Biodiversity Conservation Summary of Session Theme Talk Managing the Marine Environment to Meet Future Challenges Ra

Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

Summary of Session Theme Talk Managing the Marine Environment to Meet Future Challenges Rajasuriya A. Coordinator, Marine and Coastal Thematic Area, IUCN Country Office, Sri Lanka [email protected] The ocean covers about seventy percent of the planet. The ocean provides many economic activities that include fisheries, tourism, and marine transport. Two-thirds of the value of all natural services is in the world is provided by the ocean. Fisheries related activities alone support the livelihood of approximately 200 million people in the world. As an island Sri Lanka is heavily depend on the ocean for economic development and food security. The coastal zone contains 62% of the industries and 70% of infrastructure related to tourism. Sri Lanka has a coastline of about 1620 km. The continental shelf covers about 30,000 km2. It is relatively narrow, averaging 22.5 km, width and the mean depth is approximately 75 m. The exclusive economic zone is about 517,000 km2. The marine environment around the country is governed by the northeast and southwest monsoons. The tidal range is low; the maximum spring tide is less than 1 m.

The country is endowed with highly productive marine ecosystems; mangroves, sea grass meadows and coral reefs. In addition there are many coastal wetlands including salt marshes. The majority of mangroves are associated with coastal lagoons and the sea grass meadows are in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay where the sea is relatively shallow and calm. Coral reefs occur around the island with the largest shallow-water coral banks in the Gulf of Mannar. There are 40 species of mangrove and mangrove associated plants, 15 species of sea grasses and 208 species of corals recorded for Sri Lanka. There may be more than 1500 species of marine fish in Sri Lanka’s marine waters. The charismatic marine mega fauna include 5 species of sea turtles and twenty eight species of marine mammals. Although some groups have been studied relatively well, there is a general lack of information on marine biodiversity, especially the marine invertebrates.

Sri Lanka depends heavily on marine resources both in coastal and offshore areas. Fishing is main economic activity supporting nearly 1.25 million people. The coastal waters provide about 65% of the marine fish production. Extraction of hydrocarbons may become one of the most important economic activities in the future. The marine environment around the country is heavily influenced by human activities including unsustainable resource exploitation and the use of destructive fishing methods. It is widely accepted that the coastal waters have been overfished as the populations of many large fish species have been reduced drastically. Many land-based activities have contributed to high levels of pollution in the coastal environment. Poor garbage disposal, agricultural runoff and industrial and domestic waste have polluted several coastal lagoons, beaches and inshore waters. More recently Sri Lanka has experienced negative impacts of global warming and climate change. Coral reefs have indicated this rapid environmental change through extensive coral bleaching events. Sri Lanka lost much of its shallow water coral reefs in 1998 during the unprecedented coral bleaching event in the Indian Ocean. A similar bleaching event has occurred in 2016 where many shallow water corals have been affected. However, adaptive management is lacking in Sri Lanka. Although several marine protected areas and fisheries management areas have been established, there is little or no management of human activities in these declared areas. In general there is a lack of implementation of laws and regulations which result in the continuous degradation of the marine environment.

Keywords: Marine environment, Coastal, Resources, Management

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 1 Session I – Biodiversity Conservation

Summary of Session Theme Talk

Malaysian Borneo - World Class Wildlife Tourism in South East Asia

Newsome D. Associate Professor, Environment and Conservation School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, South St, Murdoch, Perth, Western Australia [email protected] A world renowed wildlife industry has developed along the banks of the Kinabatangan River. Wildlife that can be seen include Bornean pygmy elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis), bearded pig (Sus barbatus), four species of monkey, orang-utan, estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and more that 200 species of birds. Tourism operations and activities comprise guided boat tours on the main river and its tributaries and associated ox-bow lakes. However during the last 10 years there has been a proliferation of tourist lodges and today many boats operate along the Kinabatangan River taking tourists out on early morning and afternoon excursions to view wildlife. For example, during the peak tourist season there are as many as 20 boats travelling some of watercourses at the same time. Such an intensity of boat traffic searching for wildlife has the capacity to spoil visitor experience because of crowding at a wildlife sighting, boats vying for the best position for client viewing, possible noise impacts, the presence of exhaust fumes, a reduction in the benefits of tranquillity and an increased risk of disturbance to wildlife. It is possible that over the longer term negative client feedback on Tripadvisor and other tourist communication media, relating to the above problems, may have a detrimental effect on the image of the tourism industry located along the river negating good word of mouth reports and repeat visitation. Accordingly, this presentation briefly considers Sabah as an ecotourism destination, reports on how ecotourism is practiced, identifies emrging visitor experience problems and considers the influence of the wider landscape on the wildlife and other tourism resources.

Keywords: Ecotourism, Wildlife, Kinabatangan River

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 2 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Reef Resilience in Coral Reef Research and Management

Perera N. Blue Resources Trust 86, Barnes Place, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Abstract

Coral reefs are one of the most biologically diverse and environmentally sensitive ecosystems. Climate change and rising sea temperatures have been identified as one of the biggest threats to coral reefs, compounding existing pressures cause by anthropogenic influences such as overfishing and pollution. Identifying reef habitats and coral species that are more tolerant of such stresses is therefore important in conserving overall coral reef diversity and biomass. Recent coral bleaching events induced by elevated sea temperatures have resulted in unprecedented coral mortality across the world. However some reefs and coral species have withstood bleaching better than others. Similarly, recovery after mass mortality events has been patchy and resulted in phase shifts in species composition. Understanding such dynamics as well as environmental and physical variables affecting reef resilience and recovery is key to effective management of coral reefs and associated biota. Incorporating resilience parameters into adaptive management strategies is now considered an important aspect of Marine Protected Area management. Coral reef research in Sri Lanka has for a large part been isolated and lacking long term monitoring and time series data. In addition, management has been reactive and often static rather than predictive and adaptive. Key aspects of reef resilience and its importance in management strategies will be discussed in this presentation.

Keywords: Coral reef, Climate change, Reef resilience

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 3 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Diversity and Temporal Variation of Avian Fauna in a Rice Growing Landscape in Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka

Gunathilake A.M.K.H. and Chandrasekara W.U.* Department of Zoology and Environmental Management, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Rice fields are man-made semi-aquatic ecosystems maintained for the purpose of paddy cultivation. Five contrastingly different successive culture stages viz, preparatory stage, vegetative stage, ripening stage, harvesting stage and post-harvest stage occur along a single paddy culture cycle. Although it has been recorded that a wide variety of fauna are associated with these culture stages, there is a dearth of information on the temporal variation of avian fauna along these culture stages. Therefore, a study was carried out in a rice growing landscape at Katugampola, a rural village in Kurunegala District, to investigate if there is any temporal variation of avian diversity along the culture stages of a paddy culture cycle there. It was hypothesized that the physical and biological characteristics vary along the successive culture stages, and that each culture stage offers a predictable habitat for a distinct assemblage of birds. The sampling protocol of the study included in situ observation, identification and enumeration of different bird species using the fixed radius point count sampling method, and assessing the physical and biological parameters such as the percentage area covered by paddy plants, height of the paddy plants, number of people, number of off road vehicles, number of cattle, number of dogs, sound level, wind speed and the associated insect fauna at each culture stage using appropriate standard field sampling techniques. The study was commenced in May 2014 and lasted until September 2014. Altogether 1892 bird counts were made during the study period where the birds belonged into 19 different species and to 12 different families. Physical and biological parameters also varied significantly (p<0.05 Oneway ANOVA) along the paddy culture cycle. Distinct bird assemblages characteristic to each culture stage were recorded during the study. For example, large predatory birds such as Cattle Egret, Intermediate Egret and Little Egret became abundant during the preparatory stage while small seed eating birds such as sparrows became abundant during the ripening and mature stages. Further, large seed eating birds such as Green Imperial Pigeon and Rose-ringed Parakeet became abundant both during the vegetative stage and the post-harvest stage. The temporal variation of the above bird assemblages appeared to have a direct relationship with the variation of the biological and physical parameters along the paddy culture cycle at Katugampola rice field. Keywords: Avian diversity, Rice growing landscapes, Paddy culture cycle

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 4 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Is the Widely Used Weedicide Glyphosate that Bad? Toxic Effects of Glyphosate on the Earthworm Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1872)

De Silva S.M.S. and Chandrasekara W.U.* Department of Zoology and Environmental Management, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Glyphosate is a globally used weedicide in extensive weed control programmes. Although Glyphosate is highly effective against weeds, it has been reported that this weedicide brings about adverse effects on a wide variety of non-targeted soil animals including earth worms. Therefore, an investigation was carried out to assess the toxic effects of Glyphosate on Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1872), a commonly found earthworm in Sri Lanka.

In this laboratory investigation (i) the 96 hour LC50 of Glyphosate against P. excavatus, (ii) the survival of P. excavatus upon prolonged exposure (i.e. up to 8 weeks) to the recommended field dose (i.e. 7.059 g/L) of Glyphosate, and (iii) the histopathological changes of both body wall and gut wall of P. excavatus upon prolonged exposure (i.e. 8 weeks) to the field dose of Glyphosate, were studied separately following standard laboratory toxicity testing procedures. The results showed that the 96 hour LC50 of Glyphosate against P. excavatus was 32578 mg/kg of dry soil. Surprisingly, this LC50 value is 9000 times greater than the recommended field dose of Glyphosate which is calculated to be as 3.6 mg/kg of dry soil. Further, no any mortality of P. excavatus was observed upon prolonged exposure to the field dose of Glyphosate, perhaps the Glyphosate concentration is extremely mild to inflict any impact on the survival of these earthworms. Neverthless comparison of the body wall at the control with those at the end of each successive week of exposure to field dose of Glyphosate showed some notable changes in their tissue structures viz ruptured cuticles of the body wall, fused epidermal cells, fused circular muscle cells, fused longitudinal muscle cells and vacuolated areas in both the circular and longitudinal muscle layers. However, all the above histopathological changes gradually disappeared starting from the 5th week, and a fully regenerated body wall was noted by the 8th week of exposure. In spite of the above changes in the body wall, histology of the gut wall revealed that the gut epithelium, circular muscle layer and longitudinal muscle layer there were not at all affected by the prolonged exposure to the field dose of Glyphosate.

