The Lessons of Open Source for Historians
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Think Piece Open Source’s Lessons for Historians Nathan L. Ensmenger University of Pennsylvania Of all the developments in the recent history of comput- methods are also the best in a larger social, moral, and ing, none has attracted such widespread attention as the political sense. As Steven Weber suggests in his excellent emergence of the open-source software movement. In part, book The Success of Open Source, “Technical discussions [in this is due to the remarkable successes of such open-source the open-source community] on how things should work projects as Linux, Sendmail, and Apache. Versions of the and should be done are intimately related to beliefs about GNU/Linux operating system are used by 40 percent of and reflections on social practices”2 Open-source projects large American corporations, 65 percent of the world’s Web represent an idealized vision of democracy in action—run servers run Apache, and Sendmail manages 80 percent of by volunteers and organized only on an informal, ad hoc the world’s email. Even traditional commercial vendors basis; decisions are made by consensus rather than decree. such as IBM, Apple, and Novell have jumped on the open- Project participants are independent agents—often wide- source bandwagon; the Macintosh OS X operating system ly distributed geographically—who communicate largely is based on a BSD derivative, and IBM recently announced through email and newsgroups. There are no scheduled a $1 billion commitment to open-source development.1 meetings, no rigid job descriptions or organized division Despite these apparent successes, however, the lessons of labor, no managerial hierarchies or process controls. of the open-source movement are not necessarily those In short, open-source development projects seem to that its proponents might hope or imagine. They suggest ignore almost all the supposed lessons of modern indus- more about new methods and questions for historians to trial manufacturing. By radically altering the social and grapple with than obvious conclusions about a new “one political organization of software development, open best way” to manage software development. source seemingly solves some of the most intractable problems that have plagued the software industry over The various meanings of “openness” the last several decades. Theological debates about the At its most basic, open source refers simply to software intricacies of intellectual property law and licensing that is made publicly available as uncompiled source schemes aside, the open-source movement is about new code. Such openness is unusual but hardly unprecedent- ways of managing complex development projects. ed. There can be compelling reasons for making source Increasingly, this applies not only to software; the open- code available, even in competitive commercial environ- source model has been extended (in theory) to include a ments in which intellectual property rights are generally wide range of problem domains. fiercely protected. After all, secrets are just one way of pro- It is easy to see why the open-source movement has tecting intellectual property; there are others, equally attracted so much popular and scholarly attention. It is common and effective. at once political, social, and technical. By freely giving In popular usage, however, the designation of open away valuable intellectual property, open-source devel- source is often used to refer to software that is not just opers turn on its head one of the fundamental assump- open but also free. Free software, in this case, refers to tions that neoclassical economists make about basic software source code that is both publicly available and human motivation. As seemingly self-organizing com- free (mostly) of license and copyright restrictions. In gen- munities, they suggest interesting new ways for ethnog- eral, the only restrictions imposed are designed to assure raphers and political scientists to think about the process that it continues to remain unrestricted. Finally, software of self-governance. Also, as part of the anti-Microsoft that is free (of licensing restrictions) is often also made movement, they represent hope to those who resent large available free of cost. Most often when people talk about corporate monopolies and the constraints (and expens- open-source software they are referring to projects that es) of propriety software systems. For programmers and are simultaneously open, free, and free of charge. engineers feeling trapped by cubicles and bureaucracy, The appeal and power of open-source software goes open source is an opportunity for creativity, autonomy, beyond these notions of openness and freedom, however. and self respect. For everyone else, open source offers up The open-source philosophy is as much about process as colorful stories full of eccentrics, underdogs, and 20-year- it is product. Although advocates argue that open-source old billionaires. In many ways, the open-source move- methods produce the best software in technical terms (in ment has become a kind of Rorschach blot in which large part because it can harness the many eyes of a larger everyone sees what they are already looking for. community to develop, test, and debug software), these continued on p. 102 104 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing Published by the IEEE Computer Society 1058-6180/04/$20.00 © 2004 IEEE Think Piece unbundling decision, that software developed into a packaged product. In the mainframe In many ways, open source world, purchasing software was often as much about consulting services and support as it was can only be understood as the actual application code. The emergence of a market for closed-source, packaged software the most recent chapter was not an obvious or inevitable development; like most other developments in the history of in a long-running debate computing, it is the result of complex histori- cal processes playing out in a larger social, tech- that encompasses the nical, legal, and economic environment.4 In this light, open-source software is part of a con- entire history of tinuum of possible configurations of technolo- gy, markets, and intellectual property regimes, software development. rather than a radical departure from some nat- ural arrangement. Second, what is often seen as the open- continued from p. 104 source movement’s most distinctive character- istic—its seamless blending of technical, social, The future of open source’s past and political agendas—has been a central fea- Despite the open-source movement’s diverse ture of the history of software since at least the appeal (or perhaps because of it), the literature 1950s. Developing good software is notorious- on the subject is still immature. Much of it is ly difficult, and the central themes of the per- ahistorical and lacking in context, is written by sistent “software crisis” that has plagued the advocates, and is therefore uncritical or takes industry since the early 1960s are as much too seriously such vague notions as “self organ- social as they are technical: izing” or “gift economies.” Let me therefore suggest two potential contributions that the • the problem of managing complexity and history of computing can make to understand- communications within large organizations; ing open-source development lessons and spec- • the difficulties inherent in negotiating ulate on several ways in which historians could between business and technical objectives; in turn benefit from this discussion. and First of all, much of the literature on open • the rising costs associated with user support, source emphasizes its radical break with the training, documentation, and maintenance. dominant model of closed-source, proprietary, packaged commercial software. Although this Open-source advocates are not the first to rec- model might dominate in the modern PC soft- ognize the social and organization dimensions ware market, it is by no means universal, par- of this crisis. A widely cited 1968 article by ticularly if we are looking across the entire Melvin Conway argued that a system’s archi- history of electronic computing. In fact, the tecture reflects the communications structure very notion of software is a historically con- of the organization that produced it.5 Frederick structed category. Although the term itself has Brooks’ 1975 classic book The Mythical Man- been around since the 1850s, it was first applied Month described the failure of the OS/360 to computing only in the late 1950s. It was not software development project as one of organ- until the 1960s that it became widely adopted, ization and communication.6 The solutions to and even then, it was often used to refer to sys- these problems proposed in this earlier period tems software (later operating systems) rather might not have been so explicitly social and than applications. What little commercial soft- political as open source, but every effort to ware that was available from outside vendors (as establish a software component’s factory, a opposed to being developed in-house) was gen- chief programmer team, or a new software erally bundled with hardware and was therefore engineering methodology carried with it not purchased as such. deeply embedded assumptions about organiza- In the first decades of electronic computing, tional structure, professional status and author- even software developed internally was often ity, and individual autonomy. freely distributed (in both meanings of the Are software developers skilled professionals word) by user groups such as SHARE (IBM) and or factory laborers? Active participants in the the Univac Scientific Exchange (USE).3 It was planning and design process, or mere subordi- not until the late 1960s, with the IBM nates to managers and analysts? Is computer 102 IEEE Annals of the History of Computing programming art, science, or routinized indus- References and notes trial work? In many ways, open source can only 1. S. Weber, The Success of Open Source, Harvard be understood as the most recent chapter in a Univ. Press, 2004. long-running debate that encompasses the 2.