not allow time for proper positioning for permit contour flying, make all passes the next swath and may result in uneven in one direction, down slope. Upslope applications. spraying can be dangerous. When completing a swath run, Usually, the racetrack pattern is pull up, clear any obstructions, and level the most energy-efficient. This pattern off before starting a turnaround. After maximizes application time and lessens pull up, make a wide enough initial turn the time required for turns. It also downwind that will provide sufficient allows time for the spray to settle, room for a smooth turn around. Then reducing the chance of flying through level off for several seconds before com- it. This pattern often minimizes pilot pleting the turn back into the treatment fatigue. Whether flying a racetrack or area. This provides ample time for the back and forth pattern, it is important turn, prevents crowding the turn, and to start and stop spraying at the right reduces the chance of a stall spin. Many time when entering or leaving the field. factors affect the number of seconds Starting too soon or stopping too late needed in level flight before completing causes spray to be applied to off target the turn, including swath spacing, areas. Starting too late or stopping too speed and direction of the wind, air soon may result in improper coverage density, altitude, and the load weight, to field ends. power, and maneuverability of the aircraft. Attentiveness to these factors and The Turnaround careful timing during this final stage of When flying back and forth the turnaround are the keys to avoiding or racetrack swaths in a fixed-wing the hazards associated with fast or aircraft, be careful when executing intricate maneuvering. Always com- turnarounds. This is because a pull up plete the turnaround before dropping followed by a turn renders a low-speed, in over any obstructions on the next high-drag condition that could lead to swath run approach.

LET DOWN

LET PULL DOWN UP ANOTHER METHOD PULL UP

PROPER TURNAROUND

TURN IS TOO TIGHT DOES NOT ALLOW TIME PULL UP AND LET DOWN TAKES FOR POSITIONING PLACE INSIDE FIELD

IMPROPER TURNAROUND

making an aerial pesticide application 89 CORRECT APPLICATION HEIGHT APPLICATION IS TOO LOW

Avoid snapping reversal or wing rials and aircraft, this is in the range over turns. When making a turn by of 45 to 70 feet. Effective height is going upwind first requires more determined by the lateral distance the space and time to complete the turn. spreader throws the heavier particles. Any turning while dispensing a spray Flying below this height allows particles or granules distorts the distribution to hit the ground while still traveling in pattern resulting in uneven application the lateral direction. Flying above this of the pesticide. Whenever possible, height achieves no increase in swath avoid making turnarounds over resi- width because particles fall vertically dences and other buildings, penned after the lateral energy dissipates. poultry or livestock, livestock watering Do not fly any higher than necessary places, ponds, reservoirs, or other because this increases problems with bodies of water. Avoiding these areas swath displacement. mitigates or minimizes nuisance from Maintain the flying height, air- noise or sight of the aircraft. speed, and correct ground track as constant as possible to obtain uniform Applying Granules results. Crosswinds have considerable Airspeeds of 100 to 120 mph or effect on offsetting the dispersal faster (depending on the type of air- pattern from the ground track cen- craft) for some fixed-wing aircraft, but terline because of the higher-flying slower for rotary-wing aircraft, are height required for granules. Head- recommended when applying granules. or tailwinds affect ground speed, These speeds maintain good airflow therefore, making adjustments in flow through the spreader and obtain proper volume and/or airspeed can improve distribution and maximum swath width. uniform distribution on alternating upwind-downwind passes. An onboard Application Height DGPS unit linked to a flow controller The maximum swath width at a simplifies this process by providing certain height above the crop varies automatic in-flight regulation of the with the density, size, and grading of dispersal system output as airspeed the granule particles. For most mate- changes.

Factors Influencing the Aircraft

Density altitude as well as local weather Weather conditions such as wind can conditions and load weight can affect affect the stability and handling of the the stability and maneuverability of an aircraft and contribute to uneven swaths aircraft during an application operation. and off-target pesticide drift.

90 CHAPTER 6 ESTIMATING DENSITY ALTITUDE

The following is a fairly accurate and easy-to-remember general rule for determining the density altitude at locations above sea level: • Standard temperature at sea level is 59ºF. For elevations above sea level, subtract 3.5 degrees per thousand feet of elevation from the sea level temperature of 59ºF. • For each 10ºF above standard temperature at any particular elevation, add 600 feet to the field elevation. For each 10ºF below standard temperature, subtract 600 feet.

Here is an example. The elevation at the application site is 2,342 feet. 1. Divide the elevation by 1,000.

2,342 = 2.342 1,000

2. Multiply 2.342 by 3.5.

2.342 × 3.5 = 8.197

3. Subtract 8.197 from the sea level standard temperature of 59ºF.

59 - 8.197 = 50.803

4. The standard temperature at the application site is 50.8ºF. In this example, assume that the current temperature at the application site is 97ºF. Subtract the standard temperature at the application site from this.

97 - 50.8 = 46.2

5. Divide this difference by 10 degrees (for each 10ºF above standard). 46.2 = 4.62 10 6. Multiply 4.62 by 600 (600 feet per 10 degrees).

4.62 × 600 = 2,772

7. Add this correction factor of 2,772 feet to the field elevation of 2,342 feet at the application site.

2,772 + 2,342 = 5,114

The density altitude for the application site when the temperature is 97ºF is 5,114 feet. This means that you should handle the aircraft at the application site as you would on a standard day at 5,114 feet elevation.

making an aerial pesticide application 91 Humidity also affects available effects of density altitude can even engine power and aircraft performance appear in low altitude areas, such as because higher humidity is an increase near sea level, when the air temperature in water content of air, displacing goes above standard (59ºF). Takeoff dis- oxygen that is vital for optimum engine tance, available engine horsepower, and internal combustion. For example, at climb rate are all adversely affected. For 96ºF, the water vapor content of the air an aircraft loaded with spray material or can be as much as eight times greater granules, an increase in density altitude than it is at 42ºF. High humidity can results in: reduce the available engine power • Increased takeoff distance. needed for takeoff and climbs as well as maneuvers needed for pull-ups and • Reduced rate of climb. turnarounds during applications. • Increased true airspeed on approach and landing. Density Altitude • Increased landing roll distance. Density altitude is a condition where air molecules spread or thin out, • Limited service ceiling of the air- becoming less dense, changing aircraft craft while en route. flight characteristics such as lift and Density altitude limits the perfor- maneuverability. In addition, thinner mance capabilities of the aircraft, but is air means that less oxygen is available not a height reference and should not be for optimum engine performance and confused with pressure altitude, indi- this reduces horsepower unless the cated altitude, true altitude, or absolute aircraft has a turbocharged engine. altitude. Factors that influence the density of In high elevation areas, usually air molecules include pressure (the between mid-morning and mid- effect of altitude) and temperature. The afternoon, high temperatures higher the altitude, the less dense air sometimes have such an effect on becomes because the air molecules are density altitude that normally safe further apart, leaving fewer molecules aerial application operations become to provide lift for the aircraft. Warmer extremely hazardous. Very high tem- air temperature also causes air mol- peratures at lower elevations can also ecules to move further apart, making affect aircraft performance, making it the air less dense as well. necessary to reduce the weight of the Density altitude, as well as high pesticide load for safer flight. During air temperatures, affects the stability periods of high temperatures, it may be and maneuverability of the aircraft safer to make applications during early for making applications, takeoffs, and mornings, when temperatures generally landings. It also changes stall thresholds are lower. However, early mornings are and influences the ability to perform typical times for temperature inversion maneuvers such as turns and rolls. The conditions in many areas.

92 CHAPTER 6 Operation S.A.F.E.

(Self Regulating Application and Flight Efficiency) one U.S. Department of Agriculture scientist characterized the growing public concern over possible effects of spray drift by stating: “Drift control is the key to sur- vival of aerial application in agriculture.” In response to this concern, members of the National Agricultural Aviation Association (NAAA), the organization of professional aerial applicators and pilots, developed Operation S.A.F.E. The word S.A.F.E., important in any pilot's vocabulary, is an acronym for Self-Regulating Application and Flight Efficiency. The intent of Operation S.A.F.E. is to clearly demonstrate that ag aviation recog- nizes its responsibility to minimize the potential for adverse health and environmental effects of agricultural chemical application. The program was approved by the NAAA Board of Directors in 1981. Because the performance of one aerial applicator reflects on all others, participation in Operation S.A.F.E. is not limited to NAAA members. Any licensed operator or agricultural aviator is welcome to participate in Operation S.A.F.E. In order to qualify for the S.A.F.E. emblem, the participant must be a current member of the NAAA. Operation S.A.F.E. is a comprehensive program of education, professional analysis of application, and commitment to the principles outlined by the NAAA Board of Directors. NAAA is convinced that full implementation of Operation S.A.F.E. offers substantial advantages to the operator, customers, and the producers of chemicals applied by air. These advantages are found in economy of operation and application, as well as in increased safety and reduced health and environmental concerns. The backbone of Operation S.A.F.E. is the Professional Application Analysis Clinic—the Operation S.A.F.E. Fly-In. Professional application analysis clinics are a key part of Operation S.A.F.E. Participation in an NAAA-approved swath analysis equipment, under the direction of an authorized analyst, is essential to qualify for the Operation S.A.F.E. emblem. The emblem is affixed to an individual aircraft only when the aircraft, its pilot, and the operator have each met Operation S.A.F.E. guidelines. Fly-ins have long been a popular activity among pilots. Their objectives traditionally range from getting together to swap experience and stories to socializing. However, among ag pilots, fly-ins have long been seen as a learning experience, an opportunity to improve their own performance and increase their professionalism. The key to the effectiveness— and acceptance—of aerial application is the spray pattern of the aircraft itself and the dedication of operators to its accuracy. Swath study and analysis have been a part of aerial application since the first plane dusted an Ohio catalpa grove in 1921. Since that time, scientists from land grant universities and private corporations, and aerial applicators have been active in improving the state-of-the-art of aerial application. Chemical manufacturers have worked on chemical (continued on next page) Paul Newby—Bozeman, MT

making an aerial pesticide application 93 formulations and additives to improve the pilot's ability to put the product on the target. Today, equipment is available to provide the operator a precise picture of swath characteristics, and to provide it quickly. Thus, the Operation S.A.F.E. fly-in becomes a professional application analysis clinic. The Operation S.A.F.E. clinic gives the operator and pilot the opportunity to test equipment with a trained analyst to help interpret the information and to recommend changes to improve performance. A follow-up test is immediately available, so the operator can be certain improvement does exist. NAAA expects all applicators to remain informed of and comply with all pertinent legal requirements. In addition, participating applicators agree to submit voluntarily to an inspection of their equipment and operating procedures to determine: • Compliance with manufacturers’ mixing rates, application recommendations, and label requirements of agricultural chemicals. • Adequacy of safety procedures in storing and handling agricultural chemicals. • Compliance with flight safety procedures. The NAAA urges every operator and pilot to participate in an Operation S.A.F.E. clinic yearly. Check with your state ag aviation association to see when a clinic will be offered in the area. Display the Operation S.A.F.E. sticker and yearly decals on the aircraft with pride. Let customers know that you have taken advantage of this opportunity to check equipment and refresh your skills prior to taking on their job.

