SLIDES DESCRIPTIONS FOR UNIT 3 - THE AMERICAS BEFORE THE EUROPEANS

Mesoamerica

1. Teotihuacán, . View northwest of the Street of the Dead. The Street of the Dead defines the main north-south axis of this ancient and links the northern ceremonial zone, near the oldest sector of the community, with the Cuidadela and market zones. The Cuidadela, a large plaza flanked by platforms on all sides, may have been the center of some administrative functions in the city. At the north of the Street of the Dead is one of the two major pyramids at Teotihuacán, the Pyramid of the Moon. Flanking the Street of the Dead, midway towards the Ciudadela, is the other pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun. Just outside of the buildings that flank the street are elite residential apartments. (Courtesy of the Middle American Research Institute).

2. Sun-watching station next to the Hall of Columns in Alta Vista, Zacatecas, Mexico. As Teotihuacán grew in power and influence, its rulers consolidated their control over such precious mineral resources as obsidian and turquoise by establishing outposts in mining centers far from the capital. At its point of greatest development, the economic controlled by the Teotihuacanos included trading colonies or outposts among the inhabitants of many different areas, such as Alta Vista. While the Teotihuacanos had an enormous amount of economic power in these regions, it is believed that they did not have political control over these other cultures.

Alta Vista, an important ceremonial center for the Chalchihuites culture, marks the northern boundary for the expansion of Teotihuacán's trading empire, about 425 miles north of the . During the years from A.D. 300-600 it was occupied by representatives from Teotihuacán, who undoubtedly came to exploit the rich veins of precious minerals located nearby. Alta Vista is located almost precisely on the Tropic of Cancer (23 degrees, 27 minutes north), and undoubtedly served as a focal point for ceremonial observances marking celestial events such as the changes of seasons at equinox and solstice points. These structures are part of a solar calendar constructed at Alta Vista to mark these important dates. The freestanding column on the right and a portion of a building on the left frame a mountain peak about 10 kilometers distant that serves as a natural marker for the vernal (spring) equinox. (Courtesy of Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

3. The First Day of Spring at the Sun-Watching Station, Alta Vista, Zacatecas, Mexico. The equinox sun rising directly behind Picacho Peak shoots a beam of light between the edge of the building and the column, to the wall of the temple structure beyond. Sun priests using this calendar could have predicted times for ceremonies and sacrifices. Preoccupation with the passage of time and tracking the sun's movements is a trademark of all Mesoamerican cultures, and was, therefore, probably shared by the Teotihuacanos and the Chalchihuites. By about A.D. 600 Teotihuacán withdrew from Alta Vista, leaving the Chalchihuites people to manage their own mining interests. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

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4. Structure 1, Malinalco, Mexico. Malinalco, located to the southwest of Tenochtitlán outside of the Basin of Mexico, is one of the best-preserved provincial Aztec temple complexes. Carved partially out of bedrock exposed as a cliff and built partially of masonry, Malinalco was constructed by the following the conquest of the region. A series of structures like this one cluster at a corner formed by the cliff. Structure 1, hewn from bedrock, has a circular central chamber set atop the stairway, much like all other Aztec temples set on pyramids. The entrance to this temple is in the form of a serpent mouth. The interior featured animal pelts carved out of rock set on a raised bank. Two jaguar skins flanked an eagle. In the center of the room was a second eagle. The jaguar and eagle symbol has led to the suggestion that temple involved the military: the top military orders of Tenochtitlán were symbolized by the jaguar and the eagle. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

5. Tlaltelolco, Mexico. Originally an independent sister city and later subject to the rule of Tenochtitlán, Tlaltelolco was located immediately north of Tenochtitlán on Lake Texcoco. By 1519, the two formed a continuous urban zone of canals, streets, raised fields, and buildings totaling approximately 35 square miles. The population of these two cities is estimated at more than 200,000 people. Tlaltelolco was the site of the Basin of Mexico's largest market with large numbers of vendors dealing in every commodity known. Its position at the end of several causeways and accessibility via canoe made it the perfect location for such a market. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

6. A ceramic figure of an Aztec god, found during construction of the subway lines in Mexico City. Ceramic figures such as this one were common in Tenochtitlán and reflect the degree of excellence of the artisans who produced them. Ceramic objects were common at temples throughout the city and the Aztec world, while cruder terracotta figurines were typical of Aztec households and were part of household shrines. The most common of these represent women. Fine ceramic figurines may have been used in the household altars of elite families. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