In conclusion, the present study revealed that the 96 hour LC50 value of Glyphosate against P. excavatus is an extremely higher value than its recommended field dose, and Glyphosate caused no mortality to earthworms upon prolonged exposure to its field dose. Although Glyphosate initially caused some histopathological aberrations in the body wall, the changes were quickly healed perhaps as an adaptation to face the harmful chemicals in the weedicide formulation. It can therefore be concluded that Glyphosate is a safe weedicide for earthworms if it is correctly used following the product instructions. However, it is also noteworthy that Glyphosate is a highly controversial weedicide and is banned for sale in Sri Lanka at present, but old stocks of this product are still available in the market for illegitimate sale.

Keywords: Glyphosate, Earthworms, Toxicity, Histopathological changes, Weedicides, Field dose

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 5 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms: A Non-Timber Forest Product of Neotropical Forests and its Relation to Sustainability and Climate Change Mitigation

Perez-Moreno J.*, Hernandez-Santiago F. and Martínez-Reyes M. Microbiologia, Edafologia, Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico *[email protected]

Abstract Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms (EEM) are a non-timber forest product that constitutes a valuable genetic resource and a nutritious and functional food containing antitumor, antidiabetes, antimicrobial, antihypertensive and antioxidant bioactive compounds, whose sustainable use can contribute to conservation of Neotropical forests. International commerce of some EEM annually is worth billions of dollars, while numerous EEM species represent a valuable food resource and an important source of income for thousands of families in countries with developing economies. Additionally, EEM can be used as biofertilizers which increase nutrient mobilization, health and survival of trees, therefore contributing to successful reforestations. The cultivation of some species of EEM has already been achieved, as in the case of the black truffles in Europe, while efforts in order to cultivate other species currently is being developed in different countries. During the last two decades, ethnomycological and biotechnological research registering EEM consumed in Mexico and selecting species feasible to inoculate Neotropical trees has been conducted by the authors. More than 250 EEM species have been recorded to be consumed as traditional food by 23 ethnic groups in the country; accounting for the second largest biodiversity of EEM worldwide, only after China. The sustainable use of EEM constitutes an important component of forest management, particularly in Neotropical areas with high degree of economic and social margination. Additionally, 25 species of EEM have been tested by the authors e.g. Laccaria, Hebeloma and Suillus species showing increased macro-(N, P, K, Ca and Mg) and micro-(Fe and Ca) nutrient mobilization, photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll a, b and total contents of inoculated plants compared with non-inoculated plants. Conspicuous ectomycorrhizal colonization, up to 100% in some cases, and production of EEM sporomes with 20 tested pine and oak species have demonstrated the feasibility of this biotechnology. Field trials developed in both low- and high-fertility soils have demonstrated increases in the survival of native inoculated pines and oaks; and initial production of EEM sporomes four years after the establishment of tree plantations has occurred. Molecular and metagenomic sequencing of the rRNA S1 and S18 genes studies conducted by the authors, have shown the persistence of the inoculated EEM and conspicuous changes in the microbiomes associated with mycorrhized and non-mycorrized root trees, respectively. This biotechnology has shown to increase natural production of EEM, demonstrating benefits to sustainable ecosystem management and, through successful reforestations, to mitigation of climate change. Keywords: Biodiversity conservation, Edible wild mushrooms, Ectomycorrhiza, Non-timber forest products, Environmental sustainability

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 6 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Environmental Impact Assessment of Estuaries in Southeast Coast of India using Fish Health Index and Index for Biotic Integrity (IBI) for Fishes

Khan S.A.*, Lyla P.S. and Khadharsha K.

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

Estuaries are ecotones connecting terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. They are highly productive and act as detritus trap for both autochthonous and allochthonous materials. In view of their manifold uses, estuaries are under increasing threat from a wide range of natural and anthropogenic pressures, leading to an increasing emphasis on environmental impact assessment (EIA) and monitoring. Water quality index has been used globally in EIA. Of late the emphasis has shifted to the use of biotic elements in EIA. Among the various groups of organisms used for this purpose, fishes hold several advantages over other biota as the taxa of choice for EIA. As a consequence Fish Health Index (FHI) (Cooper et al., 1993) and Index for Biotic Integrity (IBI) (Karr, 1991) for fishes have been developed and are being used elsewhere. Therefore in the present study these indices were used for assessing the health of the environment in three estuaries namely Coleroon, Vellar and Uppanar. A total of 104 species, belonging to 69 genera, 44 families and 10 orders were found to occur in the three estuaries. The numbers of fish species recorded in Coleroon, Vellar and Uppanar estuaries were 58, 91 and 22 respectively. The FHI which ranges from 0(Poor) to 10(Good) was found to be 9.33 for Vellar, 7.35 for Coleroon and 3.34 for Vellar. Thirteen metrics were used to develop the IBI and the index varied from 18(Uppanar) to 51(Vellar). Two-way ANOVA revealed significant differences in the metrics among the estuaries. Based on the IBI scores the environmental quality of Coleroon, Vellar and Uppanar was found to be ‘Fair’, ‘Good’ and ‘Very poor’. As fishes can be collected and identified in the field itself, these indices are found to be quite advantageous for EIA than the other methods where organisms need to be collected and preserved before identification.

Keywords: EIA, Estuaries, Fishes, FHI, IBI

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 7 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Assessment of Coral Reef Environment Using Associated Fishes Along South-East Coast of India

Jayapraba J., Muthu M.S. and Sathya A.C.R.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

In the present study, totally 162 species of coral reef associated fishes, belonging to 17 orders, 64 families and 94 genera have been recorded in Cuddalore, Parangipettai and Nallavadu reefs. The study was conducted for a period of two years from January 2012 to December 2013. In Cuddalore, during 2012 a total number of 138 species of coral reef associated fishes belonging to 83 genera, 55 families and 17 orders were recorded, and in 2013, as many as 131 species belonging to 76 genera, 51 families and 14 orders were recorded. In Parangipettai, 127 species of coral reef associated fishes belonging to 78 genera, 48 families and 13 orders were recorded during 2012, and in 2013, 120 species belonging to 73 genera, 45 families and 12 orders were recorded. In Nallavadu, 117 species of coral reef associated fishes were recorded in 2012. These belong to 77 genera, 51 families and 17 orders; whereas, in 2013, totally 112 species belonging to 75 genera, 52 families and 17 orders were recorded. Considering the family-wise distribution, families such as Carangidae, Serranidae and Lutjanidaeare were found dominant with 22, 15 and 12 species respectively, followed by Haemulidae and Mullidae (6 species each), Acanthuridae, Nemipteridae, Siganidae and Synodontidae (4 species each), Clupeidae, Ephippidae, Lethrinidae and Sphyraenidae (3 species each) and other families with less than three species. Shannon Wiener diversity index recorded was in the range of 5.775 (during pre-monsoon period in 2013 at Cuddalore) -4.326 (during summer in 2012 at Nallavadu). In Margalef’s richness index, the maximum of 13.74 was recorded in Cuddalore during pre-monsoon in 2012 and the minimum of 7.975 in Nallavadu during monsoon in 2013. In taxonomic diversity among the three regions, the maximum of 55.86 was recorded in Parangipettai and minimum (51.55) was found in Nallavadu during the pre-monsoon period in 2012. In phylogenetic diversity the maximum of 4217 Cuddalore and a minimum of 2467 were recorded in Nallavadu during summer in 2013. The higher values recorded in all diversity indices clearly showed the good health of the coral reef environment in the study area.

Keywords: Health, Coral reef, Environment, Diversity indices, Fishes

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 8 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Conventional Taxonomy of Four Tilapia Species in South-East Coast of India

Viki R.V., Sathya A.C.R.* and Muthu M.S.

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

Tilapia belongs to the family Cichlidae. Tilapia is a generic term used to designate a group of commercially important food fishes belonging to the family Cichlidae. Tilapia species have been re-classified into three separate genera viz., Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Oreochromis, based mainly on their reproduction and feeding habits and biogeography. Tilapias are very sturdy in nature. The family Cichlidaeis is one of the most species-rich families of vertebrates. More than 3,000 species of cichlid fishes are distributed from Central and South America, through Africa and Madagascar to Southern India. Classification of species is fundamental for carrying out researches in biodiversity, ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology. With this as the background in the present study, four species of fishes namely O. mossambicus and O.niloticus, Tilapia rendalli and T.zilliiare were sequenced for their 647 bp, 645 bp, 642 and 481 region of cytochrome oxidase sub-unit I (COI) gene to test their efficacy in identifying the species and also to demonstrate their intra-species variations within the barcode region. The sequences were analyzed for their species identification, using the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD’s) identification engine. The COI sequences of O. mossambicus, O.niloticus, Tilapia rendalli and T.zillii from different geographical regions were extracted from NCBI for analyzing the intra-species variation. While comparing the sequences in the NCBI database with the present sequences, significant alignments with maximum similarity ranging from 99% to 100% were noticed. Four sequences are aligned using ClustalW. A phylogenetic tree was constructed with Bootstrap test. The optimal tree with the sum of branch length showed 0.000976 for O. mossambicus, 0.001556 for O. niloticus and 0.000000 for T. rendalli and T.zillii. In O. mossambicus, the maximum GC content was 46.9% whereas the GC content in all other closely related species was found to be 46% on an average. In O. niloticus, the maximum GC content of 47.9% was noticed and the closely related sequences exhibited 48% average in GC content (T.zillii 50.2% and T.rendalli 46.6%).The analyses revealed the molar concentration of bar-coded genes. The evolutionary relationship was inferred with the closely related sequences obtained from the NCBI database. Sequence divergence between individuals of the same species ranged from 0 to 0.057. Both phylography and phylogeographic signals were evident from the phylogram constructed with O. mossambicus and O.niloticus as the same group. Even though the present results confirm that the COI could be a potential barcode gene for species level identification, further research is needed for describing the divergence of sequences in a broader sense. Analysis of data undertaken with conventional tools like PCR amplification and gene sequencing methods clearly revealed the healthy nature of environment along the southeast coast of India.

