A Short History of Computing
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Microprocessors History of Computing Nouf Assaid
MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY OF COMPUTING NOUF ASSAID 1 Table of Contents Introduction 2 Brief History 2 Microprocessors 7 Instruction Set Architectures 8 Von Neumann Machine 9 Microprocessor Design 12 Superscalar 13 RISC 16 CISC 20 VLIW 23 Multiprocessor 24 Future Trends in Microprocessor Design 25 2 Introduction If we take a look around us, we would be sure to find a device that uses a microprocessor in some form or the other. Microprocessors have become a part of our daily lives and it would be difficult to imagine life without them today. From digital wrist watches, to pocket calculators, from microwaves, to cars, toys, security systems, navigation, to credit cards, microprocessors are ubiquitous. All this has been made possible by remarkable developments in semiconductor technology enabling in the last 30 years, enabling the implementation of ideas that were previously beyond the average computer architect’s grasp. In this paper, we discuss the various microprocessor technologies, starting with a brief history of computing. This is followed by an in-depth look at processor architecture, design philosophies, current design trends, RISC processors and CISC processors. Finally we discuss trends and directions in microprocessor design. Brief Historical Overview Mechanical Computers A French engineer by the name of Blaise Pascal built the first working mechanical computer. This device was made completely from gears and was operated using hand cranks. This machine was capable of simple addition and subtraction, but a few years later, a German mathematician by the name of Leibniz made a similar machine that could multiply and divide as well. After about 150 years, a mathematician at Cambridge, Charles Babbage made his Difference Engine. -
Analytical Engine, 1838 ALLAN G
Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine, 1838 ALLAN G. BROMLEY Charles Babbage commenced work on the design of the Analytical Engine in 1834 following the collapse of the project to build the Difference Engine. His ideas evolved rapidly, and by 1838 most of the important concepts used in his later designs were established. This paper introduces the design of the Analytical Engine as it stood in early 1838, concentrating on the overall functional organization of the mill (or central processing portion) and the methods generally used for the basic arithmetic operations of multiplication, division, and signed addition. The paper describes the working of the mechanisms that Babbage devised for storing, transferring, and adding numbers and how they were organized together by the “microprogrammed” control system; the paper also introduces the facilities provided for user- level programming. The intention of the paper is to show that an automatic computing machine could be built using mechanical devices, and that Babbage’s designs provide both an effective set of basic mechanisms and a workable organization of a complete machine. Categories and Subject Descriptors: K.2 [History of Computing]- C. Babbage, hardware, software General Terms: Design Additional Key Words and Phrases: Analytical Engine 1. Introduction 1838. During this period Babbage appears to have made no attempt to construct the Analytical Engine, Charles Babbage commenced work on the design of but preferred the unfettered intellectual exploration of the Analytical Engine shortly after the collapse in 1833 the concepts he was evolving. of the lo-year project to build the Difference Engine. After 1849 Babbage ceased designing calculating He was at the time 42 years o1d.l devices. -
Who Invented the Computer?
Who Invented the Computer? AP This story comes from VOA Special English, Voice of America's daily news and information service for English learners. Read the story and then do the activities in the worksheet at the end. Millions of us use them every day. Some are so large they have to sit on the floor. Others are so small that they fit in our hand. They help us with mathematical problems, store our music and pictures, and are needed to search the Internet. They are, of course, computers. So try this experiment. Ask a friend or just someone you see on the street this question: “Who invented the computer?” Some people cannot live without computers, but we know very little about who invented them. So who did it? Are you ready? The answer is … we do not know for sure. Many people who know a lot about information technology might say computers were invented by Alan Turing. He was a British mathematician who helped solve coded messages from Germany during World War Two. Many people consider him the “father of computer science.” But to find the first person who thought he could make a computing device, we have to go back one hundred eighty years to a man named Charles Babbadge. He also was British. Special English is part of VOA Learning English: voanews.com/learningenglish | December 2011 | 1 Recently, researchers in his home country announced plans to use millions of dollars to build one of Babbadge’s “Analytical Engines.” John Graham- Cumming and Doron Swade are supervising the project at the Science Museum in London. -
Ada Lovelace the first Computer Programmer 1815 - 1852