7. An Aztec ceramic serving dish. The style of the vessel is typical of Aztec ceramics for the period. Ceramics such as this were manufactured by specialists and frequently marketed at places such as the main market of Tlaltelolco. The vessel in the slide dates to the Aztec III/IV phases, which correspond to the period of Aztec expansion and the early Spanish Colonial period. Aztec ceramics of this kind were highly valued. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

8. A temple and residence structure seen from its plaza at the site of in the Valley of , south of the Basin of Mexico. Mitla was the residence of the Zapotec ujia-tao, or great seer, and other priests. The ujia-tao was venerated by Zapotec nobility and was considered to be in very close contact with the world of the gods. A series of plazas flanked on three sides by structures like this one make up the core of Mitla. Beyond the core was a residential zone. The front, columned section of the structure had a public function. Behind this front section is an

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enclosed patio flanked by rooms, where people lived. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

9. The Main Plaza at Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Mexico. The great capital of the , Monte Albán reached its cultural peak between about A.D. 200-500, when the city had an estimated population of 30,000 and occupied an area of more than 6 square kilometers. Built on a hilltop which now overlooks the modern city of Oaxaca, the site enjoyed a commanding view of the Oaxaca Valley. Buildings in the Main Plaza provided galleries where prisoners and sacrificed victims could be displayed, and included a ball court.

Archaeologists believe that the impressive monumental architecture includes at least 14 districts, each of which was a political center which may have been tied to settlements located in the Oaxaca Valley. Monte Albán may thus have served as a "United Nations" or meeting ground at which representatives of the various groups could come together for important ceremonial observances and other purposes. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

10. The Great Ball Court at , Morelos, Mexico. About 40 kilometers west of the modern town of Cuernavaca, Xochicalco or "Place of the House of Flowers" is a fortified site which rose to prominence just as Teotihuacán faltered and fell, during the years A.D. 600-900. Although in contact with Teotihuacán earlier in its development, Xochicalco retained its independence and developed its own commercial relationships with the Valley of Mexico, Guerrero, Oaxaca, the peripheral coastal lowlands, and the Maya area. The monumental architecture, which displays both central Mexican and Mayan elements, testifies to some of the outside contacts enjoyed by the inhabitants of Xochicalco.

The ball court was constructed in the "I" shape typical for most of , and featured stone rings in the side walls. The ball game was a trademark feature of Mesoamerican cultures, played for sport as well as religious ritual. The outcome of a game served at times to predict the future, or to settle disputes and make important decisions. The Spanish observed games played by two opposing teams of from 2-11 men, who wore leather gear to protect their limbs from contact with the hard rubber ball. The ball was moved with rules similar to those followed by modern soccer players, using the arms, thighs, and lower legs, but no hands or feet. If a goal was made through the stone ring (a difficult and uncommon feat) the game was immediately won, and the clothing and jewelry of the spectators were forfeit to the winning team. Upon seeing the ball pass through the ring, the spectators fled immediately with the victorious members in hot pursuit, chasing after the loot. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

11. The Templo Mayor of the capital of Zempoala, a Nahuatl-speaking tributary state of Tenochtitlán. Its urban core was similar to other Late Postclassic cities. In the center was the walled religious compound, or teocalli. The highest, most important structure within the precinct was the most prestigious temple. Smaller temples, priestly residential buildings and other religious structures were present in the

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precinct as well. Cortés and his forces visited Zempoala before their march to Tenochtitlán. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

12. Temple of the Warriors, Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico. About half the size of Teotihuacán, Chichén Itzá is located in the center of the plains of northern Yucatan. The impressive buildings at Chichen are all set at the same angle (17 degrees east of north), as is common in Central Mexico. Some of the architecture at this site contrasts sharply with styles of earlier Mayan ceremonial structures, which featured thick walls, narrow doorways, and dark, mysterious interiors that symbolized the heart of the earth in which the priests communed with the gods. Expressing a new concept in religious worship, which replaced divinities of the earth with celestial worship of the sun, moon, and stars, the later buildings and courts of Chichén are open to the heavens. The new architectural style and some other aspects of Chichén Itzá's material culture are attributed by some archaeologists to the arrival of colonists who may have emigrated from the Toltec culture in central Mexico during the years from A.D. 987-1250. The new arrivals are thought to have occupied Chichén and a number of other Classic period settlements in Yucatán with the help of one of the powerful Mayan ruling families, the Itzá. After establishing their seat of power at , the new rulers dominated the Yucatan and controlled commercial interests from Tabasco to Honduras. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