Keywords: Intra species, Variations, Barcode, Cytochrome oxidase, Phylogenetic

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 9 Session I - Biodiversity Conservation

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Challenges of Biopiracy: Implementing Community Based Eco-tourism (CBET) in the Sri Lankan context

Kumara H.I.G.C.*, Kodithuwakku K.H.A.D.D.M, Dananjanie G.P.G.Y, Wijesinghe W.S and Rathnayake A.U.

Deaprtment of Geography, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Protecting the right of the local community/country to use their own genetic resources available in a particular area is an important element of environmental and biodiversity conservation. However, one of the main biodiversity conservation challenges in Southern peripheral countries is biopiracy. Community based ecotourism (CBET) is a well-established concept and its implementation is an important component for many regional development strategies. This research argues that though CBET which originated as a Western concept was successfully applied in number of projects, it generates biopiracy challenges in its implementation since CBET operates within different geo-political, economic and cultural contexts. This research examines such challenges in CBET initiatives in the Sinharaja world heritage site, Sri Lanka. A qualitative-inductive research methodology has principally guided this research to examine the socio-cultural, socio-economic and geo-political context of biopiracy issues. A total of 293 participants have informed this research including 193 interviews (115 individuals, and 15 different focus-groups totalling 78 people) and 100 questionnaire respondents. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) method is used to examine both primary qualitative data collected through participant and direct observation, interviews and secondary data. One of the main findings is that despite plans being developed at a community level, in wider context, biopiracy challenges related to superimpose capitalism contest the CBET ideologies. Superimposed capitalism results in individualistic and competitive behaviours that undermine collaborative and responsible community approach. Presently, smuggling out of Wallapatta plant (Gyrinops walla) and gathering Spotted towfinger gecko (Cyrtodactylus triedra) an endemic nocturnal reptile species, have become profitable in Sinharaja world heritage site and a growing number of biopirates venture into here. Local community of this site take risks in forest genetic resources smuggling because it provides them with the means of earning much money within a short period. Regardless of all prevalent laws and regulations against bioprospecting, biopiracy, biological resource and wildlife smuggling, authorities have still failed to control these activities in this site because of the support given to bio-pirates by the local community. The research concludes that CBET is an appropriate pathway for tourism development in Sri Lanka but recognition of biopiracy issues associated with superimposed capitalism is required and needed to be addressed. A well-defined monitoring system and an effective legal framework to control adverse effects are important for achieving CBET goals while confronting biopiracy.

Keywords: Biopiracy, Community based eco-tourism, Superimposed capitalism

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Preliminary Survey of Conidial Fungi in Weligama Mangrove Forest Indicates Higher Micro-Flora Diversity

Karunarathna A.V.A.1*, Wijayawardene N.N.2, Weerahewa H.L.D.1 and Hyde K.D.2

1Department of Botany, The Open Univercity of Sri Lanka 2Centre of Excellence in Fungal Research and School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand *[email protected]

Abstract

Sri Lanka is a country with rich floral and faunal diversity and listed as one of the biodiversity hotpots in the world. However, the diversity of micro-flora, including fungi is not properly documented and the existing data is out-dated. Taxonomic and diversity researches of fungi are quite a few in number compare to other South Asian and South-East Asian countries. Since, Sri Lanka is a tropical island, we determined to compare its micro-fungal diversity with other countries such as India, Malaysia, and Thailand which also have higher fungal diversity. A mangrove forest near Weligama bay in Southern Sri Lanka was selected as the first site for our preliminary survey. Micro-floral diversity in mangrove forests in Sri Lanka was not documented. For the study, samples were collected randomly. Saprobic fungi were observed from the leaf litter and wood litter. In order to observe the pathogenic fungi, leaf spots were also collected. Based on morphology, seven sexual taxa (four bitunicate and three unitunicate) and nine asexual taxa (six coelomycetous and three hyphomycetous taxa) were identified. All the collections were determined up to its generic level and compared with other species of the respective genus. Among these, six are new records from Sri Lanka. The study confirmed that, mangroves and mangrove associated flora provides preferable conditions for both sexual fungi and asexual fungi (i.e. conidial fungi, coelomycetes and hyphomycetes). It is important to carry out further works (including DNA sequence analyses) since it is important to provide taxonomic placement for conidial fungi in natural classification system.

Keywords: Conidial fungi, Coelomycetes, Hyphomycetes, Sri Lanka

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Bio-Speleology and Possible Trophic Networks in Sri Lankan Caves

Weliange W.S.

Department of Zoology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria Lanka Institute of Cave Science, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Caves are characterized by a combination of darkness, relatively stable temperature, humidity and limited supply of nutrients hence considered as an extreme environment where there is no photosynthetic plants grow. Caves receive energy allochthonously via animals (bats, rats, birds, and crickets), root exudates, and water flow and windborne input; such inputs supports many detrititvores, scavangers, and a rich predator guild. A great range of cave types, karst and karst- like features occur in Sri Lanka in a range of host rocks. Although rich with folklore, believes, legends and myths speleology is not a celebrity among scientific disciplines in Sri Lanka. Somehow cave studies are a frontier in scientific explorations around the world, hence, this attempt was made to understand the ecological role of several Sri Lankan caves in relation to the agriculture production. We have studied 18 dark caves in Sri Lanka since 2008 and documented the fauna in the aphotic zones. Based on feeding habits of the fauna, a generalized food chain and a food web were designed. The cave fauna belong to detritivores (bacteria, fungi, annelids, nematodes, insects, millipedes) and carnivores (spiders). Michrochiropteran bats are the main source of organic matter into the caves. The contribution of agriculture for the GDP for the year 2013 was 12.8% and this production is atleast partially contributed by bats by pollinating crops and surpressing insects pests. Studying these trophic links may help improve agriculture production as well as the cave ecosystems and bats.

Keywords: Michrochiropteran bats, Speleology, Sri Lanka

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A Preliminary Taxonomic Survey of Liverworts in the Nuwara Eliya District (Central Province) of Sri Lanka

Kariyawasam I.U.

Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Bryophytes comprise three distinct lineages: liverworts (Phylum Marchantiophyta), Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta) and hornworts (Phylum Anthocerotophyta). Liverworts are considered to be one of the earliest groups of land plants (embryophytes) and exhibit two main morphological forms; thalloid liverworts and foliose (leafy) liverworts. Together with the Western Ghats of India Sri Lanka makes a biodiversity hotspot. Sri Lanka has a rich biodiversity of cryptogams including bryophytes. Climatic conditions and topographic variation in the Nuwara Eliya district, located in the central hilly area of the country, provide ideal habitats for the growth of bryophytes. The main aim of the study is to provide a preliminary floristic inventory of the liverwort flora of the area surveyed. Liverworts were collected during both monsoon and inter-monsoon seasons over a period of one year from different habitats using standard collection methods. Collected liverwort specimens were observed for key morphological and anatomical characters and voucher herbarium specimens were prepared for further studies. Specimens were identified to species or genus level using the available taxonomic literature. A total of 40 liverwort specimens were collected from different habitats and of these 12 were assigned to complex thalloid genera or species, 12 to simple thalloid taxa and 16 to foliose (leafy) taxa. Taxonomic descriptions elaborating on the key characteristic features were prepared for the genera and species collected. Taxonomic keys were prepared to separate taxa. Further intensive field work and systematic surveys are needed to compile a complete systematic report. This will open a novel avenue for the systematics and conservation of bryoflora in Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Bryophytes, Liverworts, Preliminary survey, Nuwara Eliya District, Sri Lanka

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Distribution of Mangrove Species in the Islands of Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka

Packiyanathan R.1* and Wijesundara C.S.2

1Postgraduate Institute of Science, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology, University of Perdeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Mangroves are a group of halophytic, evergreen, woody plants and shrubs that occupy the intertidal zone. The Jaffna peninsula has some of the major mangrove sites in Sri Lanka with large extents of undisturbed mangroves. As a result of the three-decade long armed conflict that prevailed in the entire northern part of the Island, mangrove diversity and distribution has never been evaluated since 1969. The objective of the present study was to identify the mangrove species and their distribution in the Jaffna peninsula. Five locations were selected based on the distribution of mangrove vegetation. These are Mandaitivu (East and West), Sirudivu, Kuruchidivu, Kurikadduwan, and Kaluthaipiddi. Random quadrat method was used to assess the abundance of mangrove species in the area. A total of 21 species of true mangrove plants have been recorded in Sri Lanka and the present study identified seven (07) species in the Jaffna peninsula. These are Bruguiera cylindrica, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata, Excoecaria agallocha, Lumnitzera racemosa, and Ceriops tagal. A mangrove associate, Acanthus ilicifolius was also recorded. Of these, Bruguiera cylindrica is a species with restricted distribution. In the present study it was recorded only from Sirudivu (density 169/km2). Avicennia marina is the dominant species on the Islands and Southern coastal line. The island of Mandaitivu had a high density of this species (293/km2 on East and 1208/km2 on West Mandaitivu). Kuruchidivu also had a higher density (2571/km2) of this species compared to other island areas. Avicennia officinalis was restricted to Sirudivu and Kuruchidivu (density 246/km2 and 100/km2 respectively). Mangroves are one of the most diverse ecosystems and they provide suitable habitats for a large number of migratory bird species and other aquatic species such as fishes, shrimps, crabs, etc. which are important to marine fisheries in Sri Lanka. They are one of the most productive ecosystems on the earth. The mangroves also protect the coasts from the impacts of storms. The study area has large extents of relatively undisturbed mangroves, found mainly on the Eastern side of the Jaffna peninsula along with the lagoon line and the Southern part of the peninsula along the coastal line. Hence the present area has a considerable conservation value.