Ada Lovelace The first computer programmer 1815 - 1852 Biography Ada Lovelace Day I Born on December 10th, 1815 in London as Augusta Ada Byron Each second Tuesday in October is Ada Lovelace Day. A day to raise the I Parents separated when she was a baby profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths to create new role models for girls and women in these fields. During this day the I Father Lord Byron was a poet and died when she was 8 years old accomplishments of those women are celebrated. I Mother Lady Wentworth was a social reformer I Descended from a wealthy family I Early interest in mathematics and science, encouraged by her mother Portrait I Obtained private classes and got in touch with intellectuals, e.g. Mary Sommerville who tutored her and later introduced Lovelace to Charles Babbage at the age of 17 I Married in 1835 William King at the age of 19, shortly after becoming the Countess of Lovelace I By 1839, she had given birth to 3 children I Continued studying maths, supported among others by Augustus De Morgan, a math professor in London who taught her via correspondence I In 1843, she published a translation of an Italian academic paper about Babbage's Analytical Engine and added her famous note section (see Contributions) I Died on November 27th, 1852 at the age of 36 Contributions I First computer programmer, roughly a century before the electronic computer I A two decade lasting correspondence with Babbage about his idea of an Analytical Engine I Developed an algorithm that would enable the Analytical Engine to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, unfortunately, the machine was never built I First person to realize the power of computer programs: Not only used for calculations with numbers I Combined arts and logic, calling it poetical science Figure 3:Ada Lovelace I First reflections about artificial intelligence, but she rejected the idea Bernoulli Numbers Quotes I Play an important role in several domains of mathematics, e.g. -
Details Von Neumann/Turing Structure of Von Nuemann Machine
ENIAC - background 168 420 Computer Architecture ] Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer ] Eckert and Mauchly Chapter 2 ] University of Pennsylvania Computer Evolution and ] Trajectory tables for weapons Performance ] Started 1943 ] Finished 1946 \ Too late for war effort ] Used until 1955 ENIAC - details ENIAC ] Decimal (not binary) ] 20 accumulators of 10 digits ] Programmed manually by switches ] 18,000 vacuum tubes ] 30 tons ] 15,000 square feet ] 140 kW power consumption ] 5,000 additions per second Structure of von Nuemann von Neumann/Turing machine ] Stored Program concept ] Main memory storing programs and data Arithmetic and Logic Unit ] ALU operating on binary data ] Control unit interpreting instructions from Input Output Main memory and executing Equipment Memory ] Input and output equipment operated by control unit ] Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies Program Control Unit \ IAS ] Completed 1952 1 IAS - details Structure of IAS - detail ] 1000 x 40 bit words Central Processing Unit Arithmetic and Logic Unit \ Binary number Accumulator MQ \ 2 x 20 bit instructions ] Set of registers (storage in CPU) Arithmetic & Logic Circuits \ Memory Buffer Register Input MBR Output Instructions \ Memory Address Register Main Equipment & Data \ Instruction Register Memory \ Instruction Buffer Register IBR PC MAR \ Program Counter IR Control \ Accumulator Circuits Address \ Multiplier Quotient Program Control Unit IAS Commercial Computers ] 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation ] UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) ] -
The Largest Project in IT History New England Db2 Users Group Meeting Old Sturbridge Village, 1 Old Sturbridge Village Road, Sturbridge, MA 01566, USA
The Largest Project in IT History New England Db2 Users Group Meeting Old Sturbridge Village, 1 Old Sturbridge Village Road, Sturbridge, MA 01566, USA Milan Babiak Client Technical Professional + Mainframe Evangelist IBM Canada [email protected] Thursday September 26, AD2019 © 2019 IBM Corporation The Goal 2 © 2019 IBM Corporation AGENDA 1. IBM mainframe history overview 1952-2019 2. The Largest Project in IT History: IBM System/360 3. Key Design Principles 4. Key Operational Principles 5. Dedication 3 © 2019 IBM Corporation The Mainframe Family tree – 1952 to 1964 • Several mainframe families announced, designed for different applications • Every family had a different, incompatible architecture • Within families, moving from one generation to the next was a migration Common compilers made migration easier: FORTRAN (1957) 62 nd anniversary in 2019 COBOL (1959) 60 th anniversary in 2019 4 © 2019 IBM Corporation The Mainframe Family tree – 1952 to 1964 1st generation IBM 701 – 1952 IBM 305 RAMAC – 1956 2nd generation IBM 1401 – 1959 IBM 1440 – 1962 IBM 7094 – 1962 5 © 2019 IBM Corporation The April 1964 Revolution - System 360 3rd generation • IBM decided to implement a wholly new architecture • Specifically designed for data processing • IBM invested $5B to develop System 360 announced on April 7, 1964 IBM Revenue in 1964: $3.23B 6 © 2019 IBM Corporation Data Processing Software in Historical Perspective System 360 1964 IMS 1968 VSAM 1970s ADABAS by Software AG 1971 Oracle database by Oracle Corporation 1977 SMF/RMF system data 1980s -
Lovelace & Babbage and the Creation of the 1843 'Notes'