94 CHAPTER 6 Review Questions

CHAPTER 6: Making an Aerial Pesticide Application

1. The last application flight of the day: 5. Ferrying flights that pass over areas where people live or work should: A. Is more relaxed and requires less attention. B. Is not as important as other flights of the A. Follow the same route in each direction for day. all trips. C. Requires the same attention as every other B. Be varied by 1/8 to 1/4 mile for each trip. flight. C. Follow the same route each time to the field, D. Should be to the most challenging field of but vary the route when returning to base. that day’s operation. D. Follow a different route each time to the field, but use the same route for each return 2. Varying the application speed without changing to base. flow volume during an application will: 6. Breaks seen in the normal cultivation patterns A. Provide a more even application. of a field may alert the pilot to: B. Accommodate for wind direction changes. A. Changes in soil type. C. Result in uneven coverage. B. Problems with field cultivation equipment. D. Increase off-target drift potential. C. Hidden hazards. 3. The application pattern that helps to avoid D. Changes in the needed application volume. flying through spray from a previous swath is the: 7. Too wide or too narrow overlapping of spray A. Race track pattern. passes will result in: B. Back and forth pattern. A. Flight hazards. C. Alternate swath pattern. B. Increased chances of off-target drift. D. Upslope pattern. C. Uneven application patterns. D. Disabling of the DGPS system. 4. Ferrying flights must be made at an altitude of at least: 8. To avoid the adverse effect of headwinds A. 8 to 10 feet. or tailwinds on an application volume, you should fly: B. 100 feet. C. 500 feet. A. Into the wind. D. 1500 feet. B. Against the wind at all times. C. Back and forth, alternating between into the wind and against the wind. D. Crosswind or 45 degrees to the crosswind.

making an aerial pesticide application 95 9. Which of the following would have little 10. The problem with flying too low when making effect on the safety and effectiveness of a granule application is that: an application if changes occur during the A. Granules are still moving vertically at lower operation? heights. A. Moving the operation to a different mixing- B. Granules are still moving horizontally at loading location. lower heights. B. Wind intensity increases. C. Even granule dispersal is affected by the C. Delaying the application until field workers ground effect at lower heights. leave the area. D. Propwash has a greater effect on granules at D. Leaving a buffer area adjacent to a sensitive lower heights. area.

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS ON PAGE 97

96 CHAPTER 6 Review Question Answers

Chapter 1 1. b Chapter 4 1. d 2. d 2. c 3. b 3. c 4. a 4. b 5. d 5. c 6. a 6. b 7. c 7. c 8. a 8. b 9. b 9. a 10. c 10. c

Chapter 2 1. a Chapter 5 1. c 2. b 2. c 3. d 3. b 4. c 4. b 5. a 5. a 6. a 6. c 7. c 7. b 8. d 8. c 9. d 9. c 10. c 10. b

Chapter 3 1. c Chapter 6 1. c 2. b 2. c 3. c 3. a 4. a 4. c 5. c 5. b 6. d 6. c 7. b 7. c 8. c 8. d 9. d 9. a 10. c 10. b

Review Question answers 97 appendix 1

pesticide regulatory agency contact information

Alabama District of Columbia Plant Protection and Pesticide Management Section Department of Health Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries Environmental Health Administration P.O. Box 3336 Toxic Substance Division Montgomery, AL 36109-0336 Pesticide Program (334) 240-7236 51 N Street NE, 3rd Floor, Room 3003 Washington, DC 20002 Alaska (202) 535-2280 Environmental Health Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation Florida 555 Cordova Department of Agricultural Environmental Services Anchorage, AK 99501-2617 Florida Department of Agriculture and (907) 269-1099 Consumer Services Arizona 3125 Conner Blvd - Suite F, Room 130 - C16 Tallahassee, FL 32399-1650 Environmental Services Division (850) 488-3731 Arizona Department of Agriculture 1688 West Adams Street Georgia Phoenix, AZ 85007-2617 (602) 542-3575 Plant Industry Division Georgia Department of Agriculture Arkansas Capitol Square Arkansas State Plant Board Atlanta, GA 30334-4201 P.O. Box 1069 (404) 656-1265 Little Rock, AR 72203-1069 (501) 225-1598 Hawaii Plant Industry Division California Hawaii Department of Agriculture California Department of Pesticide Regulation 1428 South King Street 1001 I Street Honolulu, HI 96814-2512 P.O. Box 4015 (808) 973-9535 Sacramento, CA 95812-4015 (916) 445-4000 Idaho Division of Agricultural Resources Canada Idaho Department of Agriculture Pest Management Regulatory Agency P.O. Box 790 Health Canada Boise, ID 83701-0790 2720 Riverside Drive D765 (208) 332-8531 Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9 Canada Illinois (613) 736-3662 Bureau of Environmental Programs Illinois Department of Agriculture Colorado P.O. Box 19281 Division of Plant Industry Springfield, IL 62794-9281 Colorado Department of Agriculture (217) 785-2427 700 Kipling Street, Suite 4000 Lakewood, CO 80215-8000 Indiana (303) 239-4138 Indiana State Chemist Office Connecticut 175 South University Street Waste Engineering and Enforcement Division Purdue University Department of Environmental Protection West Lafayette, IN 47907-2063 79 Elm Street (765) 494-1492 Hartford, CT 06106-5127 (860) 424-3264 Iowa Consumer Protection and Industry Services Division Delaware Iowa Department of Agriculture and Delaware Department of Agriculture Land Stewardship 2320 South Dupont Highway Wallace Building, 502 East 9th Street Dover, DE 19901-5515 Des Moines, IA 50319-0051 (302) 698-4570 (515) 281-8610 98 appendix 1 Kansas Montana Kansas Department of Agriculture Agricultural Sciences Division 901 South Kansas Avenue Montana Department of Agriculture Topeka, KS 66612-1281 P.O. Box 200201 (785) 296-3556 Helena, MT 59620-0201 (406) 444-2944 Kentucky Division of Consumer and Environmental Protection Nebraska Kentucky Department of Agriculture Nebraska Department of Agriculture 107 Corporate Drive Bureau of Plant Industry Frankfort, KY 40601-1108 301 Centennial Mall (502) 573-0282 P.O. Box 94756 Louisiana Lincoln, NE 68509-4756 Pesticide and Environmental Programs (402) 471-2394 Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry Nevada P.O. Box 3596 Division of Plant Industry Baton Rouge, LA 70821-3596 Nevada Department of Agriculture (225) 925-3763 350 Capital Hill Avenue Reno, NV 89502-2923 Maine (775) 688-1182 Board of Pesticides Control Maine Department of Agriculture New Hampshire 28 State House Station Division of Pesticide Control Augusta, ME 04333-0028 New Hampshire Department of Agriculture, (207) 287-2731 Markets, and Food P.O. Box 2042 Maryland Concord, NH 03302-2042 Office of Plant Industries and Pest Management (603) 271-3640 50 Harry S. Truman Parkway Annapolis, MD 21401-7080 New Jersey (410) 841-5870 Pesticide Control Massachusetts Coastal and Land Use Enforcement New Jersey Department of Environmental Division of Regulatory Services Protection Massachusetts Department of Agricultural P.O. Box 411 Resources Trenton, NJ 08625-0411 251 Causeway Street, Suite 500 (609) 984-2011 Boston, MA 02114-0009 (617) 626-1771 New Mexico Michigan Division of Agricultural and Environmental Services Pesticide and Plant Pest Management Division New Mexico Department of Agriculture Michigan Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 30005, Department 3AQ P.O. Box 30017 Las Cruces, NM 88003-8005 Lansing, MI 48909-7517 (505) 646-2133 (517) 373-4087 New York Minnesota Division of Solid and Hazardous Materials Pesticide and Fertilizer Management Division New York State Department of Environmental Minnesota Department of Agriculture Conservation 625 Robert Street North 625 Broadway, 9th Floor St. Paul, MN 55155-2538 Albany, NY 122337250 (651) 201-6615 (518) 402-8651 Mississippi North Carolina Bureau of Plant Industry Structural Pest Control and Pesticides Division Mississippi Department of Agriculture and North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Commerce Consumer Services P.O. Box 5207 1090 Mail Service Center Mississippi State, MS 39762-5207 Raleigh, NC 27699-1090 (662) 325-8789 (919) 733-3556 Missouri North Dakota Plant Industries Division Plant Industries Missouri Department of Agriculture North Dakota Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 630 600 East Boulevard, 6th Floor Jefferson City, MO 65102-0630 Bismarck, ND 58505-0020 (573) 751-2462 (701) 328-4756

