Q CHAPTER ONE Near Eastern Archives and Libraries Introduction Modern editions of the Hebrew Bible are conveniently available because scribes copied and preserved the text from the time of its composition until the advent of Gutenberg’s printing press in the fifteenth century C.E. This phenome- non is quite exceptional; the vast majority of ancient Near Eastern texts were long ago forgotten, buried beneath many feet of earth and rubble. When nineteenth- and twentieth-century archaeologists began to unearth these texts, it did not take longtorecognizethatsomeofthemwerequitesimilartothoseintheHebrew Bible. This naturally generated an interest in comparing biblical and Near Eastern literature. Our access to the Near Eastern texts has been facilitated by the ancient tendency to collect them in libraries and archives. Originally, the archival and li- brary materials were composed on a variety of materials, including not only clay tablets—probablythemediummostfamiliartomodernreaders—butalso“wax boards” (wax-covered wooden or ivory tablets), wood, ostraca (pottery shards), metal, stone, parchment (animal skins), and papyrus. Many of these materials are perishable, and those that are not—stone, metal, and ostraca—were not com- monly used. Fortunately, thousands of texts were composed on clay tablets in an- cient Mesopotamia, Syria, Anatolia, Egypt, and the Levant. These tablets were preserved because they were deliberately hardened by kiln or sunshine or, as sometimes happened, because they were baked inadvertently when invaders burned the buildings that held them. Many of the ancient archives and libraries were housed in public buildings such as palaces and temples while others were stored in private collections. It is conceptually helpful to distinguish the libraries from the archives, although we should stress that both could be kept at the same site. Ancient libraries, like their modern counterparts, made the cultural resources found in canonical texts 26 Near Eastern Archives and Libraries (scientific, literary, religious, and historical texts) more easily accessible to schol- ars for reading, consultation, and research. Archives, on the other hand, were ad- ministrative sites where various types of official records were stored, such as receipts, inventories, loan and business contracts, diplomatic texts, legal records, marriage and adoption contracts, astrological reports, oracle queries, census re- ports, tribute lists, royal grants, treaties, letters, and all manner of other docu- mentation. A further distinction can be made between storage archives and functional archives. The former included records that were unlikely to be con- sulted on a regular basis whereas the latter made texts conveniently accessible. Modern examples of each could include birth records (storage archives) and medical records (functional archives). It is worth noting that some archival rec- ords served only temporary purposes and so were quickly discarded. For instance, in Mesopotamia, it appears that temporary records were usually written on hori- zontally-oriented tablets (the u’iltu format used in temporary copies of con- tracts) while permanent archival records were written in a vertical-column format called ¤uppu (see Parpola 1997, liii; Radner). A good collection of English translations of archival documents is available in COS 3. O. Pedersén is producing an exhaustive study of Near Eastern libraries and archives. He has already prepared a monograph (ALANE) that covers the period from 1500 to 300 B.C.E., and a second volume covering the earlier period is under way. Pedersén’s first volume can be provisionally regarded as representative of the earlier contexts it does not discuss. According to Pedersén, a total of 253 libraries and archives from the period between 1500 and 300 B.C.E. have been unearthed from fifty different cities. These finds include 28 libraries, 198 archives, and 27 li- brary/archive collections. About half of the collections were found in public buildings (127), the other half in private homes (126). The private collections— which included both archives and libraries—were owned by priests, scribes, di- viners, exorcists, temple singers, businessmen, and public officials. Private ar- chives were generally the property of businessmen, containing records of their business transactions, and the private libraries normally belonged to the pro- fessional classes, especially those connected to the temples or palace. By far the largest and most important library recovered from the ancient world is that of King Assurbanipal of Assyria (669–c. 627). This collection from Tell Kuyunjik (the ancient citadel of Nineveh) is our primary source of both Assyrian and Babylonian literature. We owe its existence to Assurbanipal’s literary