Lovelace & Babbage and the Creation of the 1843 ‘Notes’ John Fuegi and Jo Francis Flare/MITH Augusta Ada Lovelace worked with Charles Babbage to create a description of Babbage’s unbuilt invention, the Analytical Engine, a highly advanced mechanical calculator often considered a forerunner of the electronic calculating computers of the 20th century. Ada Lovelace’s “Notes,” describing the Analytical Engine, published in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs in 1843, contained a ground-breaking description of the possibilities of programming the machine to go beyond number-crunching to “computing” in the wider sense in which we understand the term today. This article expands on research first presented by the authors in their documentary film, To Dream Tomorrow. What shall we do to get rid of Mr. Babbage and known to have crossed the intellectual thresh- his calculating Machine? Surely if completed it old between conceptualizing computing as would be worthless as far as science is con- only for calculation on the one hand, and on cerned? the other hand, computing as we know it —British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, 18421 today: with wider applications made possible by symbolic substitution. The Analytical Engine does not occupy common In an early background interview at the ground with mere ‘calculating machines.’ … In Science Museum (London) for the historical enabling mechanism to combine together gen- documentary film about collaboration between eral symbols, in successions of unlimited variety Lovelace and Babbage, To Dream Tomorrow,3 and extent, a uniting link is established between Babbage authority Doron Swade mentioned the operations of matter and the abstract mental that he thought Babbage and Lovelace had processes of the most abstract branch of mathe- “very different qualities of mind.” Swade’s matical science. -
Finding a Story for the History of Computing 2018
Repositorium für die Medienwissenschaft Thomas Haigh Finding a Story for the History of Computing 2018 https://doi.org/10.25969/mediarep/3796 Angenommene Version / accepted version Working Paper Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Haigh, Thomas: Finding a Story for the History of Computing. Siegen: Universität Siegen: SFB 1187 Medien der Kooperation 2018 (Working paper series / SFB 1187 Medien der Kooperation 3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.25969/mediarep/3796. Erstmalig hier erschienen / Initial publication here: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:hbz:467-13377 Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Dieser Text wird unter einer Creative Commons - This document is made available under a creative commons - Namensnennung - Nicht kommerziell - Keine Bearbeitungen 4.0/ Attribution - Non Commercial - No Derivatives 4.0/ License. For Lizenz zur Verfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu dieser Lizenz more information see: finden Sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Finding a Story for the History of Computing Thomas Haigh University of Wisconsin — Milwaukee & University of Siegen WORKING PAPER SERIES | NO. 3 | JULY 2018 Collaborative Research Center 1187 Media of Cooperation Sonderforschungsbereich 1187 Medien der Kooperation Working Paper Series Collaborative Research Center 1187 Media of Cooperation Print-ISSN 2567 – 2509 Online-ISSN 2567 – 2517 URN urn :nbn :de :hbz :467 – 13377 This work is licensed under the Creative Publication of the series is funded by the German Re- Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- search Foundation (DFG). No Derivatives 4.0 International License. The Arpanet Logical Map, February, 1978 on the titl e This Working Paper Series is edited by the Collabora- page is taken from: Bradley Fidler and Morgan Currie, tive Research Center Media of Cooperation and serves “Infrastructure, Representation, and Historiography as a platform to circulate work in progress or preprints in BBN’s Arpanet Maps”, IEEE Annals of the History of in order to encourage the exchange of ideas. -
Analytical Engine: the Orig- Inal Computer
Chapter 2 Analytical Engine: The Orig- inal Computer As we learned in the fourth grade science course, back in 1801, a French man, Joseph Marie Jacquard, invented a power loom that could weave textiles, which had been done for a long time by hand. More interestingly, this machine can weave tex- tiles with patterns such as brocade, damask, and matelasse by controlling the operation with punched wooden cards, held together in a long row by rope. 1 How do these cards work? Each wooden card comes with punched holes, each row of which corresponds to one row of the design. In each position, if the needle needs to go through, there is a hole; other- wise, there is no hole. Multiple rows of holes are punched on each card and all the cards that compose the design of the textile are hooked together in order. 2 What do we get? With the control of such cards, needs go back and forth, moving from left to the right, row by row, and come up with something like the following: Although the punched card concept was based on some even earlier invention by Basile Bou- chon around 1725, “the Jacquard loom was the first machine to use punch cards to con- trol a sequence of operations”. Let’s check out a little demo as how Jacquard’s machine worked. 3 Why do we talk about a loom? With Jacquard loom, if you want to switch to a different pattern, you simply change the punched cards. By the same token, with a modern computer, if you want it to run a different application, you simply load it with a different program, which used to keep on a deck of paper based punched cards. -
