The Pronophilina: Synopsis of Their Biology and Systematics (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae)
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Vol. 15 No. 1-2 2004 (2007) VILORIA: Synopsis of the Pronophiline Satyrines TROPICAL LEPIDOPTERA, 15(1-2): 1-17 (2007) THE PRONOPHILINA: SYNOPSIS OF THEIR BIOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE: SATYRINAE) ANGEL L. VILORIA1 Centre de Ecologia, Institute Venezolana de Investigaciones Cientificas (IVIC) Aptdo. 21827, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela [email protected]. ABSTRACT.- A summary of the current knowledge on the satyrine butterflies of the Neotropical subtribe Pronophilina is presented, with an emphasis on their larval host-plant relationships, the possible mimetic resemblances between these and other montane butterflies, and their conservation. The systematics of the group is re-assessed and the tribe re-defined on the basis of a minimum combination of morphological characters. RESUMEN. - Se presenta una compilacion del conocimiento disponible sobre las mariposas satirinas de la subtribu Pronophilina, con enfasis en, la relacion de sus larvas con las plantas hospederas, las posibles semejanzas mimeticas entre las mariposas pronofilinas y otras mariposas neotropicales de montana, y su conservation. Se reevalua la sistematica del grupo, quedando redefinida la tribu en base a una minima combination de caracteres morfologicos. KEY WORDS.- A/topedaliades, Andes, Antopedaliodes, Arhuaco, bamboos, Bia, Biina, Calislo, Cheimas, cloud forest, conservation, Corades, Daeda/ma, Dangond, Diaphanos, Dioriste, Diptera, Drucina, Elina, Erebiina, Eretris, Eteona, Foetterleia, Fuego-Patagonian, Gramineae, higher classification, host plants, Hypocystina, Junea, Lasiophila, Lymanopoda, Manerebia, mimicry, morphology, Mygona, Neotropical, Oxeoschistus, Panyapedaliodes, Paramo, paramo, Parapedaliodes, parasitism, Pedaliodes, Pherepedaliodes, Physcopedaliodes, Poaceae, Praepedaliodes, Pronophila, Protopedaliodes, Pseudomaniola, Punapedaliodes, Redonda, seasonality, sedentarism, Sierrasteroma, South America, Sleremnia, Steroma, Steromapedaliodes, Tamania, Thiemeia, West Indies. Among the nymphalid butterflies of the subfamily Satyrinae, the HOSTPLANTS AND EARLY STAGES members of the subtribe Pronophilina are conspicuously repre- sented at middle to high elevations in virtually all mountain The only available records indicate that cloud forest pronoph- systems of the Neotropical region. As redefined herein, they form iline butterflies oviposite singly on the tip of bamboo leaves a plausibly monophyletic group of 39 genera, represented by ca. (DeVries, 1980, 1987; Pyrcz et al, 1999). This is also true for 530 recognised species (Lamas et ai, 2004). The tribe is structur- most Calisto (Sourakov, 1996). In contrast, high elevation species ally cohesive, although morphologically diverse. Adult sizes range of Altopedaliodes Forster and Redonda Adams & Bernard from small to relatively large. Wing patterns are generally broadcast moderate to large numbers of eggs that are devoid of dominated by tones of brown and dark grey, but they are also adhesive substances, and do not glue them in place (Apolinar, rather rich in colorful variations from white to iridescent blue. The 1914; Viloria, 1994; Viloria et al, 2003; Viloria and Pyrcz, MS). range of colors exhibited is unusually wide for the Satyrinae. The latter is also the case for a number of species of Calisto The highest proportion of pronophiline species inhabits very Hubner (Wetherbee, 1992; Sourakov, 1996) and Parapedaliodes humid cloud forests where poaceous plants (bamboos), known or Forster (Pelz, 1996), which are commonly found in pasture land. supposed to be their larval host plants, are particularly abundant. Such a difference in oviposition strategy may be explained in the Adults have low vagility and spend most of their lives within second case by the use of superabundant and homogeneously delimited areas of those forests. They rarely feed on flower nectar distributed host plants like paramo or savanna grasses instead of (only few cases are so far known), but mostly on other organic woody bamboos (Viloria et al., 2003). matter, specially animal excreta and rotting vegetal tissues. In the high altitude (oreal) zone of the Andes, pronophiline Much of what is known about the adult biology of the prono- butterflies are found in association with tussock grasses (see e.g., philine butterflies has already been presented by Adams and Lamas, 1999: 30). Some of these grasses have been confirmed as Bernard (1977, 1979, 1981), DeVries (1980, 1987), Adams (1983, food plants (Brown, 1941: 436; Viloria et al., 2003; Viloria and 1985, 1986), Pyrcz and Wojtusiak (1999), Pyrcz et ai (1999), and Pyrcz, MS), but the majority have just been inferred as potential Pyrcz (2004b). The reader