Keywords: True mangroves, Mangrove associates, Distribution, Islands, Jaffna Peninsula

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Ecology of the Critically Endangered Kandian Torrent Toad (Adenomus kandianus) in Pidurutalagala, Sri Lanka

Gabadage D.E.1, Karunarathna D.M.S.S.2, Henkanaththegedara S.M.3., Botejue W.M.S.1*, Madawala M.B.4 and Surasinghe T.D.5 1Biodiversity Conservation Society, Sri Lanka 2Nature Explorations & Education Team, Sri Lanka 3Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Longwood University, United States 4South Australian Herpetology Group, South Australian Museum, Australia 5Department of Biological Sciences, Bridgewater State University, United States *[email protected]

Abstract The stream-dwelling Sri Lankan endemic toad genus Adenomus represents two species: A. kelaartii and A. kandianus. The Kandian torrent toad, A. kandianus, was considered extinct until its rediscovery at Peak Wilderness sanctuary after 136 years in 2012. Currently, this species is recorded from two distinct localities in the Central highlands (1400 m above sea level). Red List conservation status has been re-evaluated as Critically Endangered of IUCN.

Based on transect surveys and opportunistic excursions, we conducted a 4 year study (1-week- long survey per year during 2011–2013 and two, one-week-long surveys in 2014) to assess habitat associations, abundance, and behavior of A. kandianus in its second locality, near Pidurutalagala Conservation Forest. Surveys were conducted in the morning (07.00–14.00 hrs) and evening (18.00–20.00 hrs). Several environmental parameters were also measured to characterize the habitat preferences of the toads. Our survey revealed that the toads were associated with five microhabitats: on moss-covered in-stream boulders (most of the time, underneath leaf litter on the boulders), in-stream pools with decaying organic-matter substrate, in-stream pools with sandy substrates, riffles with rocky-cobble-pebble substrate, and within undercut banks with leaf litter and complex root structure of riparian vegetation. We recorded a total of 169 individuals which related to an average of 24.5 males, 13 females, and 6.75 juveniles per year. Presence of toads were limited to the stream channel, including undercut banks, and absent in the woodlands. Perching was the most observed behavior among males followed by mating. Among females, mating was the most dominant behavior. Juveniles were mostly observed in their under bank refugee while on limited instances, they emerged onto the river banks. The juveniles had partially-developed webbing in their feet, thus were weak swimmers. Adults had complete webbing, thus were strong swimmers and swam perpendicular to the flow. Anthropogenic activities, such as intensive crop-farming deterred these species; proximity to croplands was a strong negative impact on species abundance. We recommend re-delineation of both the core habitat and the buffer zone of Pidurutalagala Conservation Forest so that the toad habitat can be incorporated into the reserve to limit the impacts of human activities on this population.

Keywords: Amphibian, Behavior, Conservation, Extinct, Montane forest, Threats

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Diversity and Abundance of Marine Plankton and Benthos of Maruthankerny, Off Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Jayasiri H.B.*, Dahanayaka D.D.G.L. and Arulananthan K.

National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The distribution of plankton and macrobenthos along the coasts from the Northern and North- Eastern to South-Eastern is virtually unknown. Therefore, present study was carried out to determine the species composition, abundance and distribution of marine plankton and benthos off Jaffna, Sri Lanka to enhance the knowledge on biodiversity of this coastal environments.

Field survey was conducted during February 2016. Benthic samples with triplicate were collected from selected 18 locations at Maruthankerny, Jaffna using a Peterson grab and immediately fix using 10% formalin. The benthic samples were subjected to wet sieving through 500 μm mesh sieve to separate the benthic fauna from the substrate. The organisms retain in the sieve were collected and preserved in 70% alcohol and identified up to the lowest possible taxonomic level. Vertical hauls of zooplankton and phytoplankton were collected from 12 locations using plankton nets with mesh sizes of 100 µm and 10 µm respectively. The zooplankton and phytoplankton samples were immediately fixed with 5% formalin and Lugol’s solution respectively. In the laboratory, one milliliter of each sample was placed on the Sedgewick rafter counting chamber and organisms were identified and enumerated using a binocular microscope.

Twenty six (26) species of polychaetes, 9 species of crustaceans, 15 species of gastropods, 12 species of bivalves and 2 species of echinodermates were recorded in benthic samples. The most abundant group of macrobenthos was polychaetes, which contributed for 45.25% of total macrobenthic community, followed by mollusks (35.51%). The phytoplankton analysis showed that abundance varied from 279 to 866 No./L with a mean of 554±201 No./L. A total of 92 taxa were reported from the area. Sixty eight (68) taxa were identified as diatoms, while 24 taxa were belonged to dinoflagellates. Diatoms accounted for 93.97% of the total phytoplankton population at the area followed by dinoflagellates (6.03%). Most dominant phytoplankton taxa was Chaetoceros sp. which contributed 33.70% of the total population followed by Bacteriastrum (16.24%). Species richness of phytoplankton in the area varied from 48-68 with a mean 55.83±5.70. Zooplankton abundance varied from 36 to 385 indivi. L-1 with a mean of 91.57±46.02 indivi. L-1 in the study area. Most dominant group was copepods, which comprised 52.87% followed by crustacean larvae (nauplii, 9.89%). Most common zooplankton species were Calanus sp. (10.01%), Oithona sp. (6.89%), Paracalanus sp. (4.19%) and Oithona aculata (3.97%).

Keywords: Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Macrobenthos, Jaffna, Sri Lanka

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Reinstating Soil Biodiversity: The Key for Converting Degraded Lands to Sustainable Systems

Wijepala P.C.1*, Seneviratne G.1, Madawala H.M.S.P.2 and Jayasuriya K.M.G.G.2

1National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka 2Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Lost soil biodiversity in croplands can be reinstated by using microbial biotechnological methods. Conventional agricultural practices collapse diversity of soil microbial communities. This may lead to decline in crop productivity and sustainability. Direct application of developed fungal-bacterial communities known as biofilmed biofertilizers (BFBFs) has been introduced recently, which reduces the chemical fertilizer usage with other crop and soil benefits over conventional biofertilizers. This study investigates the effect of BFBFs on microbial diversity and introduces them as a remedial measure to recover degraded croplands. A degraded tea soil was separated in to particle size fractions and transferred to trays that were arranged in a completely randomized design with three replicates in a greenhouse. Biofilm-T, the BFBF developed for tea was used with a control (distilled water). Certain soil biological and chemical properties were measured after three months of incubation. Application of Biofilm-T significantly increased pH in fine fraction. Available nutrient contents varied in the soil fractions. Furthermore, addition of Biofilm-T significantly increased bacterial abundance in clay fraction due to dormancy breaking of microbial seed bank by the BFBF-specific biomolecules. Total carbon and nitrogen contents were significantly high in fine and clay fractions due to presence of higher algal and cyanobacterial growth. This study concludes that application of BFBFs breaks dormancy of microbial seed bank trapped in different soil fractions and also assists in improving nutrient release from them, thus reinstating soil biodiversity and sustainability of degraded croplands.

Keywords: Agriculture, Biofilm biofertilzer, Micorbial biofilms, Microbial diversity, Soil health

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Macro-Fouling Faunal Assemblage in Hambantota Port

Jayasundara R.M. and Ranatunga R.R.M.K.P.*

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Invasive species recognized as one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity and biofouling on submerged structures within a port environments is one of the major pathways of invasions by Non Indigenous Species (NIS). Early detection and monitoring of such deleterious organisms is crucial, since control is nearly impossible once established. The present work is a baseline study for biofouling faunal assemblage in Hambantota Port. The study consisted of two stages; initial sampling for investigating existing biofouling assemblage and review sampling after 10 months in order to monitor the changes in community structure. Sampling followed an international protocol developed by Center for Research on Introduced Marine Pest (CRIMP). Samples were scraped from submerged hard substrata in 12 sampling sites with the assistance from divers. Organisms in scraped samples were identified to the nearest taxonomic level using taxonomic guides and databases. All together 90 species were recorded during the study. Among them, 72 species were recorded within the baseline sampling and additional 18 during review sampling. Highest number of species recorded from phylum Mollusca (54) followed by Arthropoda (11), Annelida (11), Chordata (5), Cnidaria (4),Echinodermata (3) and Bryozoa (2). Balanus amphitrite, Balanus tintinnabulum, were the most common species in baseline sampling while Chthamalus sp.1 and Cellana radiata in the review sampling. Balanus tintinnabulum, Clypidina notata, Cellana radiata, Thais echinata, Harmoniconus parvatus and Saccostrea cucullata were the common species found in both sampling. In baseline sampling, highest number of species was recorded from Oil Pier (31) while least number (1) was recorded in the outer harbour artificial island. In review sampling, highest species richness (12) recorded in west bank while least species richness (5) was recorded within the West Breakwater. The most noteworthy finding is that eight globally known invasive species which include, Rapana venosa, Phallusia nigra, Perna perna, Brachidontes pharaonis, Balanus amphitrite, Balanus reticulates, Balanus trigonus and Schizoporella errata were recorded. Among them Rapana venosa was recorded only in review sampling and rest in baseline sampling.