Milestones in Analog and Digital Computing
Milestones in Analog and Digital Computing Contributions to the History of Mathematics and Information Technology by Herbert Bruderer Numerous recent discoveries of rare historical analog and digital calculators and previously unknown texts, drawings, and pictures from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and France. Worldwide, multilingual bibliography regarding the history of computer science with over 3000 entries. 12 step-by-step set of instructions for the operation of historical analog and digital calculating devices. 75 comparative overviews in tabular form. 200 illustrations. 20 comprehensive lists. 7 timelines of computer history. Published by de Gruyter Oldenbourg. Berlin/Boston 2015, xxxii, 820 pages, 119.95 Euro. During the 1970's mechanical calculating instruments and machines suddenly disappeared from the scene. They were replaced by electronic versions. Most of these devices developed since the 17th century – often very clever constructions – have been forgotten. Who can imagine today how difficult calculation was only a few decades ago? This book introduces the reader to selected milestones from prehistory and early history of computing. The Antikythera Mechanism This puzzling device was made around 200 BC. It was discovered around 1900 by divers off the Greek island of Antikythera. It is believed to be the oldest known analog (or rather hybrid) computing device. Numerous replicas have been built to unravel the mysteries of this calendar calculator. It is suspected that the machine came from the school of Archimedes. 1 Androids, Music Boxes, Chess Automatons, Looms This treatise also explores topics related to computing technology: automated human and animal figures, mecha- nized musical instruments, music boxes, as well as punched tape controlled looms and typewriters. -
Who Was Charles Babbage?
Click here for Full Issue of EIR Volume 27, Number 20, May 19, 2000 EIRBooks Who Was Charles Babbage? by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. of the Analytical Engine that was under construction at the time of Babbage’s death, all he ever built of that The Cogwheel Brain revolutionary machine. Its modest size gives little clue by Doron Swade to the monumental intellectual accomplishment of its London: Little, Brown, 2000 conception and its much publicized role as the symbolic 342 pages, hardbound, £14.99 antecedent of the modern computer.” That part of Swade’s account, covering the period from May 11, 2000 the launching of the Science Museum’s Babbage project, from May 20, 1985 through the public demonstration of No- The specific merit in Doron Swade’s new assessment of vember 29, 1991, occupies the concluding, third section of his Charles Babbage’s role in the development of modern mathe- book, which is subtitled: “A Modern Sequel.” For qualified matical computing machines, lies in Swade’s notable part in specialists familiar with earlier standard sources on Bab- the actual construction of a machine according to Babbage’s bage’s life and work, the useful contribution of Swade’s book, own designs. Swade describes the circumstances leading into lies almost entirely in the content of that third section. the first public demonstration, which was made in London, The misleading elements in the earlier part of Swade’s on Friday, November 29, 1991, three days after inventor Bab- book as a whole, lie in his fallacy of composition. Instead of bage’s 200th birthday. -
The History of Computing in the History of Technology
The History of Computing in the History of Technology Michael S. Mahoney Program in History of Science Princeton University, Princeton, NJ (Annals of the History of Computing 10(1988), 113-125) After surveying the current state of the literature in the history of computing, this paper discusses some of the major issues addressed by recent work in the history of technology. It suggests aspects of the development of computing which are pertinent to those issues and hence for which that recent work could provide models of historical analysis. As a new scientific technology with unique features, computing in turn can provide new perspectives on the history of technology. Introduction record-keeping by a new industry of data processing. As a primary vehicle of Since World War II 'information' has emerged communication over both space and t ime, it as a fundamental scientific and technological has come to form the core of modern concept applied to phenomena ranging from information technolo gy. What the black holes to DNA, from the organization of English-speaking world refers to as "computer cells to the processes of human thought, and science" is known to the rest of western from the management of corporations to the Europe as informatique (or Informatik or allocation of global resources. In addition to informatica). Much of the concern over reshaping established disciplines, it has information as a commodity and as a natural stimulated the formation of a panoply of new resource derives from the computer and from subjects and areas of inquiry concerned with computer-based communications technolo gy.