APPENDIX 1 99 Ohio Texas Division of Plant Industry Texas Department of Agriculture Ohio Department of Agriculture Pesticide Programs Division 8995 East Main Street P.O. Box 12847 Reynoldsburg, OH 43068-3399 Austin, TX 78711-2847 (614) 728-6383 (512) 463-7504 Oklahoma Utah Consumer Protection Services Division Utah Department of Agriculture and Food Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food, and 350 North Redwood Road Forestry P.O. Box 146500 P.O. Box 528804 Salt Lake City, UT 84114-6500 Oklahoma City, OK 73152-8804 (405) 522-5879 (801) 538-7180 Vermont Oregon Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets Pesticides Division 116 State Street, Drawer 20 Oregon Department of Agriculture Montpelier, VT 05620-2901 635 Capitol Street, NE (802) 828-2431 Salem, OR 97301-2532 (503) 986-4635 Virgin Islands Division of Environmental Protection Pennsylvania Department of Planning and Natural Resources Bureau of Plant Industry Cyril E. King Airport Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture St. Thomas, VI 00802 2301 North Cameron Street (340) 774-3320 Harrisburg, PA 17110-9408 (717) 772-5217 Virginia Office of Pesticide Services Puerto Rico Virginia Department of Agriculture Analysis and Registration of Agricultural Materials and Consumer Services Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 1163, 102 Governor Street, Room 149 P.O. Box 10163 Richmond, VA 23218-1163 Santurce, PR 00908-1163 (804) 371-6561 (787) 796-1710 Rhode Island Washington Division of Agriculture and Resource Marketing Pesticide Management Division Rhode Island Department of Environmental Washington Department of Agriculture Management P.O. Box 42589 235 Promenade Street Olympia, WA 98504-2589 Providence, RI 02908-5767 (360) 902-2011 (401) 222-2782 West Virginia South Carolina Regulatory and Environmental Affairs Division Regulatory and Public Service Programs West Virginia Department of Agriculture Clemson University 1900 Kanawha Boulevard East 109 B Barre Hall Charleston, WV 25305-0190 Clemson, SC 29634 (304) 558-2208 (864) 656-1234 Wisconsin South Dakota Agriculture Resource Management Division Office of Agronomy Wisconsin Department of Agriculture Division of Agricultural Services Trade and Consumer Protection South Dakota Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 8911 Foss Building, 523 East Capitol Pierre, SD 57501-3182 Madison, WI 53708-8911 (605) 773-4432 (608) 224-4567 Tennessee Wyoming Tennessee Department of Agriculture Technical Services Division of Regulatory Services Wyoming Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 40627, Melrose Station 2219 Carey Avenue Nashville, TN 37204-0627 Cheyenne, WY 82002-0100 (615) 837-5152 (307) 777-6574

100 APPENDIX 1 appendix 2

FAA Requirements for Agricultural Aircraft Operators

The FAA’s approach for evaluating and • Your area of operation. determining your ability to comply with • Location of your home base of Part 137 and other applicable regula- operations. tions focuses on three categories: the pilot, the aircraft, and the operation. • Location of probable satellite sites You must successfully satisfy each of the for your operation. following five phases in the evaluation • Type of operation—private or process to become a certified agricul- commercial. tural aircraft operator: • Your experience with dispensing • Pre-application. pesticides or other agricultural • Formal application. materials. • Whether you are operating as an • Document compliance. individual, a corporation, or a • Demonstration and inspection. partnership. • Certification. • Your previous experience as an agricultural aircraft operator. For complete and helpful information on the process to follow to obtain • Category and class of aircraft you an FAA pilot certification for agricul- are operating (rotary- or fixed- tural operations, refer to FAA Advisory wing). Circular 137-1A—Certification Process • Qualifications and experience of for Agricultural Aircraft Operators. your chief supervisor. You may obtain this document and application forms from the local Flight • Applicability of parts 91 and 137 to Standards District Office (FSDO). For the proposed type of work. the nearest FSDO office, check the FAA • Any previous or pending listing in the United States Government enforcement action pertaining to section of the local telephone directory. you, your management personnel, or chief supervisor. The Pre-Application Process Depending on the size and scope of your proposed operation, you may Pre-application involves an need to prepare a letter of intent as part informal meeting to provide you with of the required documentation for your an overview of the certification process application. When required, the letter and identify the necessary resources of intent must include: helpful to you as you go through the certification process. If you are familiar • The specific type of agricultural with all of the requirements of the agri- aircraft operator certificate for cultural aircraft operation’s certification which you are applying (com- process and the required documentation mercial or private). (e.g., if you have previous experience as • The legal company name of your an agricultural aircraft operator), you company and any “doing business may not need a pre-application meeting. as…” names. During the meeting, an official from the FSDO will determine if you • Address of your home base of meet the eligibility requirements for operations. obtaining an operator certificate by • Primary airport address, mailing asking you about the following: address, and telephone numbers. APPENDIX 2 101 • Type of aircraft proposed for the highest degree of safety. operation. You must provide for inspection at least one certificated and airworthy • The estimated date when opera- aircraft that is equipped for aerial agri- tions or services will begin. cultural work that you will use in your or • The names and addresses of all your employer’s pest control operation. management personnel or chief An Airworthiness Inspector verifies supervisor. that the aircraft is properly certificated and airworthy, its inspection status is • Names of three people you des- current, and it is safe for operation. ignate to provide certificate letters, Inspectors look at five areas during in order of preference. this inspection: • A copy of the articles of incor- • The commercial applicator record poration if the operation is a keeping system being used. corporation. • Methods used for informing Formal Application personnel of their duties and responsibilities. The next step is to fill out and submit three copies of FAA Form • Aircraft condition and airworth- 8710-3—Agricultural Aircraft Operator iness. Certificate Application, along with your • Facilities (if applicable). Letter of Intent (if applicable) and other • Your knowledge and skills. requested documents to the appropriate FAA Flight Standards District Office. If you work as a pilot-in-command You may obtain this form from the local for an agricultural operator, then the FSDO or download it from the FAA web operator or a person designated by that site (http://www.faa.gov) by typing in operator determines your knowledge “FAA Form 8710-3” in the search box. and skills. Once you successfully demonstrate that you have the necessary Document Compliance knowledge and skills, the operator pro- A certification team assigned to you vides you with an endorsement letter. will review your application and asso- Application Record Keeping ciated documents within 30 business days of receiving it. They will notify You must show examples of a you in writing whether the formal record keeping system you have in application is accepted or rejected. If place for your aerial application oper- the application is inaccurate, not com- ation. The law requires you to keep pleted properly, or does not include all these operation records for at least 12 the required documentation, the team months or longer. Since record keeping returns the application to you with a requirements vary by state, check the letter outlining unsatisfactory items. requirements in the state where you You must correct these items before are conducting business. These records your certification process continues. should include the: • Name and address of each person Demonstration and for whom agricultural aircraft ser- Inspection vices were provided. This phase includes inspection of • Date of the service. your facilities and aircraft. The team inspects your home base of operations • Name and quantity of the pes- for compliance with applicable operating ticides and other agricultural procedures. The size and complexity of material dispensed for each operation conducted. your operation determines the extent of the inspection required at your base. • Name, address, and certificate You must demonstrate to inspectors number of each pilot used in agri- that you can conduct operations to the cultural aircraft operations and the 102 APPENDIX 2 date that pilot met the knowledge tions, you must present jettisoning test and skills requirements of 14 CFR data that show the aircraft is equipped § 137.19(e). with a device capable of jettisoning at • Additional information depending least one-half of the aircraft’s maximum on state requirements. authorized load of agricultural materials within 45 seconds. Jettisoning does not Informing Personnel of Their apply to rotary-wing aircraft. Duties and Responsibilities Facilities You must provide inspectors with documentation that shows how you FAA regulations do not specify have informed each person employed in the type of facilities you must have as your agricultural aircraft operation of an agricultural operator. State and local their duties and responsibilities for the regulations and, to some extent, EPA operation. The EPA Worker Protection regulations address requirements for Standard mandate for documenting facilities. The FAA facilities inspection pesticide handler training in agricul- verifies that the practices and proce- tural operations satisfies some of these dures at the base of operations conform requirements. to FAA regulations. Aircraft Knowledge Test An Airworthiness Inspector The Operations Inspector con- inspects the aircraft, aircraft records, ducts a knowledge and skills test during and dispensing equipment. The initial certification. As required by § inspector verifies the following to 137.19(e), you or your designated chief determine the aircraft is safe to conduct supervisor will be the testing candidate. the proposed operation: This requirement applies to applicants who seek either a private or a com- • You have up-to-date and complete mercial operating certificate. aircraft maintenance records. The objective of the knowledge • The aircraft complies with all and skills test is to evaluate the pilots applicable airworthiness direc- in an operation and to assure that they tives. are qualified to act as pilot-in-command • The aircraft meets certification of an agricultural aircraft. A pilot who and airworthiness requirements. was previously qualified under part 137 may not have to take the knowledge and • The aircraft inspection is up-to- skills test if proper documentation is date. available. • The aircraft has approved and The pilot must have adequate properly labeled seat belts and knowledge of the aircraft’s operating shoulder harnesses installed for limitations to be used under the appli- each pilot station. cable requirements contained in 14 CFR part 91, § 91.9. Weight and balance • The aircraft is appropriately information receives special emphasis. equipped for agricultural opera- Knowledge of the aircraft’s perfor- tions. mance capability is required and • If the aircraft is equipped to release includes: the tank or hopper as a unit, it is • Stall speeds at maximum certifi- equipped to prevent inadvertent cated gross weight, straight ahead, release by the pilot or other crew- power off, and flaps up. member. • Best rate and best angle of climb • The aircraft is in a condition for speed. safe operation. • Maneuvering speeds. Should questions arise concerning the load jettisoning capability of the • Density altitude and its effect on aircraft used in congested-area opera- performance. APPENDIX 2 103 • Performance capabilities and oper- Skills Test ating limitations of the aircraft to You perform the skills test with the be used. aircraft’s tanks or hoppers loaded, using • Takeoff distance required to clear a suitable inert material such as water, a 50-foot obstacle at maximum lime, or sand. The examiner evaluates certificated gross weight with zero your piloting skills and operational wind. judgment in the following areas: In addition, you must demonstrate • Ground crew coordination and your knowledge of the following limi- loading procedures. tations and restrictions applicable to • Engine start, warm-up, and taxi agricultural aircraft operations: procedures. • Passenger carrying. • Fixed-wing aircraft short-field • Weight and balance. and soft-field takeoffs, directional control, liftoff, and climb. • Operating without position lights. • Approaches to the working area. • Dispensing in congested areas. • F l a r e o u t . • Not observing standard airport traffic patterns. • Swath runs. • Altitude during ferrying to and • Pull ups and turnarounds. from dispensing sites. • Clean-up swath or trim passes. Before an applicator credential • Jettisoning of remainder of load is awarded for dispensing pesticides, after swath runs in the event of you must demonstrate a thorough in-flight emergency. knowledge of methods to protect a pilot • Rotary-wing aircraft rapid against contamination and methods of deceleration or quick stops. safe pesticide use and handling. The knowledge test may be written or given • Approach, touchdow n, and orally, and consists of the following directional control on landing. subject areas: • Taxi, engine shutdown, and • Steps to take before starting securing of aircraft. operations, including surveying the area to be treated. Certification • Handling pesticides and proper The FAA awards you the disposal of used containers. Agricultural Aircraft Operator’s • Pesticide hazards and precautions Certificate after the FSDO certifi- when handling and applying cation team concludes that you meet pesticides. the qualifications listed above and you demonstrated that you have the nec- • Recognizing symptoms of pesticide essary knowledge and skills or have a exposure, appropriate first aid, and knowledge and skills endorsement from how to contact a poison control the operator of the firm for whom you center. are working. • Safe flight and application procedures. • State-specific laws and regulations.