obses- sions, which inspired him to learn cuneiform and undertake the promethean task of collecting all known Mesopotamian literature into a single library. Although he did not succeed in acquiring all ancient literature, we are fortunate that he came as close as one reasonably could. This also means, however, that our under- standing of Mesopotamian culture and tradition is somewhat skewed because we are overly dependent upon literature from a single location and time frame. Most of the archives were relatively small (less than one hundred texts) and covered a period of no more than fifty years, that is, about one lifetime. Rarely were archives maintained for one hundred years or more, and rarely did they ex- ceed one thousand documents. The administrative chanceries of temples and Language and Writing in the Ancient Near East 27 other public buildings generated the largest archives, in one case about thirty thousand texts (Sippar’s Neo-Babylonian temple of Šamaš). Although most of the major archives were unearthed in Mesopotamia, Egypt also produced large archivesandlibraries,butmostoftheEgyptiantextswereinscribedonperishable materials. Telling examples come from several Egyptian temples—most notably the Horus temple at Edfu—where the empty library chambers are inscribed with lists of the books that they once contained (see Burkard; Wessetzky; Sauneron). The literary samples that survive from earlier in Egyptian history include the ex- ceptional papyri from dry regions and tombs and the nonperishable texts, such as ostraca. Still, our corpus of Egyptian papyri is significant—especially from the later periods—and appears meager only when compared with the archives and li- braries of the cuneiform cultures (for a good survey of the Egyptian papyro- logical sources, see LÄ 4:667–899). Table 1.1 Important Archival and Library Finds from the Ancient Near East Location/Date Before 2000 2000–1500 1500–1000 1000–300 Mesopotamia Uruk, Ur, Assur, Kish Assur, Babylon, Assur, Babylon, Nippur, Nippur, Nuzi Kal¬u, Sippar, Puzrish-Dagan Nineveh, Uruk, Nippur Syria-Palestine Ebla Mari, Alalakh Emar, Alalakh Anatolia Kaneš (Kültepe) µattuša Egypt Abusir Deir el-Medina, Akhetaton Elephantine Saqqara (Amarna) Modern name in parentheses ( ); all dates B.C.E. The summaries below cover some of the more important libraries and ar- chives from the ancient Near East, but readers should note that there were scores of ancient archives and libraries containing many thousands of texts. The sketch of the archives presented here is therefore admittedly selective; studies listed in the general bibliography at the conclusion of this chapter provide a more com- plete introduction to the ancient Near Eastern archives. There are also many closely related entries elsewhere in this volume, especially the Israelite archives (from Samaria, Arad, and Lachish) treated in chapter 15. Before we turn to the entries on archives and libraries, several pertinent introductory issues need to be discussed: languages, writing, literacy, schools, and canonicity. Language and Writing in the Ancient Near East The texts discussed in this volume come from five major centers of ancient civilization:Mesopotamia,Syria-Palestine,Egypt,AsiaMinor,andGreece.The 28 Near Eastern Archives and Libraries earliest written “texts” were small symbols inscribed on clay tokens and tablets from Mesopotamia. These inscribed tokens, dating to as early as about 4000 B.C.E., were generally used for economic purposes, such as inventories and trans- fers of goods (see Schmandt-Besserat; Nissen et al.). Sumerian, the earliest writ- ten language, seems to have developed from this ancient token system (Walker; Kaltner/McKenzie). Sumerian civilization emerged as a series of independent city-states in southern Mesopotamia during the second half of the fourth millen- nium and continued on until about 1900 B.C.E. Although the Sumerian people themselves are little understood, scholars have been reasonably successful in translating their literary texts, which first appeared in the third millennium B.C.E. The Sumerian language employed a system of signs that represented both con- cepts (ideograms) and syllabic values (syllabograms). For instance, the sign PA could represent the concept “twig” or the phoneme “pa.” The signs were com- posedbyimpressingastylusuponclaytablets(orothermedia),thusproducinga variety of wedge-shaped patterns that scholars call cuneiform (from the Latin for “wedge-shaped”). Although Sumerian texts were composed during the Classical Sumerian period (ca. 2500 B.C.E.) and the so-called Sumerian Renaissance (Ur III, ca. 2000–1900 B.C.E.), most of our copies come from the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1800–1600 B.C.E.), when Akkadian speakers studied Sumerian as a foreign language