Keywords: Biofouling, Non-indigenous species, Baseline study, Hambantota Port

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Some Biological Aspects of Fish Species Arius jella (Day, 1877) Occurring in the Negombo Estuary

Ekanayake N.D. and De Alwis S.M.D.A.U.*

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Degradation of the water quality of Negombo estuarine system due to pollution from different sources has significantly altered the species composition of fish and Arius jella (English: Blackfin sea cat fish, Sinhala: Anguluwa) which is associated with degraded water conditions has become the most prominent fish species. Present study was carried out to study some biological aspects of these species. Samples for the study were collected from Outrigger Canoe fish catches from February to December 2015, by monthly field visits. On each sampling day, 50-60% of operated Outrigger Canoes were sampled to get necessary data of A. jella. Standard length ranged between 10.0-33.0 cm and the relative growth condition of the fish population was allometrically negative with “b” value<3.0. The ratio of males to females in the population during the study period was 0.9:1.0 (X2=0.1320). Highest GSI value of female fish was shown in May and lowest GSI value was shown in September. Average fecundity of mature ovary ranged from 30-42 eggs. Mean egg diameters of stage I eggs, stage II, stage III eggs varies 0.62±0.19, 6.64±0.53 and 12.11±1.18 respectively. Parental care was observed and eggs were found in the mouths of male fish in the months of March, May, and July. These observations are important as baseline information to assess the water quality of the estuary which will be reflected through the changes of biological aspects of this pollution indicator species.

Keywords: Negombo estuary, Fishery, Fish, Crustacean, Reproductive biology, Arius jella

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Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Selected Cadmium Salts on Earthworm Eisenia andrei under Tropical Conditions

Jayathilake T.A.H.D.G.1, Mallawaarachchi M.A.G.D.2, De Silva P.M.C.S.2 and Peiris L.D.C.1*

1Department of Zoology,University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology ,University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Agrochemicals and other hazardous chemicals are well known threats to healthy soil ecosystems. Fertilizers containing cadmium as an impurity are being added extensively to agricultural soils in Sri Lanka. These impurities may have hazardous impacts on soil ecosystems. Therefore toxicity of Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2) and Cadmium Sulphate (CdSO4) on survival, growth and reproduction of the earthworm Eisenia andrei were investigated under tropical conditions. The standard earthworm toxicity tests were performed according to the guidelines developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and OECD (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development). Field collected natural soils were used as the test substrates. The endpoints measured were survival, growth and reproduction together with behavioral effects. Coiling, secretion of mucus and hypersensitivity were noted as common behavioral effects, which was observed in the highest concentrations in both cadmium salts. In terms of survival, both cadmium salts were not toxic to earthworm Eisenia andrei as LC50 were >1000 mg a.i /Kg dry soil. However, the chronic toxicity of cadmium chloride and cadmium sulphate was extremely high. Biomass reduction and reproduction were severely affected even at lower concentrations. The EC50 value for cadmium chloride and cadmium sulphate was 5.5 (2.6-8.4) mg a.i /kg dry soil and 6.3 (1.4- 11.3) mg a.i /kg dry soil respectively. Lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for both salts was 1 mg a.i /Kg dry soil and No observed effect concentration (NOEC) was <1 mg a.i /Kg dry soil. Our study concludes that use of high Cd containing fertilizers may risk beneficial soil organisms and application should be done with caution.

Keywords: Toxicity, Earthworm, Eisenia , Cadmium

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Diversity and Distribution of Avifauna at the Montane Cloud Forests of Horton Plains National Park

Chandrasiri P.H.S.P.*, Dharmarathne W.D.S.C. and Mahaulpatha W.A.D.

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Diversity and distribution of avifauna was studied at the Tropical Montane Cloud Forests of Horton Plains National Park, situated in the highland plateau of the Nuwara Eliya District from September 2015 to May 2016. Three main habitats were identified; Cloud Forest habitat, Cloud Forest Die-back habitat and Grassland habitat. Three fixed line transacts of 300 m were marked in each of the habitats using a global positioning system device (GPS). Avifauna was recorded on three consecutive days each month while travelling along transacts, from 0600h to 1000h. Birds were observed through a 10x50 binocular. Opportunistic data and incidental observations were used to supplement the population estimates. Seventy eight species of birds were recorded during the study period. This included 13 endemic species, seven migratory species and 58 resident species. The endemic species were; Sri Lanka White-eye (Zosterops ceylonensis), Sri Lanka Yellow-eared Bulbul (Pycnonotus penicillatus), Sri Lanka Dull-blue Flycatcher (Eumyias sordidus), Sri Lanka Junglefowl (Gallus lafayetii), Sri Lanka Woodpigeon (Columba torringtoniae), Sri Lanka Brown-capped Babbler (Pellorneum fuscocapillus), Sri Lanka Whistling-thrush (Myophonus blighi), Sri Lanka Hill Myna (Gracula ptilogenys), Sri Lanka Ashy-headed Laughingthrush (Garrulax cinereifrons), Sri Lanka Orange-billed Babbler (Turdoides rufescens), Sri Lanka Bush Warbler (Bradypterus palliseri), Sri Lanka Scimitter Babbler (Pomatorhinus melanurus) and Crimson-backed Flameback (Chrysocolaptes stricklandi). A total of 4537 individuals belonging to 60 species were recorded in the cloud forest habitat. And 1870 individuals belonging to 45 species were recorded in the Cloud forest die-back habitat. In the Grassland habitat 2897 individuals belong to 41 species were recorded. The maximum Shannon-Wiener Index (H’) of 2.56 was recorded from the Cloud forest habitat. In the Cloud forest die-back habitat the Shannon-Wiener Index H’ was 2.49 and in the Grassland habitat it was 2.31. Bird Diversity of Cloud Forest differed significantly from Cloud Forest Die-back bird diversity (t=0.9325, df=3529). Bird Diversity did not differ significantly between Cloud Forest Die-back habitat and the Grassland habitat (t=2.2587, df=3826) and between the Cloud Forest and Grassland habitats (t=3.9484, df= 6484). Jaccard Similarity Index between Cloud Forest and Cloud Forest Die-back was 0.58 and these habitats had more similar species. Moreover between Cloud Forest Die-back and Grassland the value was 0.47 and minimum value, 0.4 was recorded between Cloud Forest and Grassland which had less similar species. Keywords: Bird diversity and distribution, Endemic birds, Horton Plains, Tropical Montane Cloud Forest

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A Systematic Survey, Taxonomic Study and Conservation of Genus Salacia (Celastraceae) in North Central Province of Sri Lanka

Senevirathne W.I.N.S.* and Hettiarachchi P.L.

Department of Biological Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Genus Salacia is a climbing shrub comprised of nearly 200 species out of which, five have been reported in Sri Lanka. Salacia species are important components in many Ayurveda preparations and traditional medicine. Since S. reticultata and S. oblonga possess scientifically proven therapeutic benefits for an array of burning health issues, people tend to over exploit them from the wild to fulfill the existing demand. As a result, these two have become endangered in Sri Lanka. Therefore, recording existing populations in different agro-ecological regions with their abundance has become one of the key issues in conservation and sustainable use of these plants. Moreover, these species exhibit morphological plasticity and documented vegetative characters to differentiate one from the other are scares. The present study was launched to carry out a systematic survey and taxonomic study of different populations of Salacia species in the North Central province with the view of confirming taxonomic position of existing populations, documenting vegetative characters as there are overlapping morphological characters and flowering is seasonal and identifying unique populations for conservation. In the Systematic survey 28 localities out of which 15 are new records in the North Central Province where Salacia species were growing naturally were found. Representative samples were collected from twenty locations and identified, subsequently authenticated and used for the morphological study. Ninety morphological and anatomical characters of each population were scored by using standard methods. Methods for leaf clearing and wood maceration suitable for Genus Salacia were developed. A preliminary screening of phytochemicals was done using TLC. Leaf and stem extracts were obtained by cold extraction and Soxhlet method. TLC profiles were recorded under UV, using Anisaldehyde-sulphuric acid and Iodine vapour. Taxonomic relationships among collected samples were analyzed. Out of the ninety characters studied, fifty four could be identified as clear characters for species demarcation. Based on the study, eight samples could be clearly identified as S. reticulata, six as S. oblonga but the remaining six displayed a mixture of morphological characters of S. chinensis, S. reticulata and S. oblonga. The population collected from Ritigala (a new locality) showed deviation in characters from all others and hence need to draw the attention of conservationists.