104 APPENDIX 2 appendix 3

HEAT stress

Heat stress occurs when the body is serious illness. Unless you cool a heat subjected to a level of heat with which it stress victim quickly, he or she can die. cannot cope. With heat stress, the heat, Severe heat stress is fatal to more than not pesticide exposure, causes certain 10 percent of its victims, even young, symptoms. Wearing personal protective healthy adults. Victims may remain sen- equipment—clothing and devices that sitive to heat for months and be unable protect the body from contact with to return to the same type of work. pesticides—can increase the risk of heat Learn the signs and symptoms of stress by limiting the body’s ability to heat stress and take immediate action cool down. to cool yourself or another person down Avoiding Heat Stress if these symptoms appear. Signs and symptoms may include: Several factors work together to cause heat stress. Before beginning a • Fatigue (exhaustion, muscle pesticide-handling task, think about weakness). whether any of the following conditions • Headache, nausea, and chills. are likely to be a problem that might lead to heat stress: • Dizziness and fainting. • Loss of coordination. • Heat factors—temperature, humidity, air movement, and • Severe thirst and dry mouth. sunlight. • Altered behavior (confusion, • Workload—the amount of effort slurred speech, quarrelsome or a task takes. irrational attitude). • Personal protective equipment (PPE). Heat cramps are another type of • Drinking water intake. heat stress. These are painful muscle • Scheduling. spasms in the legs, arms, or stomach caused by loss of body salts through Heat and Workload heavy sweating. To relieve cramps, High temperatures, high humidity, drink cool water. Stretching or and sunlight increase the likelihood of kneading the muscles may temporarily heat stress, although air movement from relieve the cramps. If there is a chance wind or from fans may provide cooling. that stomach cramps are pesticide- Because hard work causes the body to related rather than caused from salt produce heat, a person is more likely loss, get medical help right away. to develop heat stress while working on foot than while driving a vehicle. First Aid for Heat Stress Lifting or carrying heavy containers or It is not always easy to tell the dif- equipment also increases the likelihood ference between heat stress illness and of overheating. pesticide poisoning because many signs Signs and Symptoms of Heat Stress and symptoms are similar. Get medical help right away rather than wasting Heat stress, even in mild forms, time trying to decide what is causing makes a person feel ill and impairs his or the illness. First aid for heat stress her ability to do a good job. They may includes: get tired quickly, feel weak, be less alert, and be less able to use good judgment. • Get the victim into a shaded or Severe heat stress (heat stroke) is a cool area.

APPENDIX 3 105 • Cool the victim as rapidly as pos- • If conscious, have the victim drink sible by sponging or splashing as much cool water as possible. the skin, especially around the face, neck, hands, and forearms, • Keep the victim quiet until help with cool water or, when possible, arrives. immersing in cool water. Severe heat stress (heat stroke) is a • Carefully remove all PPE and any medical emergency. Unless you cool the other clothing that may be making victim immediately, brain damage and the victim hot. death may result.

106 APPENDIX 3 appendix 4

Steps to Follow in Cleaning Up a Pesticide Spill

The following steps should be taken other absorbent to keep the pes- whenever a pesticide spill takes place. ticide confined. Patch the leaking For large spills, contact local authorities container or transfer its contents for assistance in management, pre- to a sound container. vention of injuries, and protection of the environment. • Clean up the spilled pesticide and absorbent and any contaminated • Refer to the pesticide label to objects. Place these materials into determine the PPE required for a sealable and suitable holding cleaning up a spill. container. • Clear the area and keep unpro- • Clearly label containers holding tected people from coming near spilled pesticide and contaminated the spill. soil and other objects. Include the pesticide name, signal word, and • Administer first aid and obtain name of responsible party. medical care for anyone who received, or possibly received, a • Manage the contaminated area. pesticide exposure. Consult the product label and • Prevent fires by extinguishing Material Safety Data Sheet sources of ignition and providing (MSDS) for the particular product. adequate ventilation. Consult with the state regulatory agency on how to properly manage • Control the release. Use any the release and how to properly strtegy available to stop the flow of dispose of recovered product and the spill. other items such as contaminated • Contain the release. Use sand or soil and absorbents.

APPENDIX 4 107 appendix 5

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

A global positioning system (GPS) pro- Space Segment vides one of the most accurate meth-ods The Department of Defense began of navigation for aerial pesticide applica- launching Earth-orbiting GPS satel- tions. A receiver installed in the aircraft lites in February 1989 and completed picks up satellite signals that let you this task in June 1993 with 24 satel- know the speed of the aircraft, direction lites in orbit. Each satellite completes of travel, and its altitude and location. one orbit around the Earth every 12 Because of the usefulness of this infor- hours, remaining in one of six orbital mation, GPS equipment, in most cases, paths. Relative to the Earth’s surface, is an essential tool for precision aerial the six orbital paths are equidistantly application. Recent studies indicate that spaced at 60-degree intervals and each at least 92 percent of agricultural pilots orbital path is inclined approximately in the U.S. use GPS equipment. 55 degrees relative to the Earth’s equa- A GPS receiver uses satellite- torial plane. This satellite arrangement transmitted data to calculate its own enables a GPS user to access between current location. In order to find its five and eight satellites at any one time. exact location, the receiver must simul- taneously detect identification signals Control Segment from four different GPS satellites. The The control segment consists of time it takes signals to travel from three five Earth-based tracking stations. of the GPS satellites form the basis for Stations are located in Hawaii, on the calculations performed by the GPS Ascension Island in the middle of the receiver to determine its three-dimen- South Atlantic Ocean, on the island of sional spatial location. Signals from the Diego Garcia in the middle of the Indian fourth satellite verify time signals from Ocean, on Kwajalein Atoll (2,100 miles the three other satellites. southwest of Hawaii and 1,400 miles The U.S. Department of Defense east of Guam) in the Pacific Ocean, and created the Global Positioning System in Colorado Springs, Colorado. program in 1973. The original intent of The Colorado Springs location this program was to provide a satellite- is the master station. All the tracking based navigational system for military stations monitor the satellites and purposes. Although various aspects of determine precise orbit location data. GPS technology are now readily acces- The Colorado Springs master station sible to the public, the U.S. Department sends corrections for orbital location of Defense continues to fund and and clock data to all satellites in the manage the GPS program. system. This information enables a The Global Positioning System can satellite to send an up-to-date subset rapidly reference any specific location of satellite location and time data to a on Earth. Functionally, the GPS system user’s GPS receiver. consists of three major components or segments: User Segment • Space Segment—a constellation of The user segment is the worldwide 24 Earth-orbiting satellites. total of all GPS receivers currently in service. This includes government, • Control Segment—five Earth- military, and civilian users. Seagoing based satellite monitoring stations. vessels, trains, trucks, mass transit • User Segment—individual GPS busses, cars, farm equipment, motor- signal receivers owned and cycles, commercial airliners, general operated by users. aviation aircraft, and agricultural air-