13. The Sacred Cenote at Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico. Early settlers were probably attracted to the site by the presence of some two dozen cenotes, or sinkholes, which provided fresh water. Cenotes and rainwater cisterns were of critical importance for the residents of Yucatan, as the peninsula does not have any rivers or springs. Only two of the cenotes that originally provided fresh water to Chichén Itzá's inhabitants still have water today. The Sacred Cenote is reached by a long raised roadway that links it to the heart of the northern group of structures. It is the most imposing of all cenotes at Chichén, with very steep sides, and seems to have been used primarily as a receptacle for religious offerings. Archaeologists have recovered a variety of objects by dredging the cenote. Finds include precious stones and wooden objects, many of which were covered with sacred copal resin, and items made of gold. For everyday use, the people who lived around the ceremonial precinct of Chichén probably obtained water from the Xtoloc Cenote in the center of the site. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

14. An aerial view of the northern Yucatecan site, Dzibilchaltun. In this photograph is a long raised roadway, in Maya a sacbe. Sacbes frequently appear at northern sites, linking areas of the settlement as here, and also linking sites together. The longest, over one hundred kilometers long, joins the sites of Coba and Yaxuna. The function of these causeways was probably multiple, serving to symbolize commercial, political and ritual ties within and between communities. Because the Maya did not use wheeled transportation, the systems were probably built for reasons other than transportation. The sacbe shown here is one of several that link outlying groups to the core of Dzibilchaltun. The restored structure sitting on a platform at one end of the sacbe is the Temple of the Seven Dolls, named after an offering of small ceramic figurines found in the structure. The restored structures of the Seven Dolls group date to around A.D. 700-750, at which time the population of the city was growing

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towards 25,000. Most of the buildings at the site were erected during the Late and Terminal Classic periods (A.D. 700 - 1000). To the side of the sacbe is a Spanish colonial church, demonstrating the continuity of settlement at the site. The earliest archaeological remains date to around 600-500 B.C. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

15. El Palacio (The Palace), , Chiapas, Mexico. A great Classic Maya center of the west, Palenque is famous for the beauty of its sculpture in stucco, the carved panel reliefs that decorate the buildings, and its crested temples with mansard-style roofs topped with combs or stone sculptures. The four-story tower of the Palace is one of a number of unusual architectural features noted at Palenque. Temple walls at this site are thinner, doors are wider and more numerous, and roof combs are centered over the middle of the temple roof instead of at the back. These features combined to create lighter, airier temples than the dark, massive, walled structures constructed at Tikal. Palenque reached its peak during the years between A.D. 603- 784, when it was ruled by a powerful family whose dynastic history is recorded on stone monuments at the site. The most famous ruler, Lord Pacal, added many of the features to the palace complex which make it unique among Maya structures. When he died in A.D. 683 he was buried inside the Temple of the Inscriptions, where his final resting place is covered with an exquisitely carved stone slab decorated with an image of the great lord as a young man. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

16. Temple of the Sun, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. This is one of a group of three temples which were erected by Lord Chan-Bahlum, son of Lord Pacal and successor to his throne. In this group (known as the "Group of the Cross") Lord Chan- Bahlum's builders inaugurated a new architectural feature, the sanctuary within the temple, in A.D. 692. The same feature appeared a few years later in A.D. 700 at the Temple of the Seven Dolls in Dzibilchaltun, and is believed by archaeologists to attest to intimate contact between the ruling families of Palenque and Dzibilchaltun. These sanctuaries were decorated with elaborately carved stone panels that depict important events in the life and reign of the ruler (see following slide). In this slide you can clearly see the "comb" that tops the mansard-style roof, adding height and a panel of decorative elements to the exterior of the building. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

17. Sanctuary Panel within the Temple of the Cross, Group of the Cross, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. Stone carvings that adorn buildings and monuments are a hallmark of Classic Maya culture. Specialists who study the writing and mathematical systems of the Maya have decoded the glyphs which decorate panels like these. The information recorded on monumental architecture consists primarily of dates noting important events in the lives of rulers and other members of the nobility. The glyphs on this panel are clearly visible running down the length of the right side of the slab. They record events that occurred around the time of Lord Chan-Bahlum's accession to the throne of Palenque, and verify that he was the son of the illustrious Lord Pacal. The elements of Lord Chan-Bahlum's costume include his name in the form of a "chan" or snake with a stingray spine attached to its muzzle. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