Keywords: S. reticulata, S. oblonga, Taxonomic relationship

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Present Status and Conservation of Sri Lankan Aponogeton

Manawaduge C.G. and Yakandawala D.M.D.*

Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Aponogeton is an aquatic genus, represented by four species in Sri Lanka, listed under various conservation categories in The National Red List, A. jacobsenii (CR), A. rigidifolius (EN), A. crispus (VU) and A. natans (VU), of which the former two are endemic. A study on the occurrence and the distribution of Sri Lankan Aponogeton was carried out during the past two years. According to records, A. jacobsenii has been commonly occurring in central highlands. However, during this study, other than the luxurious population in Horton Plains National Park, we could encounter only few, very small poorly grown populations in Pattipola area, which might disappear in near future due to lack of water and the invasion of rushes. Even though, according to literature, A. rigidifolius has commonly occurred in Kaluthara, Rathnapura and Galle districts of the wet zone, we were unable to find any populations in Kaluthara, instead a new undescribed Aponogeton species superficially resembling A. rigidifolius, growing luxuriously. Nevertheless, other few populations encountered in Ratnapura and Galle districts, are under threat due to various anthropogenic activities. Further, despite of being in a protected area, the population beside the entrance of the Kanneliya Forest Reserve has declined considerably within past two years. As in literature, even though, A. natans has been distributed throughout the dry zone and considered as the most common species, we encountered only few populations. Moreover, its habitats; shallow stagnant waters, rice fields and marshes are now disappearing due to the constructions and climate changes, causing a severe threat for its existence. On the other hand, even though there is an apparent reduction, A. crispus is the most abundant species and has shown a satisfactory distribution in the dry and intermediate zones but could be under threat due to the habitat destructions. In addition, these species are extracted in large scale for consumption and medicinal purposes causing sever threat, especially for the two endemics. Contemporary observations have revealed that there is a high possibility of some Aponogeton spp. being extinct from wild in the future. Thus it is necessary to take relevant sustainable measures to conserve these plants and upgrading the conservation status of A. rigidifolius and A. natans is recommended. Keywords: Aquatic plants, Ornamental aquatics, Conservation status, Threaten species, Over exploitation

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Diel Vertical Distribution of Zooplankton in a Tropical Reservoir on New Moon and Full Moon Days

Walisundara W.M.T.M., Jayasinghe A.* and Asanthi H.B. University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Diel vertical migration of zooplankton is a well documented phenomenon, however the dynamics in vertical distribution due to changing moonlight intensity is still in debate. This study compares the diel vertical distribution of zooplankton in full moon and new moon days in Lunugamwehera reservoir. Samples of zooplankton were collected from 3 depth levels (surface, 3 m and 6 m) at six-hour time intervals (noon, dusk, midnight and dawn) from three sites of the reservoir. Sampling was carried out on new moon and full moon days from August to November, 2015. Zooplankton abundance (individuals L-1) at different depths was determined by direct counting under light microscope. Physico-chemical parameters (temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen) were measured at each depth level. Average water depth was measured at each site. Also, at each site, surface light intensity was measured using a portable Lux meter. Average light intensity in full moon nights was 0.0042 Wm-2, while that was 0.0000 Wm-2 in new moon nights. On new moon days, the noon and midnight total zooplankton abundances in surface layer were significantly different (Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon; P<0.05). Rotifera was the most diverse group identified, and contained 12 species. Copepods and cladocerans were dominant at the bottom layer in the noon, and at the middle layer in the dusk. When taxonomic group-wise considered, only copepods showed significant differences in abundance among the three depth layers (P<0.05; One-way ANOVA) on both full and new moon days. Cluster analysis on diversity, divided new moon and full moon samples clearly into 2 separate clusters except that all ostracods appeared in new moon cluster and all cladocerans appeared in full moon cluster. Separate correspondence analyses (CA) for day and night samples showed that the vertical distribution of Rotifera was different from other taxonomic groups on both full and new moon days. Significant positive correlation between zooplankton density and DO (r=0.835, P=0.01) and significant negative correlation between zooplankton abundance and water temperature on new moon day (r=-0.690 P<0.05) were observed. Results clearly showed significant differences between day and night samples on new moon days. However, when individual taxonomic groups were considerd, except cladocerans, others did not show any corelation with the light intensity on new moon days. Keywords: Vertical migration, Zooplankton, Lunar cycle, Moonlight intensity, Lunugamwehera reservoir

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An Ecological Assessment of the Panama Lagoon Complex, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka

Perera P.K.P.1* and Kariyawasam I.U.2 1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The Panama lagoon is located in, Ampara District, on the Eastern coast of Sri Lanka. This relatively small brackish water lagoon spans over an area of less than 1.5 km2, but encompasses variety of habitat types ranging from natural and semi-natural habitats to modified habitats by humans, thus performing an important ecological role. Biogeographically, Panama lagoon area falls under floristic regions I and II i.e. Coastal and Marine Belt and Dry and Arid Lowlands. It further belongs to the bioclimatic region B: Dry Zone. Field investigations carried out during the period of August to December, 2015 identified 11 major natural and man-made habitat types, including terrestrial, aquatic and semi-aquatic systems. Natural terrestrial habitats included scrublands, dry mixed evergreen forests, rock outcrop vegetation, and sand dunes. Anthropogenic terrestrial habitats were predominantly represented by chena/crop cultivations and home gardens. Natural wetland habitats included sea shore vegetation, salt marsh, mangrove and lagoon, while paddy fields represented anthropogenic wetland habitats. The plant species recorded included 41 trees, 47 shrubs, 92 herbs, 25 climbers including lianas and epiphytes. Recorded flowering plants included 160 native species (77%) with 2 endemic species (1%). Due to the high human influences on the environment, numerous alien species were found in the terrestrial habitats of the lagoon. There were 43 introduced species (exotics) (20.6%) recorded. Introduced species included 3 invasive alien species and 27 naturalized exotics. Seven (3.36%) nationally threatened plant species were recorded from the area. It includes 4 Nationally Endangered (EN) and 3 Nationally Vulnerable (VU) species. The study site also has 19 Nationally Near-Threatened (NT) species. Rapid faunal assessment undertaken to cover all habitat types in and around the lagoon recorded a total of 242 faunal species. This included 23 mammals, 128 birds, 25 reptiles, 7 amphibians, 35 butterfly species and 23 dragonfly species. Out of the total 242 faunal species recorded, 214 were native to the country (88.4%) while 7 species are listed as endemic (2.9%). There were 14 nationally threatened faunal species recorded in the study area which included 4 mammals, 6 birds, and 4 insect species (butterflies and dragonflies). A considerable area of the lagoon complex has been already subjected to human influences such as agriculture and residential developments, causing substantial threats to lagoon ecological resources. As Panama lagoon is a rich repository of native biodiversity, and an important habitat for migrant birds, it is imperative that the entire system is sustainably managed to achieve a balance between conservation and utilization. Keywords: Panama lagoon, Biodiversity, Dry zone, Floral diversity, Faunal diversity

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Temporal Variations in the Abundance and Diversity of Surface Zooplankton in the South Coast of Sri Lanka

Wimalasiri H.B.U.G.M.1*, Jinadasa S.U.P.2 and Dissanayake D.C.T.1 1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2National Aquatic resources Research and Development Agency, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Zooplankton have extensively studied in the Indian Ocean, but very few systematic studies have been carried out in the marine waters around Sri Lanka. This study aimed to understand the temporal variations in the abundance and diversity of surface zooplankton in the south coast of Sri Lanka. Surface zooplankton samples were collected at five different locations in the south coast of Sri Lanka in November 2015 (second inter monsoon), December 2015 (Northeast monsoon, NE) and May 2016 (Southwest monsoon SW) using R/V Samuddrika. The vertical hauls of zooplankton were collected from 5 m depth at each station using WP-2 net with 180 μm mesh size and samples were immediately preserved in 5% buffered formalin. At the laboratory, zooplankton were identified to the lowest possible taxon using existing guides, species diversity, abundance (ind/m3), evenness and richness were estimated with respect to three different sampling phases. The data were subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis to identify the similarity between temporal variation and zooplankton abundance. A total of 152 zooplankton species were identified during this study. Species belonging to phylum Arthropoda appeared be the most abundant group and their standing crop (whole time period and sites) was 1906±115 ind/m3. Arthropods occupied nearly 86% of total zooplankton community. Among arthropods, order Poecilostomatoida showed the highest abundance (858±8 ind/m3) followed by phylum Protochordata (~3% and average of 74 ind/m3) chetognaths (2.1%) and mollusks (~1.9%). The highest species abundance was recorded in Novemver (1392±5 ind/m3) and lowest was in May (360±2 ind/m3). Species diversity was also highest in November and lowest in May. Cluster analysis revealed two clearly visible abundance clusters with respect to time. The results indicated that there are significant temporal variations in zooplankton abundance (ANOVA, P<0.05) in the South coast of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Zooplankton, Abundance, Diversity, Cluster analysis

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Monsoon Driven Plankton Variation in Trincomalee Coastal Waters

Priyadarshani W.N.C.1*, Prasad J.A.C.1, Ranatunga R.R.M.K.P.2 and Jayasiri H.B.1

1National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Ecosystem dynamics and nutrient inputs to the coastal water bodies are directly coupled with seasonal fresh water plume formation at marine environment and affect wide range of bio- geochemical and physical processes of coastal waters. Trincomalee Bay and adjacent coastal waters are such a distinctive ecosystem which is frequently subjected to alter its biogeo- chemical processes and cycles by Mahaweli River water discharges with plenty of agrochemicals and organic particulate matters. Present study was conducted in June 2010 to December 2011 in order to monitor both phytoplankton and zooplankton variations with relation to monsoonal driven physico-chemical parameters covering full monsoon cycle, (North-East, South-West, First and Second inter monsoons). Sixteen (16) sampling sites representing three distinctive regions (bay, mouth, and offshore) of Trincomalee coastal waters were subjected for sub surface, (1m depth) sampling (temperature, salinity, nutrients, dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids and plankton), with total area of 450 km2.