108 APPENDIX 5 craft use GPS signals for navigation. In receiver, but DGPS technology requires addition, GPS units provide useful data two. One receiver remains fixed at an for many purposes other than navi- accurately surveyed location, and serves gation, such as: as a reference point. Aircraft have the second receivers installed in them. Both • A universal and instantly available of these receivers detect the same C/A- global time reference having signals from orbiting satellites, but the atomic clock accuracy. stationary receiver transmits data to • A basis for precision map con- refine the mobile receiver’s positioning struction. information. Although the stationary receiver cannot determine which par- • A way to precisely measure move- ticular GPS satellites a mobile receiver ments of geological formations. uses, it detects all accessible satellites, • The ability to track all of the indi- computes the timing signal correction vidual vehicles within an entire factor for each, and transmits the cor- fleet, such as with taxicabs or fire rection data to the aircraft’s mobile trucks. receiver, which sorts out the satellite data. • The guidance needed for an air- DGPS providers transmit the cor- craft to execute an accurate and rection signals from stationary GPS safe landing under local zero vis- receivers to mobile receivers over a wide- ibility conditions. range communication network. Two • The ability to provide aircraft transmission methods predominate: speed and location in real time for • FM radio tower beacon (e.g., U.S. agricultural aircraft to automati- Coast Guard Differential GPS cally and continuously regulate Navigation Service; Nationwide spray output as a function of the Differential GPS Service). actual travel speed and position of the aircraft. • Communication satellite relay (e.g., Wide Area Augmentation System Differential GPS (WAAS) and various commercial DGPS services). Each GPS satellite broadcasts signals over two microwave frequency Wide Area Augmentation System channels. One channel carries a strong Because GPS alone did not meet signal that only the military uses. The navigation requirements of the Federal signal of the second channel, known Aviation Administration for accuracy, as the coarse acquisition (C/A) signal, integrity, and availability, the FAA is less robust. This signal is available and the Department of Transportation for nonmilitary GPS use, although (DOT) developed the Wide Area calculations based on it do not provide Augmentation System (WAAS) for use pinpoint precision of the GPS receiver in precision flight approaches. WAAS location. C/A signals typically provide corrects for GPS signal errors caused location precision in a range of ± 100 by ionospheric disturbances, timing, feet horizontal accuracy. This level of and satellite orbit errors, and it provides precision is not accurate enough for vital integrity information regarding aerial pesticide application. the status of each GPS satellite. To improve accuracy of the WAAS consists of approximately C/A signal, a technology known as 25 ground reference stations positioned Differential GPS (DGPS) provides across the United States, covering a greater precision. DGPS technology very large service area. These stations with a strong differential correction link together and form the U.S. WAAS signal reduces the horizontal error network. Two master stations, one range down to between less than three located on the East Coast and the other feet and rarely more than ten feet. Aerial on the West Coast, collect data from applicators use DGPS systems. the reference stations and create a cor- Regular GPS relies on a single rection message that they transmit to a APPENDIX 5 109 geostationary communication satellite ellite signal corrections from the closest (GEO). The satellite broadcasts the Maritime DGPS reference station for message on the same GPS frequency the most accurate positioning data. The to receivers onboard aircraft that are Nationwide DGPS program is incor- within the broadcast coverage area of porating the Maritime DGPS program the WA AS. into its system. The WAAS improves basic GPS accuracy to approximately 28 feet ver- Nationwide DGPS Service tically and horizontally, improves the A 1997 federal law directed the U.S. availability of the signals using geo- Department of Transportation to work stationary communication satellites, with several other government entities and provides necessary integrity infor- to develop and operate a standardized mation about the entire GPS system. Nationwide DGPS Service. The goal of For some users in the U.S., the this service is to provide reliable local- position of the geostationary satellites area GPS-satellite signal correction over the equator makes it difficult to data to the public without charge. This receive their signals if trees or moun- program involves the U.S. Air Force, tains obstruct the view of the southern U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Army Corps of horizon. WAAS signal reception is Engineers, the National Oceanic and ideal for open land areas and for marine Atmospheric Administration, the Federal applications. Highway Administration, and the Federal Railroad Administration. When com- U.S. Coast Guard Maritime pleted, the Nationwide DGPS Service Differential GPS Navigation Service expects to have approximately 80 DGPS The U.S. Coast Guard provides radio beacon sites in place throughout a Maritime DGPS service for the the continental United States. The plan Harbor and Harbor Approach phase will provide every area in the continental of marine navigation. The Maritime United States with double coverage DGPS service coverage area includes DGPS correction data from two land- the coastal United States, Great Lakes, based radio beacon towers. The program Puerto Rico, and most of Alaska and will ultimately include all U.S. Coast Hawaii. It consists of two DGPS control Guard-operated DGPS reference sta- centers and about 65 DGPS reference tions. Each Nationwide DGPS System stations. The reference stations transmit radio beacon site has a 300-foot tower correction signals on U.S. Coast Guard antenna that substantially increases radio beacon frequencies, and this the effective range available for mobile service is available to the public. DGPS user reception. The signal from Many GPS receivers are equipped each site covers a range of 250 miles with with built-in radio receivers that accept enough signal strength to provide posi- and process GPS-satellite correction tional accuracy of about 3 feet or less. signal data. The position accuracy of the Maritime DGPS Service is within Commercial DGPS Services approximately 33 feet. If an aircraft is Commercial DGPS services equipped with suitable DGPS receiving provide additional options for pilots equipment, and is less than 100 miles making aerial applications in remote from a reference station, its pilot may locations. These services fill in areas typically expect positioning accuracy missed by the government systems. of about 2.5 feet. For aircraft operating Most mobile DGPS equipment is com- more than 100 miles away from the patible with the commercial DGPS Maritime DGPS reference station, services. Subscribing to one of these positioning accuracy decays at a rate services provides pilots with a high of approximately 3 feet per 90 miles. degree of location accuracy suitable for Because of this distance-related decay precise aerial pesticide application. in accuracy, you should obtain GPS sat-