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18. Building Detail (bas-relief), Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. The builders of Palenque created striking effects with the use of a lime-based "batter" or stucco which was applied to buildings and molded into a variety of shapes, including supernatural creatures and geometric designs. Many of the stucco decorations were originally painted, but the ravages of time and weather have worn away what were probably very bright colors. The eruption of nearby volcano El Chichón in April of 1982 deposited thick layers of fine volcanic ash over Palenque. Rain eventually washed the buildings and carvings clean, but the combined effect of the ash and rain created a "scouring" effect that eroded the delicate surfaces and destroyed many of the remaining traces of painted colors. Acid rain also threatens many archaeological sites. (Courtesy Elizabeth O. Mozzillo).

19. A view of a portion of the Central Acropolis at the center of the Classic Maya city, Tikal, Guatemala. The city was the most important in the Maya world and in its early period was contemporary with Teotihuacán. Portraits of some early Tikal rulers on stelae show them dressed in Teotihuacán-influenced regalia. The core of the site includes a series of structural complexes like this one and a number of pyramids elevating small temples that had tall facades portraying the rulers with which they were associated. Other pyramids appear in pairs and were erected every katún (twenty Long-count years, an important Maya ceremonial period). Beyond the core of the city was a less dense zone of residential platforms that probably were surrounded by gardens. The limits of the site are defined in part by a defensive wall. The city continued as one of the most important in the Maya lowlands until the end of the Classic period. The last monument erected at Tikal dates to 869 A.D., when most construction had already ceased at the site. By the tenth century A.D., the city had completely collapsed and was abandoned. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

20. Ixchimche. The site, located in the Guatemalan department of Chimaltenango, was the Late Postclassic capital of the Cakchiquel state. Founded around 1470, the capital ruled an expanding kingdom whose growth was cut short by the arrival of Spanish . The Cakchiquel had originally paid tribute to the Quiche Maya state. The founding of Iximche and subsequent events, however, saw the rise of the Cakchiquel at the expense of the Quiche. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

Andean America

21. Folkdancer dressed as condor. The condor has been an important symbol in the Andean world since pre-Columbian times. Originally this large, powerful bird was a symbol of the heavens, and after the conquest it became a symbol of Indian endurance and resistance to European domination. Many festivals today in the Andean world continue the tradition of praising the indomitable spirit of the proud condor. (Courtesy Abraham Guillén from the Latin American Library, Photographic Archive, Tulane University).

22. Indian playing the quena, with llama. During pre-Columbian times, Andean music utilized drums and a variety of wind instruments such as the quena depicted

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here. After the conquest, stringed instruments were added to the repertoire. Andean music is famous today around the world for its melodious and haunting sounds reminiscent of the mountains which serve as its inspiration. (Courtesy Abraham Guillén from the Latin American Library, Photographic Archive, Tulane University).

23. The church of Santo Domingo in Cuzco, Peru built on the foundation of the Qorikancha, the Temple of the Sun and most important religious structure in the Inca Capital. The Qorikancha was dedicated to the worship of Inti, the solar aspect of the Inca sky god. The Qorikancha was heavily embellished with gold in its interior and was the religious heart of the Inca world just as Cuzco was its administrative heart. The temples of the structure sat on top of the platform which now forms the base of Santo Domingo church. The Qorikancha was part of a web of religious structures and wakas, supernaturally powerful natural features of the landscape. Some of Cuzco's religious structures formed part of a network of shrines. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

24. Sacsahuaman. Cuzco was built in the shape of a puma, an Andean symbol of power. At its head stood the main fortress of Inca Cuzco, Sacsahuaman. Huge boulders were shaped by hand with hammerstones to make the walls of the structure. The insets along the wall were for defense, allowing sling-wielding soldiers to attack aggressors from the front and behind simultaneously. Entrance corridors were similarly protected. Below Sacsahuaman was the remainder of the city, divided into two great sections of differing prestige, Hurin and Hanan Cuzco. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