According to the results, mean phytoplankton abundance varied between 2989-148670 individuals l-1during four monsoons while maximum and minimum numbers were recorded during North East monsoon at Mahaweli River mouth and second inter monsoon at offshore. The highest abundance (7.73×105 individuals l-1) was observed in bay area while the lowest abundance (492 individuals l-1) was recorded in offeshore during North East monsoon. Phytoplankton population was dominated by diatoms (100%) in bay area during North East monsoon while offshore waters invaded by dinoflagellates (40%) during same season. Phytoplankton abundance was positively correlated with nutrients [Nitrate-N (r=0.51) Nitrite- N (r=0.34) and phosphate-P (r=0.40) and Silicate-Si (r=0.54)] and negatively correlated with salinity (r=-0.86). There was no significant varaition between phytoplankton abundance and other oceanographic parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen and total suspended solids (P>0.05). Maximum zooplankton (34683 individuals m-3) was observed near Mahaweli River discharge points during North East monsoon while minimum (327 individuals m-3) recorded at offshore canyon area during 2nd inter monsoon. Here, Calanoids dominated the zooplankton population while abundance was positively correlated with silicate (r=0.43), phosphate (r=0.47) and phytoplankton abundance (r=0.59). Salinity impacted negatively (r=- 0.52) on zooplankton population while the highest number of groups were found in Koddiyar Bay which is subjected to change in water quality with Mahaweli River discharge. Thus, phytoplankton and zooplankton were maximum at bay during North East monsoon and closely correlated with maximum nutrient concentration carried by Mahaweli run off enriched with eroded soil particles during North East monsoon.

Keywords: Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Nutrients, River discharge

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Evaluation of Diversity of Soil Invertebrate Communities Near Forests of Gohagoda and Udawattakele in Kandy, Sri Lanka

Nijamdeen T.W.G.F.M.*, Weerakoon K.C. and Diyes G.C.P.

Department of Zoology, The Open University of Sri Lanka,Polgolla, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Soil faunal activity is essential for the functioning of all terrestrial ecosystems. Soil fauna are important in the physical and chemical transformation of litter, the maintenance of soil fertility and sustained productivity. By products of human activities affect the proper functioning of the soil fauna with a concomitant decrease in long term soil productivity. The fauna could be used as early indicators of changes brought about in soil properties by pollutants. In Sri Lanka studies of this nature are lacking and even baseline data against which changes could be measured are not yet available. Evaluation of possible indicator organisms coupled with soil chemical analysis to examine soil pollution is crucial. A field experiment was set up in Kandy in two forest areas near the Gohagoda dumping site and the Udawattakele forest reserve area to investigate the soil and leaf litter invertebrates.

The soil invertebrate fauna were extracted in both sampling sites by using NaCl floatation method and Baermann funnel. The leaf litter invertebrates were extracted using the Tullgren funnel. Soil physical and chemical parameters were analysed.

The catchment forest near Gohagoda had high nitrate (0.71%), phosphate (0.38%) and sulphate (0.07%) concentrations compared to that of in Udawattekele (0.036%, 0.07% and 0.03%, respectively) which revealed high pollution rate in Gohagoda. This data coincided with the invertebrate diversity in the two areas, Fifteen different invertebrate phyla were excavated and amongst them Collembola, Acarina and Nematoda were the dominant phyla in both forests. Collembolans were significantly high in Udawattakele. The Udawattakele forest area had the highest taxon and individual numbers of invertebrates. The results revealed that according to the Tullgren funnel Bearmaan funnel and NaCl floatation method Udawattekele forest showed high species diversity by Brillouin, Menhinick, Margalef, Berger-Parker, Shannon and Simpson indices and is significantly high in Udawattakele (<0.001). Overall Udawattekele has a high diversity and evenness than that of Gohagoda area.

This comprehensive analysis of invertebrate diversity shows that it may be used as possible indicator of soil quality. Thus it can be assumed that collembolans can be easily assessed and used as probable indicators of pollution. Therefore incorporating the chemical and biological data gives very promising and reliable conclusions about the degree of soil pollution. Soil invertebrates should also be considered as a resource that needs to be properly managed to enhance ecosystem services.

Keywords: Soil invertebrates, Diversity, Gohagoda, Udawattakele

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A Preliminary Study on the Distribution Pattern, Feeding Behavior and Invasiveness of the Exotic Fish, Chitala ornata (Clown Knife Fish) in the Sub Water Ways of Attanagalu Oya

Perera G.D.T.* and Weerakoon D.

Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Increasing threat from the introduced invasive species has been identified as one of the major risk factors for the extinction of freshwater fishes. There are number of identified freshwater alien species which have become invasive within Sri Lankan natural waters. However, there is a dearth of information regarding many of these alien invasive species. Therefore, this research project focused on elucidation of distribution pattern, food and feeding habitats and invasiveness of Chitala ornata, an alien invasive freshwater fish species in potentially new site of infestation in the Attanagalu oya and its tributaries over a period of three months as a preliminary study. Key objectives of the study were, to find out the present distribution of C. ornata in Attanagalu Oya and its tributaries, to evaluate the food and feeding habits of C. ornata through gut analysis and to find out the presence of other invasive/introduced species in the area. Over the study peroid, 50 individuals of C. ornata ranging from 21cm to >80cm were collected using hook and line fishing gear and captured fish were deep-frozen immediately after capturing to avoid the deterioration of the food items within the fish gut. Fish gut analyses have been carried out under laboratory conditions. Morphological measures, frequency of occurrence and Index of fullness were calculated. The results indicated that C. ornata has established in the Attanagalu oya basin in areas such as Ekala and Kotugoda. Gut content analysis indicated that C. ornata feeds on significant number of native fish species. Five major prey fish species, consisting 58 Hirikanaya (Labeo dussumeri), 35 Rathu waral katu kuriya (Puntius kelumi), 23 Iri ankutta (Mystuss vittatus), 13 Walapoththa (Ompok bimaculatus) and 16 Illeya (Megalops cyprinoides) were found to make up the diet of 28 adults and 05 juveniles of C. ornata. The average Index of fullness was 378.19. Frequencies of occurrence are 0.606, 0.485, 0.424, 0.121 and 0.242 respectively for L.dussumeri, P. kelumi, M. vittatus, O. bimaculatus and M. cyprinoides. Out of these five species P. kelumi is listed as an endangered endemic species. Other than fishes, one shrimp species, molluscs and fish eggs were also recorded as their food items. Further, other exotic species such as Tank cleaner (Pterygoplichthys spp.) and giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy) were also recorded in the Attanagalu oya. It was concluded that immediate steps should be taken to manage this potentially harmful Alien invasive species in the Attanagalu Oya basin.

Keywords: Invasive, Exotic, Fresh water, Chitala, Attanagalu oya

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Dragonfly (Odonata) Species Diversity in Different Land Use Patterns of Lowland Tropical Wet Zone, Colombo District of Sri Lanka

Kanthika W.A.L., Kuruppuarachchi K.A.J.M.*, Dharmasena M.C.M. and Cooray M.G.

Department of Botany, The Open University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Many species of Odonates inhabiting in agro-ecosystems, play a crucial role in controlling pest populations and can be considered as a pollution indicator. Damselflies are important bio- control agents especially in the control of mosquito larvae. Individual Odonata species have a wide range of environmental tolerances, and are good indicators of ecosystem health, particularly for wetlands. Odonata are also known to be highly responsive to ecosystem conditions in relation to broad-scale factors such as climate and urbanization. Huge knowledge gap displays in ecology of Odonata species and this preliminary study would provide a considerable knowledge on formulating conservation strategies and ecosystem services of dragonflies. The ecological survey examined the Dragonfly & Damselfly (Odonata) species diversity and habitat preference in different land use types at low country wet zone of Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Five (05) main land use patterns were selected as sub-urban land set up at Waga Area: a natural forest (Indikada Mukalana), a rubber plantation, a paddy field as an agricultural land use; Urban land setup: The Open university premises (OUSL) at Nawala,Colombo and “Diyatha Uyana” Battaramulla. The ecological survey was carried out with layout of belt transect (100m×2.5 ) adjacent (5-15 m distance) to selected water ways in each different sampling areas of different land use patterns which adapting purposive random sampling technique. Visual observations will be carried out adapting internationally accepted techniques for sampling of flying insects to identify and quantify of Dragonflies. Dragonfly and damselfly species specific parameters were recorded in selected sampling sites.Total number of 26 Odonata species including 09 endemics was recorded in all land using patterns all land use patterns. Species diversity (richness and abundance) measured within study sites using Shannon wiener index indicated that the paddy field (2.185), rubber plantation (1.885), natural forest (0.9507), OUSL along polluted Wellawatte canal (0.6745) and Diyatha Uyana (0.619) respectively. The number of dragonfly species and abundance is remarkably higher in urban sites while number of damselfly is higher in sub-urban paddy field and rubber plantation. Neurothemis tulia and Rhyothemis variegata species were recorded at all study sites except natural forest. Brachythemis contaminata is the most abundant species which is only recorded in urban sites. A considerable species diversity and variation of Odonata species among study sites were recognized. As a conclusive remark, further studies on find limiting factors for diversity, distribution and abundance of dragonfly & damselfly species is recommended. Keywords: Dragonfly diversity, Different land uses, Lowland wet zone, Colombo

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Bryozoans Species Composition in Colombo Port with a Description of Two New Species