110 APPENDIX 5 Glossary

adjuvant. A material added to a pesticide area of a triangle. mixture to improve or alter the deposi- Area = base × height divided by 2 tion, toxic effects, mixing ability, per- back and forth application pattern. sistence, or other qualities of the active Also known as a back and forth flight ingredient. pattern. Making application swaths in a agitation device (agitator). A mechanical sequential manner by flying a swath in or hydraulic device that stirs the liquid in one direction and the adjacent swath in a spray tank to prevent the mixture from the opposite direction. separating or settling. baffle. A structure built into an aircraft- agricultural aircraft operations. The Fed- mounted spray tank that suppresses the eral Aviation Administration Regulation sloshing of liquid in the tank, reducing the Part 137 of the Code of Federal Regula- effect of load shift on the aircraft. tions Title 14 (14 CFR 137) prescribes boom. A structure attached to an aircraft to rules governing agricultural aircraft op- which spray nozzles are attached. erations within the United States and the requirements for commercial and private buffer area (or zone). A part of a pest- Agricultural Aircraft Operator certificates infested area that is not treated with a for those operations. pesticide to protect adjoining areas from pesticide hazards. agricultural aircraft operator certificate. Certificate issued by the Federal Avia- buffer strip. An area of a field left unsprayed tion Administration under provision of for protecting nearby structures or sen- 14 CFR 137 to pilots who meet specific sitive areas from drift. The minimum requirements as provided in Part 137. buffer strip is usually one swath width. anti-drip device. A spring-loaded mecha- carrier. The liquid or powdered inert sub- nism built into an aircraft spray nozzle stance that is combined with the active that closes off the nozzle when the fluid ingredient in a pesticide formulation. pressure drops below a certain level. This May also apply to the water, oil, or other prevents nozzles from dripping when the substance that a pesticide is mixed with spray is shut off. prior to application. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). application pattern. The course the pilot Regu- follows above the area being treated lations used to enforce federal laws. The with a pesticide. See also back and forth CFR contain sections that address aerial application pattern and racetrack ap- application of pesticides as well as training and certification of pesticide handlers. plication pattern. co-distillation. A phenomenon where pes- application swath. See swath and swath ticide molecules are picked up in water width. vapor and can move off site. area of a circle. Commercial Agricultural Aircraft Operator. Area = 3.14 × radius × radius (A = r2) π A category of the FAA certification pro- area of a square or rectangle. cess applying to pilots for hire who make Area = length × width pesticide applications by air. GLOSSARY 111 commercial applicator. A person who, differential GPS (DGPS). A global position- for hire, uses or supervises the use of a ing navigation system that relies on a mo- restricted-use pesticide and this defini- bile receiver mounted in an aircraft and a tion varies among states. fixed ground-based receiver, providing a conflict with labeling. Any deviation higher degree of positional accuracy than from instructions, requirements, or a mobile receiver used alone. prohibitions of pesticide product label- directions for use. The instructions found ing concerning storage, handling, or use, on pesticide labels indicating the proper except: a decrease in dosage rate per unit procedures for mixing and application. treated; a decrease in the concentration of the mixture applied; application at a drift (spray). (from National Coalition on frequency less than specified; use to con- Drift Minimization) “The movement of trol a target pest not listed, provided the pesticide through the air at the time of application is to a commodity/site that is pesticide application or soon thereafter listed and the use of the product against from the target site to any non- or off- an unnamed pest is not expressly prohib- target site, excluding pesticide move- ited; employing a method of application ments by erosion, migration, volatil- not expressly prohibited, provided other ity, or windblown soil particles after directions are followed; mixing with an- application.” other pesticide or with a fertilizer, unless driftable fine. Spray droplets that are 200 such mixing is expressly prohibited; and an increase in the concentration of the microns in diameter or smaller. mixture applied. droplet spectra. A classification of spray congested area. A populated area where droplets into eight categories based on personal injury or property damage the volume median diameters of spray might occur if an aircraft crashes or if the droplets. The eight categories are extra pesticide load must be dumped. fine, very fine, fine, medium, coarse, very coarse, extra coarse, and ultra coarse. conventional application volume. For aircraft, the conventional application dynamic surface tension. Variation or volume ranges between 5 to 15 or more changes in the surface tension of a liq- gallons of spray per acre. uid based on the position of molecules corrosive materials. Certain chemicals of substances within droplets that alter that react with metals or other materials. surface tension. Some pesticides are corrosive, and special economic poison. (1) Any substance or handling requirements are needed when mixture of substances intended for pre- using these. venting, destroying, repelling, or miti- coverage. The degree to which a pesticide gating any insects, rodents, nematodes, is distributed over a target surface. fungi, weeds, and other forms of plant or decontaminate. The most important animal life or viruses, except viruses on step in reducing potential injury when or in people or other animals, which the someone has been exposed to a pesticide. Secretary of Agriculture shall declare to Decontamination involves thoroughly be a pest, and (2) any substance or mix- washing the exposed skin with soap and ture of substances intended for use as a water or flushing the exposed eye with a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant. gentle stream of running water. effective swath width. A swath that in- dehydration. The process of a plant or cludes overlaps made with each pass to animal losing water or drying up. De- achieve a more even application. hydration is a major contributor to heat related illnesses in people. environmental contamination. Spread of pesticides away from the application site density altitude. A condition where air mol- into the environment, usually with the ecules spread out or become less dense as potential for causing harm to organisms. altitude increases and/or as temperatures rise. Density altitude has an effect on the evaporate. The process of a liquid turning operational performance of an aircraft. into a gas or vapor. 112 GLOSSARY exposure. The unwanted contact with pes- thus remains stationary in relation to ticides or pesticide residues by people, the earth; used for communication and other organisms, or the environment. global positioning. extensional viscosity. The amount of global positioning system. A navigation- stretching or stringiness required for a al device that uses signals from satellites droplet to break off from a stream or to determine the receiver’s position. flow of liquid. granule. A dry formulation of pesticide ac- Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). tive ingredient and inert materials com- The federal agency responsible for en- pressed into small, pebble-like shapes. forcing rules affecting aircraft operations. handle. Mixing, loading, transferring, ferrying. The process of flying an aircraft applying (including chemigation), or from its home base to a pesticide applica- assisting with the application (includ- tion site and returning to its home base ing flagging) of pesticides; maintaining, or location where the material loading servicing, repairing, cleaning, or han- takes place. dling equipment used in these activities field worker. Any person who, for any kind that may contain residues; working of compensation, performs cultural ac- with opened (including emptied but not tivities in a field. A field worker does not rinsed) containers of pesticides; adjust- include individuals performing tasks as ing, repairing, or removing treatment a crop advisor, including field checking site coverings; incorporating (mechani- or scouting, making observations of the cal or watered-in) pesticides into the well being of the plants, or taking sam- soil; entering a treated area during ples, nor does it include local, state, or any application or before the inhala- federal officials performing inspection, tion exposure level listed on pesticide sampling, or other similar official duties. product labeling has been reached or greenhouse ventilation criteria have filter screen. Fine screens placed in key been met; performing the duties of a locations in a spraying system to catch crop advisor, including field checking foreign materials that would otherwise or scouting, making observations of clog the spray nozzles. the well being of the plants, or taking fine. A spray droplet that is 200 microns in samples during an application or any diameter or smaller. restricted entry interval listed on pesticide product labeling. Handle does not first aid. The immediate assistance provided include local, state, or federal officials to someone who has received an expo- performing inspection, sampling, or sure to a pesticide. First aid for pesticide other similar official duties. exposure usually involves removal of contaminated clothing and washing the handler. A person involved with mixing, affected area of the body to remove as loading, transferring, applying (includ- much of the pesticide material as pos- ing chemigation), or assisting with sible. First aid is not a substitute for the application (including flagging) competent medical treatment. of pesticides; maintaining, servicing, flow rate. The amount of pesticide being repairing, cleaning, or handling equip- expelled by a pesticide spray or granule ment used in these activities that may applicator per unit of time. contain residues; working with opened (including emptied but not rinsed) general-use pesticide. Pesticides that have containers of pesticides; adjusting, been designed for use by the general repairing, or removing treatment site public as well as by licensed or certified coverings; incorporating (mechanical applicators. General-use pesticides usu- or watered-in) pesticides into the soil; ally have minimal hazards and do not entering a treated area during any appli- require a permit for purchase or use. cation or before the inhalation exposure geostationary communication satellite. level listed on pesticide product label- A satellite whose orbit speed exactly ing has been reached or greenhouse matches the rotation of the earth, and ventilation criteria have been met; and GLOSSARY 113 performing the duties of a crop advisor, emergency procedures to be followed in including field checking or scouting, case of a spill, fire, or other emergency. making observations of the well being mesh. The number of wires per inch in a of the plants, or taking samples during an application or any restricted entry screen, such as a screen used to filter interval listed on pesticide product la- foreign particles out of spray solutions beling. The handler definition does not to keep nozzles from becoming clogged. include local, state, or federal officials Mesh is also used to describe the size of performing inspection, sampling, or pesticide granules, pellets, and dusts. other similar official duties. micron. A very small unit of measure: 1 heat-related illness. Potentially life- /1,000,000 of a meter; represented by threatening overheating of the body un- the greek symbol μ. der working conditions that lack proper MSDS. See material safety data sheet. preventive measures, such as drinking plenty of water, taking frequent breaks in non-target organism. Animals or plants the shade to cool down, and removing or within a pesticide-treated area that are loosening personal protective equipment not intended to be controlled by the during breaks. pesticide application. human flagger. An individual who assists off-target pesticide drift. Pesticide drift in an aerial application by positioning that moves outside of the application and waving marking flags to indicate to area during or immediately following a the pilot the location of swaths. Flaggers pesticide application. must receive pesticide handler training. off-target pesticide movement. Any intentional misapplication. The deliber- movement of a pesticide from the loca- ate improper use of a pesticide, such as tion where it was applied. Off-target exceeding the label rate or applying the movement occurs through drift, volatil- material to a site not listed on the label. ization, percolation, water runoff, crop inversion. A weather phenomenon in which harvest, blowing dust, and by being car- cool air near the ground is trapped by ried away on organisms or equipment. a layer of warmer air above. Vapors of output volume. The amount of a pesticide pesticides applied during an inversion mixture discharged by an aircraft over a can become trapped and concentrated measure period of time. The usual out- and move away from the treatment area with the potential to cause damage or put volume for aircraft liquid sprayers is injury at some other location. measure in gallons per minute or gallons per mile. labeling. The pesticide product label and all other written, printed, or graphic matter pattern testing. The process used to accompanying the pesticide. Labeling determine the spray swath or granule may not necessarily be attached to or swath pattern by flying test passes and part of the container. visualizing the droplet array or granule distribution across the swath. light bar. An accessory to the aircraft mounted global position system that personal protective equipment (PPE). enables the pilot to locate the center of Apparel and devices worn to minimize each spray swath through the use of an human body contact with pesticides or array of lights. pesticide residues. PPE must be provided by an employer and is separate from, or low volume (LV) application volume. in addition to, work clothing. PPE may Application of liquid pesticides at the include chemical resistant suits, chemi- rate of 0.5 to 5 gallons of liquid per acre. cal resistant gloves, chemical resistant Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). An footwear, respiratory protection devices, information sheet provided by a pesti- chemical resistant aprons, chemical re- cide manufacturer describing chemical sistant headgear, protective eye wear, or qualities, hazards, safety precautions, and a coverall (one- or two-piece garment). 114 GLOSSARY pesticide drift. Any movement of pesticide restricted-use pesticide. Highly hazardous material from its intended swath dur- pesticides that can only be possessed or ing application. Movement of pesticide used by certified commercial or private material becomes problematic when it applicators. moves from the application site. rotor distortion. Similar to prop wash of pesticide handler. See handler. a fixed wing aircraft, but involving the displacement of air and entrapped spray phytotoxic. Injurious to plants. droplets as a result of the rotation of the pilot-in-command. The Journeymen Pest rotary wing aircraft rotor. Control Aircraft Pilot supervising or service container. Any container designed conducting a pesticide application. to hold concentrate or diluted pesticide precautionary statement. The section on mixtures, including the sprayer tank, but pesticide labels where human and envi- not the original pesticide container. ronmental hazards are listed; personal shear viscosity. The resistance of a liquid protective equipment requirements are to flow. listed here as well as first aid instructions and information for physicians. smoke generator. A device mounted on an aircraft that produces smoke by injecting private agricultural aircraft operator. oil into the exhaust system. This smoke A category of the FAA certification trail is used by the pilot to visualize air process applying to pilots who make movement. pesticide applications by air on their own property or property of which they statement of practical treatment. A sec- control. tion of the pesticide label that provides information on treating people who have private applicator. An individual who uses been exposed to the pesticide. This in- or supervises the use of a pesticide for cludes emergency first aid information. the purpose of producing an agricultural commodity on property owned, leased, supplemental label. Additional instruc- or rented by him or her or his or her tions and information not found on the employer. pesticide label because the label is too small but legally considered to be part prop wash. The displacement of air and of the pesticide labeling. spray droplets caused by the propeller of the aircraft. The spray pattern is swath (or swath width). The area covered displaced to the left of the centerline of by one pass of the pesticide application the aircraft. equipment. racetrack application pattern. The ap- temperature inversion. See inversion. plication pattern that involves making ultra low volume (ULV) application successive overlapping loops across a volume. Applications of less than 0.5 field rather than a back and forth pattern. gallons of spray per acre. regulations. The guidelines or working volume median diameter (VMD). Half of rules that a regulatory agency uses to the total spray volume of a nozzle consists carry out and enforce laws. of spray droplets that are smaller than the residual effectiveness. The pesticidal ac- VMD numerical value, while the other half is made up of droplets that are larger tion of material after it has been applied. than the VMD numerical value. Most pesticide compounds will remain active several hours to several weeks or wide area augmentation system (WAAS). even months after being applied. A highly accurate GPS navigational system used for precision flight positional restricted-entry interval (REI). The pe- determination. riod of time after a field is treated with a pesticide during which restrictions on wing tip vortex. The circular or spiral entry are in effect to protect people from swirling of air caused by the wing tips of potential exposure to hazardous levels of an aircraft, and resulting in entrapment residues. of spray droplets affecting the dispersal GLOSSARY 115 pattern. Keeping the fixed wing aircraft Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) boom length at approximately 75 per- that makes significant changes to pesti- centage of the wingspan eliminates spray cide labeling and mandates specific train- droplets becoming entrapped. ing of pesticide handlers and workers in production agriculture, commercial Worker Protection Standard. The 1992 greenhouses and nurseries, and forests. amendment to the Federal Insecticide,