25. Incan roads. Leading out of Cuzco were the main highways that formed the main linkages of the Inca state. Armies, couriers, mita laborers and trade caravans moved along roadways that were maintained by the state. Buildings called tambos lined the highways as hospices for official travelers. Tambos were often maintained with a local tax on nearby communities. Unlike modern highways, Inca roads in the sierra were highly developed and maintained trails. Wheeled vehicles did not exist, so the grade could be steep, and steps and rope bridges were common parts of the functional road system. The Inca use of roadways was a feature of Andean statecraft inherited from earlier states. Most of the roadways followed previously established routes. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

26. Tambo Machay, Huatanay Valley outside Cuzco, Peru. The Huatanay and neighboring Urubamba valleys outside of Cuzco were highly developed rural zones in which the Inca state did much construction. Much of the Huatanay valley was given up to imperial estates, which frequently included private forest reserves, agricultural terrace systems, and special areas for salt production, fish farming, and reed growing. At the heart of these estates were palace complexes, characterized by typical Inca elite architecture. Lesser dwellings of estate workers completed the built space. Tambo Machay was the hunting lodge of the first, great Inca ruler, Pachakuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-1471). Pachakuti was responsible for the first major series of conquests that transformed a small highland kingdom into one of the world's major . In the photograph a double fountain is shown. The use of water and stone

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as design elements was typical of Inca elite architectural aesthetics. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

27. The Intihuanta Complex at Macchu Picchu, an Inca town located in the saddle between two peaks in Peru. The terraces shown in the photograph are examples of characteristic Inca agricultural engineering. Large numbers of terraces built and maintained under the direction of the Inca state allowed for the cultivation of slopes that otherwise would have proved impossible for agriculture. Agricultural engineering of this kind began under the direction of earlier states and was adopted by the Incas, who in some areas were responsible for dramatic increases in productivity. The fields were divided into three groups. One group belonged to the Inca ruler and his descendants charged with preserving his mummy. The second went to the support of Inca state religion, and the last belonged to the local population for subsistence support. A large portion of the imperial third went to support mita laborers, the army, and corps of specialized craftsmen and bureaucrats. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).28. Chan Chan. In the northern coast of Peru near the Moche River, the city of Chan Chan functioned as the capital of a large, multi-valley regional state. The Chimu empire ruled the north coast until they were conquered by the Inca state. Buildings at Chan Chan are of adobe, which literally "melts" in the infrequent coastal rains. Excavation of the nearly featureless walls, however, revealed that many were highly decorated. The main structures at Chan Chan are a series of palaces that served as the residences, administrative centers and mausoleum of Chimu kings. Chan Chan was the heir of a long coastal tradition that saw the rise of successive multi-valley states. These states were supported by a sophisticated agricultural system that featured massive, intervalley canals drawing water to nourish crops in the intervalley deserts. The ocean also provided a tremendous amount of food for coastal populations. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

29. A decorated wall frieze at Chan Chan. This kind of three-dimensional modeling was characteristic of Chimu architecture. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

30. A Chimu blackware vessel modeled to represent a noble. The manufacture of elite and utilitarian objects in many media was characteristic of all Andean societies. The earliest materials to be used included clay and, even earlier, cotton for textiles. Fine ceramics functioned as prestige goods and may have had household, ritual, or mortuary functions. Elite goods were also manufactured in gold, silver, copper, bronze and tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold. Metalworking in the Andes predated metalworking in largely neolithic (stone-tool using) Mesoamerica by millenia. Some scholars have argued that metal- working techniques were learned by Pacific coast Mesoamerican societies from metal-using societies further to the south and, ultimately, from the Andes. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute).

31. A bronze "tumi," or knife, from the Southern Highlands. Metalworking developed early in the Andean region and included the production of elite artifacts in gold, silver and alloys such as bronze and the production of household artifacts. Tumis were

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used ceremonially in the Andes and were often decorated. They were manufactured in molds as well as through the use of the lost wax technique. Other metal-working techniques included repousse. (Courtesy of Middle American Research Institute).32. A mortuary blanket from the early coastal burial site of Paracas. Textiles, made of cotton, llama, and alpaca wool, were characteristic of Andean civilization. Fine textiles were held in great esteem and valued more than such Old World prestige goods as gold and silver. Many textiles were highly decorated in complex patterns and with a large palette of colors. They functioned in many different contexts. The blanket shown here was made to accompany the high-ranking deceased in death. Other textiles functioned to indicate status or ethnic identity. (Courtesy Middle American Research Institute)

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