is referred to these publications for hosts. Non-bambusoid grasses seem to be the more generalized behavioral aspects and details of the unique pattern of distribution food plant source for low elevation species of the Antillean of many members of the subtribe. Additional studies and discus- endemic genus Calisto (Smith et al., 1994; Sourakov and Emmel, sions on the taxonomy and biogeography of the most speciose 1995; Sourakov, 1996). However, several Calisto species have sections of the Pronophilina, the genus Lymanopoda Westwood been recorded on the climbing bamboo Arthrostylidium Ruprecht and the Pedaliodes generic complex, are currently in preparation (Wetherbee, 1992; Smith et al., 1994). by Tomasz Pyrcz, of the Jagiellonian University (Krakow, Observations of strong associations of adult pronophiline Poland), and the author of this paper. butterflies to cloud forest bamboos have progressively accumu- lated (Miiller, 1886: 611; Apolinar, 1914: 75; Schultze, 1930: 1. Formerly, Biogeography & Conservation Laboratory, Department of 157-165; Adams and Bernard, 1977, 1979, 1981; Adams, 1983: Entomology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 414-415, 1984: 94, 1985: 37; 1986: 237,1987: 36; DeVries, 1986, 5BD, UK. 1987; Miller, 1986: 193; Drummond, 1988; Londono, 1990; Viloria, [1991]; Wetherbee, 1992: 2-28, 83; Maes, 1997: 6; Viloria 2 VILORIA: Synopsis of the Pronophiline Satyrines TROPICAL LEPIDOPTERA and Camacho, 1999: 176, 179, 182; Pyrcz and Wojtusiak, 1999: PARASITISM 205; Pyrcz et ai, 1999: 498; Heredia and Viloria, 2004:81), but few of these records correspond to actual oviposition or larval host During juvenile stages, high rates of mortality among several records. In my experience, it is as difficult to investigate oviposi- species of Colombian pronophilines are certainly due to the tion sites or larval feeding on Neotropical bamboos as it is to incidence of parasitoids (M. D. Heredia, pers. comm.), but it is determine the bamboo species themselves, in particular those of unknown whether parasitoids in these cases are host-specific. No Chusquea Kunth, the world's most diverse genus of the Bambusoi- formal study has so far been undertaken to investigate which taxa deae (Soderstrom et ai, 1988). are involved in these butterfly-parasitoid relationships, nor are Vegetative parts of Chusquea bamboo species exhibit high their consequences known on the dynamics of the butterfly phenotypic plasticity in response to ecological conditions (Wid- populations. This phenomenon could play an important role in the mer, 1997a), therefore it is unreliable (if not impossible) to spatial distribution of parapatric taxa. identify species simply by observation of their vegetative parts. A preliminary note on the occurrence of ectoparasitic Diptera Finding and collecting bamboo reproductive structures (flowers) (probably Ceratopogonidae) attached to the wing veins of several for taxonomic study is difficult and unpredictable, as these plants butterfly species in Venezuela (Lichy, 1946) is the only study often have very lengthy flowering cycles (Janzen, 1976). For available about such interesting relationships within Neotropical example, Widmer (1997b) reckoned that Chusquea abietifolia montane satyrines. The species of the Pronophilina known to be Grisebach in Jamaica has a flowering period of 31-33 years. heavily and frequently parasitized by Diptera are: Corades enyo Although bamboo systematics in the Neotropics has received enyo Hewitson, Lasiophila zapatoza zapatoza (Westwood), considerable attention by taxonomists in recent decades (e. g., Lymanopoda obsoleta (Westwood), Mygona irmina (Doubleday), McClure, 1966, 1973; Calderon and Soderstrom, 1980; Clark, Pedaliodes piletha (Hewitson), P. plotina (Hewitson), and P. 1989, 1990, 1995), it still lags behind taxonomic studies of many prytanis (Hewitson). other groups of plants. This is very largely due to insufficient or inadequate (flowering) material in herbaria. ADULT DISPERSAL ABILITY Plant taxonomy is not the only limitation to study the biology of butterflies associated to bamboos in remote tropical montane Lichy (1946), Adams (1983, 1985), De Marmels et al. (1996), areas. Research on the early stages of the members of the subtribe and Viloria et al. (200la), have emphasized the fact that adult Pronophilina is further complicated by the need to pursue any pronophiline butterflies are very sedentary and heavily dependent study in situ, because immature insects often die very quickly on certain microhabitats where bamboo plants are dominant from physical stress during transportation to lower elevations vegetation elements. High elevation species have not only very (especially if, as usual, their geographical range is not accessible low relative vagility, but in some cases females show varying by modem means of transportation). Additionally, most of the degrees