116 CHAPTER 7 Index

securing 18 A airspeed, application 24, 27, 39-40, 47-51, 65, 69, 71-75, 87, 92 access, unauthorized 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 31, 84 alcohol and drugs, avoiding use of 18, 21-22 acres per minute treated, determining 68, 69, 70, using before or during operation 22 additional labeling 12, 13 altitude additional restrictions application 10, 64, 66, 71, 75, 83, 87 pesticide label 12, 13, 22, 24, 25-26 ferrying 82 on application 13, 22, 26, 84 American Society of Agricultural and Biological adjacent Engineers 36, 37 crops 25, 30, 82, 83, 84 amount of pesticide to put into the tank, fields 25 determining 64, 69-71 non-target areas 24, 25, 82, 84 answers, review questions 96 swath 57, 88 antenna, GPS 53 adjuvant 28, 36-37, 40 anti-drip device nozzle 45, 52 drift control 37, 40 application aerial application airspeed 24, 27, 39-40, 47-51, 65-69, 71, 75, 87, 92 equipment, calibrating 12, 40, 58, 63-78, 87 altitude 10, 64, 66, 71, 75, 83, 87 equipment, cleaning 26-27 avoiding obstructions during 83, 87-88, 89 operation security, evaluating 18 documenting 27-28, 54 making 81-93, 95 equipment, aerial, calibrating 12, 40, 58, 63-78, 87 aerial pest control operator 1, 9-13, 25 equipment malfunction 23, 29, 48, 49 laws and regulations for 93, 94 equipment, types of 12, 43-62 aerial pesticide applicator pilot 1, 9 height 22, 24, 28, 38, 40, 65, 68, 75, 87, 90 detailed content outline for 3-5 instructions 11, 12-13, 26 laws and regulations for 9-13 low volume 45, 47, 49-50, 51 agitation 44, 45, 46, 52 pattern, back and forth 88-89 hydraulic 46, 52 pattern, racetrack 88-89 mechanical 46 pattern, turnaround 89-90 tank 46 reviewing and documenting 27-28 agricultural aircraft operation 101-104 safety 22-28 FAA requirements for 10, 29, 101-104 site, adjacent crops 25, 30, 82, 83, 84 operator certificate 101, 104 site, checking 19, 25, 26, 82-83 air shear 39, 40, 51, 57, 75 speed 24, 27, 28, 39-40, 43, 44, 47-51, 54, 57, 64, aircraft 65-69, 71, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92 crash, plans and emergency response in case of 29 speed, changing 71-75 factors influencing 90-92 swath 28, 40, 45, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, features and limitations of 23-24 66, 67-68, 70, 75, 76-77 INDEX 117 techniques 12, 40 categories, standard droplet size 13, 35, 36, 37, volume 44, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 38, 39 71, 75, 87 centrifugal what to watch for during 83-86 spray pump 45, 46 applying granules 57-59, 69, 75-78, 81, 86, 90, 92 spreader 58, 60 area of a circle, calculating 73 certificate, agricultural aircraft operator 65, area of a rectangle, calculating 71 101-103 area of a square, calculating 71 certification, pesticide applicator 1, 2, 10-12, 27 area of a triangle, calculating 72 certified commercial applicators, general ASABE 13, 36, 37 standards for 11-12 ASABE S-572.1 13, 36, 37 changing as-applied map 28, 54 application speed 71 associated labeling 12 nozzle orifice size 75 atomization 39, 44, 75 output pressure 75 avoiding heat stress 22, 105 sprayer output 71 check valve avoiding obstructions during application 83, 87-88, 29, 45, 46, 47, 49, 52, 56 checking the application site 89 82-83 checklist avoiding use of alcohol and drugs 21 ground crew 86 B pilot 85 Class II Medical Certificate 10 classification of droplet size 35-37 back and forth application pattern 88, 89 cleanup baffle 45 kit, spill 28, 29, 107 boom, spray 47-48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54-56 pesticide spill 20, 107 length of 24-25, 39, 49, 55 clothing and equipment, protective 11 booms and nozzles, positioning 54-57 Code of Federal Regulations 10, 12 buffer area or zone 13, 22, 26, 40, 84, 88 co-distillation 38 buffer strip 88 commercial agricultural aircraft operator 10, 101 C applicator 1, 11 DGPS services 110 calculating area of pesticide applicator pilots 1 a circular application site 73 communication 18, 24, 27, 30, 81, 82, 84 a rectangular or square application site 71 communication satellite, geostationary 110 a triangular application site 72 compatibility 26 an irregularly-shaped application site 74 competency, determination of 11 calibrate equipment, why needed 64-65 components, liquid dispersal system 44-57 calibrating conflict with labeling 27 aerial application equipment 63-78 conflicts, resolving 27 granule applicators 75-78 congested area 23, 103, 104 liquid spraying equipment 65-75 contact information, pesticide regulatory agency calibration 98-100 methods, equipment 65-78 container, service 10 reasons for 64-65 contamination, environmental 29, 30 capacity, spray tank 65-66, 70 content outline, detailed 3-8 carrier, pesticide spray 37, 38, 50 controller, flow volume 49, 52, 53, 54, 57, 66, 67 catastrophic event 29 conventional application volume 49

118 INDEX corrosive pesticide materials 44 coverage, pesticide 24, 36, 39, 40, 45, 65, 75, 86, E 87, 89 economic poison 10 crash, aircraft, plans in case of 29 effective swath width 28, 40, 45, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, crops adjacent to the application site 25, 30, 82, 59, 60, 65, 66, 67-68, 70, 75, 76-77 83, 84 effects of evaporation on droplet size 37-38 cultural practices 25, 27 electronics 49, 52-54, 57 D emergencies ground crew 28-29 planning for 28-30 decontaminate 44 emergency dehydration, preventing 22 information 28 density altitude 89-92 detailed content outline 3-8 maneuvers 23, 24 determination of competency 10, 11 response plan 28-30 determining employee acres per minute treated 68, 69 habits 19, 21-22 amount of pesticide to put into the tank 69, 70 training 19-21 application volume per acre 69, 70 endangered species area protection map 12 DGPS 52, 53, 56, 64, 81, 83, 86, 90, 108, 110 environmental service, commercial 110 concerns 65 differential global positioning systems 52, 109, contamination 29, 30 110, 112 fate of pesticides 11 differential GPS 52, 53, 56, 64, 81, 83, 86, 90, 108-110 Environmental Protection Agency 10 diluting pesticide concentrates, knowing registration number 27, 28 procedures for 12 requirements for certification 10-12 dispersal environmentally sensitive areas 25, 26 equipment 23, 43-60 equipment system requirements 43-60 calibration methods 63-78 displacement, prop wash 54, 55 securing 17-19 distortion, rotor 55, 56 estimating density altitude 89-92 documenting evaporate 35, 37-38 application 27-28, 54 extensional viscosity 36 handler training 103 external factors affecting droplet size drift 12, 13, 20, 23, 24, 25, 29, 33-40 and drift 37-39 control adjuvant 37, 40 factors that contribute to 34-39 F minimizing off target 13, 24, 33-40, 75, 81, 86, 87 driftable fine 34, 35, 50 FAA requirements for agricultural aircraft droplet operators 101 size and drift, external factors affecting 37 facilities, securing 18 size categories, standard 37 factors size, classification of 35-37 influencing the aircraft 90-92 size, effects of evaporation on 37-38 contributing to drift 34-39 spectra 13, 35-37, 112 fan-driven pump 44, 45, 51, 66 spectra, nozzle classification by 36-37 fan-pattern nozzles 40, 49, 50 drugs, avoiding use of 18, 21-22 FBI 18, 19 dry material spreaders 57-60 features and limitations of the aircraft 23-24 dynamic surface tension 36 Federal Aviation Administration 10, 29, 52, 101

INDEX 119 federal aviation regulations 10, 29, 52, 101 member 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, Federal Bureau of Investigation 18, 19 43, 56, 60, 82, 84-86 feed rate, granule spreader 58, 60 onsite, importance of during an application 84-86 ferrying 10, 28, 46, 81, 82 ground equipment 17, 22, 23 filter screen 46, 49, 56 filters and screens 46, 49, 51, 56 H fines (pesticide droplet) 35, 50, 75 first aid 11, 18, 20, 24, 26, 29 habits, employee 19, 21-22 handler, pesticide and decontamination requirements 18, 20, 26 19, 20-22, 26, 29, 65 harvested crops, residues on 64 for heat stress 20, 21, 22, 113 hazards, flight 25, 28, 29, 54, 81, 83, 87-88 measures 26 hazards, health 11, 12, 17, 19, 20, 26, 27, 30, 84 first and last runs of the day 82 health, human 20, 64 flagger, human 29, 40, 53, 85 heat and heat stress 20, 21, 22, 113 flight hazards 25, 28, 29, 54, 81, 83 height, application 22, 24, 28, 38, 40, 65, 68, 75, flight pattern 24, 28, 29, 53, 58, 81, 87, 88-90 87, 90 application record 27 hollow-cone pattern nozzles 49, 50, 51-52 back and forth 88-89 hopper, pesticide 43, 45-46, 58-60, 64, 75 racetrack 88, 89 human exposure, preventing 29 Flight Standards District Office 28, 101 human flagger 29, 40, 53, 85 flow meters, valves, and pressure gauges 48-49 human health concerns 20, 64 flow volume 66-67 humidity 28, 37-38, 54, 68, 92 flow volume controllers 49, 53, 54 effect on granule flow 75 FSDO 28, 101 pesticide label restrictions 84 fuel and oil check, preflight 22 hydraulic agitation 46, 52

G I gallons per minute, determining 67-70 illness, heat-related 20, 21, 22, 113 general standards for certified commercial importance of onsite ground crew during an applicators 11 application 84-86 general types of pesticides 11 interior baffles 45 general-use pesticide 11, 13 inversion, temperature 34, 37, 38-39, 40, 84, 92 generator, smoke 40 global positioning system 52, 53, 54, 108 L differential 52, 53, 54, 108 label and labeling GPS 52, 53, 54, 108 comprehension 11 antenna 53 conflict with 27 light bar 53 instructions 10, 11, 12, 13, 24, 25-26, 29, 30, 36, systems 53 43, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 75, 83, 84, 86 granule 57-60 pesticide 12-13, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25-26, 29, 36, 63, applying 57-60 64, 65, 68, 69, 75, 83, 84, 86 calibrating applicators for 69, 75-78 precautionary statement 13, 29 spreader 57-60 laws and regulations 9-12 ground crew local 10 checklist 86 leaching 33 emergencies 28-29 length, spray boom 24-25, 39, 49, 55

120 INDEX light bar, GPS 53 rotary atomizer 50, 51 limitations, personal, pilot 24-25 screen 46 line screens 46, 49, 56 straight stream 49, 50 liquid dispersal system components 43-54 variable flow rate 49, 50 liquid spraying equipment, calibrating 65-75 variable orifice flood 49, 50, 51 local laws and regulations 10 wind shear 39, 51, 57, 75 local weather conditions 25, 82, 90 low volume 45, 47, 49 O LV 49, 50 obstructions, avoiding during application 83, M 87–88, 89 off-target making an aerial pesticide application 81-94 drift, minimizing 33-40, 75, 81, 86, 87 malfunction, application equipment 23, 29, 48, 49 pesticide drift, preventing 13, 24, 33-40, 75, maneuvers, emergency 23, 24 81-86, 87 map pesticide movement 27, 29, 34, 40, 68, 87, 90 as-applied 28, 54 onsite ground crew, importance of during an endangered species area protection 12 application 84-86 mapping systems 52, 53, 54 operating pressure, spraying system 24, 28, 36, 39, mechanical agitation 46 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57 Medical Certificate, Class II 10 Operation S.A.F.E. 93-94 medications, over-the-counter and prescription 21 operation, agricultural aircraft 101-104 mesh 46, 51 operator, aerial pest control 1, 9-13, 25 micron 34, 35, 36 laws and regulations for 9-13 minimizing off-target drift 39-40 output mixing equipment, types of 12 changing 75 rate, spray 76 N sprayer, changing 71 volume, spray 115 NAAA 13, 93-94 overcompensation, prop wash 55 National Aerial Pesticide Applicator Pilot overspray, drift, and other misapplication 29-30 Certification Examination 1 over-the-counter and prescription medications 21 National Agricultural Aviation Association 13, 93-94 P National Coalition on Drift Minimization 34 National Weather Service 38 PAASS 13 NCODM 34 pattern testing a spray boom 54, 55-57, 68 negative pressure, system 46, 47 pattern, application non-target organism 10, 11, 19, 21, 22, 24 back and forth 88-89 notification and posting requirements 26 racetrack 88-89 notification requirements 26 per acre application volume, determining 69-70 nozzle personal limitations, pilot 24-25 anti-drip device 45, 52 personal protective equipment 20, 21, 22, 26, 30 classification by droplet spectra 35-37 pest control operator, aerial 1, 9-13, 25 orientation 24, 28, 35, 39-40 laws and regulations for 9-13 hollow-cone pattern 49, 50, 51-52 pesticide orifice size, changing 46, 57, 75 amount to put into the tank, determining 64, 69-71 positioning 48, 54-60 applicator certification 1, 2, 10-12, 27

INDEX 121 applicator pilot, aerial 1, 9 prop wash 54, 55 drift 12, 13, 20, 23, 24, 25, 29, 33-40 displacement 54 environmental fate 11 overcompensation 55 exposure routes 11, 20 protective clothing and equipment 20, 21, 22, 26, 30 general types of 11 pump handler 19, 20-22, 26, 29, 65 centrifugal 45, 46 label 12-13, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25-26, 29, 36, 63, 64, fan-driven 44, 45, 51, 66 65, 68, 69, 75, 83, 84, 86 label directions 24 Q label restrictions, understanding 25-27 laws and regulations 9-13 qualifications and limitations, pilot 24-25 poisoning symptoms 11 regulatory agency 1, 10, 11, 13, 21, 22, 39, 63 R regulatory agency contact information 98 restricted-use 1, 11, 13, 27 racetrack application pattern 88-89 spill, steps to follow when cleaning up 20, 107 rainfall or irrigation water 34 tanks and hoppers 45 ram-air spreader 58-60 toxicity 11 reasons for calibration 64, 65 uses, selective 10 record keeping 27-28 pilot registration number, EPA 27 aerial pesticide applicator 1, 9 regulations, federal aviation 10 checklist 85 regulatory requirements 9-11 in command 10, 101 requirements qualifications and limitations 24-25 for certification, EPA 10-12 pipes, hoses, and fittings 46-47 personal protective equipment 26 piping 46, 47 regulatory 9 planning for emergencies 28-30 residues on harvested crops 64 plans in case of aircraft crash 29 resolving conflicts 27 poison, economic 10 response plan, emergency 28-30 positioning booms and nozzles 48, 54-57 rest break 23 positive shut-off valve 24, 47, 52 restricted-use pesticide post-application volatilization 33, 34 1, 11, 13, 27 posting requirements 26 review question answers 97 PPE 20, 21, 22, 26, 30 rotary atomizer 50, 51 preflight fuel and oil check 22 rotor pressure gauge 48, 49 distortion 55 pressure vortex 25, 39, 55 system operating 24, 28, 36, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, routes of exposure, pesticide 11, 20 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57 RUP 1, 11, 13, 27 system, negative 46, 47 preventing S dehydration and heat related illness 22 human exposure 29 S.A.F.E. 93-94 off-target pesticide drift 13, 24, 33-40, 75, 81, 86, 87 safety hazards 11, 12, 17, 19, 20, 26, 27, 30, 84 procedures safety program, well-developed 19 for diluting pesticide concentrates 12 scouting the target site 22, 25, 30 Professional Aerial Applicator’s Support System 13 screen, nozzle 46

122 INDEX securing standard S-572.1, ASABE 36-37 facilities, storage areas, and surrounding staying alert 22 property 17-19 steps to follow in cleaning up a pesticide spill 107 pesticide application aircraft, vehicles, storage areas, securing 18 and equipment 17-19 straight stream nozzle 50 security, aerial application operation 17-19 suck-back 40, 43, 46, 47, 52 selective pesticide uses 10 surface tension, dynamic 36, 37 Self Regulating Application and Flight Efficiency 93 swath sensitive area, environmental 25, 26 application 28, 40, 45, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, service container 10 65, 66, 67-68, 70, 75, 76-77 shear width, effective 55, 56, 57, 60, 66, 67-68, 69, 76, 87 viscosity 36, 37 symptoms of pesticide poisoning 11 air 39, 40, 51, 57, 75 synergism 11 shut-off valve, positive 24, 47, 52 smoke generator 40 T soil contamination, reason for calibration 65 tank SOP 30 agitation 46 spectra, droplet, nozzle classification by 35-37 capacity 65-66, 70 speed pesticide 45-46 application 24, 27, 28, 39-40, 43, 44, 47-51, 54, vent 45 57, 64, 65-69, 71, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92 volume 69 application, changing 71, 75 target site, scouting 22, 25, 30 spill technique, application 12, 40 cleaning up 107 temperature inversion 34, 37, 38-39, 40, 84, 92 cleanup kit 28, 29, 107 toxicity, pesticide 11 spray training boom 47-48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54-56 handler 20-21 boom length 24-25, 39, 49, 55 turnaround, application pattern 89-90 boom pattern testing 54, 55-57, 68 types of application and mixing equipment 12, 44-60 nozzle classification by droplet spectra 13, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 U output volume 53, 54, 57, 65, 66, 67-71, 75 pump, centrifugal 45, 46 U.S. Department of Homeland Security 19 pump, fan-driven 44, 45, 51, 66 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 10-13, 19 tank vent 45 U.S. Federal Aviation Administration 10 tank volume 69 ultra low volume 45, 49, 50 volume and dilution restrictions 13 ULV 45, 49, 50 sprayer output, changing 71 unauthorized access 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 31, 84 spraying system operating pressure 7, 36, 57 understanding spreader pesticide label restrictions 25-26 mounting 59-60 the work order 23-25 dry material 57-60 using the GPS light bar 53 granule 58-60 ram-air 58-60 V vanes 58-59 standard droplet size categories 24, 28, 36, 39, 40, valve, positive shut-off 24, 47, 52 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57 vanes, spreader 58-59 standard operating procedures 30 variable flow rate flat fan nozzle 50-51

INDEX 123 variable orifice flood nozzle 51 vent, spray tank 45 W viscosity, extensional 36 weather viscosity, shear 37 conditions, local 25, 82, 90 VMD 35, 36 volatilization, post-application 33, 34 factors 24 volume well-developed safety program 19 application 45, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 66, what to watch for during an application 83-86 69, 71, 75, 87 why you need to calibrate equipment 64-65 spray tank 69 wind shear on nozzles 39, 40, 51, 57, 75 volume median diameter 35, 36 wingtip and rotor vortex 54, 55 vortex work crews 25 rotor 25, 39, 55 work order, understanding 23 wing tip 25, 39, 48, 54, 55 Worker Protection Standard (WPS) 12, 20, 26

124 INDEX