Marasinghe M.M.K.I.1, Ranatunga R.R.M.K.P.1* and Anil A.C.2

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2National Institute of Oceanography, Dona-Paula, India *[email protected]

Abstract

Biofouling is one of the major means of introducing organisms in to new marine environments. Bryozoans form the major component of the biofouling community. There is dearth of information on their presence in our waters. Therefore, systematic description on existing biofouling species in Sri Lankan coastal region is very essential. This paper describes the composition of bryozoans of the class Gymnolaemata with a description of two new species recorded from coastal waters of Sri Lanka. The study was conducted in Colombo Port, one of the busiest ports in the country as well as in the region with an increased vulnerability for the introduction of geographically distinct species along with increased shipping operations. Monthly samples were collected from eight sampling stations using artificial settlement collectors which consisted of rope backbone supporting a number of horizontal PVC pipe arms that were attached to the settlement surfaces. The collectors were submerged systematically where first level was 1m below the water surface and others setting at 1m intervals. Species were identified microscopically observing fine morphological features. Scoring percentage covered by each bryozoan was determined using a quadrat (400 squares each with 5mm x 5mm area). During the study, seven species of the class Gymnolaemata were recorded namely; Electra bengalensis, Hippoprina indica, Celleporaria volsella, Parasmittina sp., Schiporella errata, Watersipora subtorquata and Sinoflustra annae. According to the One way ANOVA test there is a significant difference (p<0.05) between each sampling location for species richness and total percentage cover. However, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between four sampling depths for species richness and total percentage cover. Two new bryozoans identified were Sinoflustra annae and Electra bengalensis. Percentage cover of S. annae and E. bengalensis ranged from 1-18% and 0.3-40% respectively. Among these, E. bengalensis was recorded in all sampling stations yet S. annae was recorded only in CICT, BQ, OP and UCT. Though, these species are native to India, there are no published literatures for the presence of Sri Lankan coastal waters. Therefore, present finding will be the first record for their presence in Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Bryozoans, Species richness, Percentage cover, Colombo Port, Sinoflustra annae, Electra bengalensis

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Are Sri Lankan Reefs Losing the Resilience? An Example from Coral Reefs in Sallitive Island

Ranatunga R.R.M.K.P.1*, Weerasinghe R.1, Prasad J.A.C.2 and Pethiyagoda P.D.R.S.1

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Coral reefs are known to undergo phase shift in to macro-algae and reefs have lost the capacity to remain in or return to a coral-dominated state. This shift will not only affect corals, but the others heavily depend on heterogeneous habitat afforded by corals. Sallitivu in Panichchankerni, Eastern province, is a small island (41328 m2). The Island is surrounded by a ring of coral reef with an elevated breaking reef crest, seaward slope and centred shallow lagoon (<1.2m at high tide). The shore is entirely a thick layer of washed coral rubbles. The archived aerial photographs confirmed these coral rubbles present only after 2004 tsunami.

Underwater visual census were carried out within the reef lagoon and three sites in reef slope using 30 m long belt transect. In addition to diversity of corals and algae, percentages of live, dead and bleached coral cover were recorded. The reef lagoon is shallow (10-60 cm) and much of the reef crest is exposed at low tide. Within the reef lagoon, the live coral cover was <5%. Around 15% was observed recently bleached, 12% were overgrown by algae; Padina sp, Halimeda sp, Sargassum sp, Caulerpa recemosa and Dictyota sp, and the rest was dead corals smothered by sediments. The seaward slope with high wave action was mostly smothered dead corals with live corals <3%. Coral colonies were represented by Acroporidae (branching and table corals)- Acropora cytherea, A. divaricata, A. formosa, A. gemmifera, A. grandis, A. hemprichii, A. hyacinthus, A. latistella, Acropora sp., A. nobilis, and A. robusta; (Foliaceous)-Montipora aequituberculata and M. hispida; Faviidae (sub massive and encrusting)-Favites halicora, Favites spinosa, Leptastrea purpurea and Platygyra daedalea; Pocilloporidae (Lace/cauliflower) - Pocillopora damicornis; Poritidae (Massive/submassive)-Porites evermanni, P. paliformis, and P. rus. Live corals observed were immature. Southern end of the reef slope had emerging corals among unstable coral rubbles. It is assumed that the degradation was started post-tsunami and continued due to natural stresses. The recovery of corals may hindered by macro-algal growth and resulting accumulation of sediments, smothering due to less wave action within reef lagoon and resulting recruitment and settlement failure. Recent bleaching would be due to exposure to direct sunlight during the change of tides and low sea level. Increasing oxygen level due to algal blooms would also prone for bleaching. Avoiding such undesirable phase shifts from coral dominance to algae and reverse them when occur, requires an urgent reform of scientific approaches to understand the processes causing the degradation. A better understanding on why some reefs rapidly degrade and others do not is critical. Most reef conservation efforts are directed toward reserve implementation, but new approaches are needed to sustain ecosystem function since demarcation of a marine reserve alone would not benefit in improving reef resilience.

Keywords: Phase-shift, Coral reefs, Macro-algae, Bleaching, Sallitive Island

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Green Buildings Concept for Nature Based Tourism; A Case Study from Sri Lanka

Gunawardena M.P.

Department of Biotechnology, Horizon Campus, Malabe, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

The concept of green buildings and nature-based tourism are topics of global concern for effective sustainable environment management. This has now become a very popular business and marketing strategy since large amounts of money are drawn into these businesses by the hospitality industry. However, sustainability and monitoring progress is in want in most of these concept based projects. Therefore, a study was carried out with the objective of assessing the effectiveness of the concept of green buildings in relation to nature- based tours. This case study was conducted at a luxury resort located in Sigiriya, which has received the Gold Award based on the GREEN Rating System of New Buildings. In addition to a proper environment management plan, prominent green features of the resort in order to obtain high ranking in green building rating system was landscaped with native flora, a micro socio-economic system demonstrated by creating a lake and setting up a small paddy field on the site. The design of the resort is planned to keep the environment undisturbed as much as possible. The success of the site for nature-based tours was analyzed by comparing the birds that can be observed naturally during the course of bird watching tours conducted within a period of 24 months, from 7th July 2014 to 7th July 2016. The bird diversity was observed and analyzed within the resort premises and adjacent sites with similar landuse patterns (abandoned farmland, man-made lake, paddy field and natural forest patch) and same extent. The fixed distance line transect method was used to count the bird species and then the alpha diversity and gamma diversity was calculated for the study area. According to the results, the resort site had the highest alpha diversity with 87 species. The lake, abandoned farmland, natural forest patch and paddy field had 70, 57, 47 and 43 alpha diversities respectively. The gamma diversity for the entire area was 112 species. The manifold diversity within the resort was mainly due to the presence of large numbers of different micro habitats within a small extent of area when compared with the other sites with similar areas of extent. Hence, a bird watcher could observe many numbers of species that are present in various dissimilar habitat types with the same time and effort. This is worth the while for both the service provider (resort, travel agent or the guide) and customer (tourist). The different micro habitats were primarily created as a result of the passion inspired by the concepts of green buildings and nature based tours. Therefore, outcomes from such conceptual developments are an example for organizations which are involved in the same field to conduct effective nature based tours which benefit all parties such as the service provider, the client (tourist) as well as the local fauna and flora. Industry and conservation should run parallel to each other to optimize economic and conservation goals. Thus the ‘green buildings concept for nature based tours’ would be a new prospect in the field of effective conservation.

Keywords: Green building, Sustainability, Nature-based tourism

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Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in Yagirala Forest Reserve: Ethnozoology and Implications for Conservation

Karawita K.V.D.H.R.*, Perera P.K.P. and Pabasara M.G.T.

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) has been identified as “threatened” both internationally and locally, and included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. In Sri Lanka, the species is protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Amended 2009). Yet, it is a native mammal species that received little scientific attention, and its autecology and conservation needs are not well understood in the local context. This case-study was conducted to understand the ethnozoology and conservation threats for pangolins in Yagiala Forest Reserve (a tropical lowland forest located in Kalutara District, south-west of Sri Lanka) and its surroundings. We interviewed 67 individuals identified as regular or opportunistic hunters of pangolins, using snowball sampling method. All interviewed hunters have considered pangolin as an opportunistic catch and no one claimed it as a species caught regularly. Among the interviewed group, all hunters have hunted pangolins for local consumption and no evidences were found linked to local/international trade, or the species being used in indigenous medicine. Semi-structured interviews with hunters further revealed that methods used to catch pangolins differ widely with ambush and hitting with hard or sharp object (76.6%), throwing sand/soil (14.9%) or using a flash light (8.5%) to cease the movement of the animal being cited as the most commonly used hunting practices. All respondents hunted pangolins in the night, except in cases where injured or entangled pangolins in barb/mesh fences have been captured during the day time. Most respondents (87.2%) admitted that pangolins are more easily encountered or captured under dry weather conditions, and before rains. Such peculiar observations by local hunters may indicate possible behavioral patterns of the species associated with local weather conditions. Cross tabulation and Chi-square tests were further employed to explore the association between respondents’ knowledge, environmental attitudes and conservation perceptions of pangolins. Based on the frequency of encounters and number of animals caught, Yagirala Forest Reserve seems to provide conducive habitats for the species. The applicability of local knowledge in developing sound ecological study methods and conservation strategies for Indian pangolin are further highlighted.

Keywords: Indian Pangolin, Yagirala, Sri Lanka, Hunters, Conservation threats

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Natural Regeneration in Pine Plantations in the Buffer Zone of Sinharaja World Heritage Site

Dilhari G.K.A.L.* and Singhakumara B.M.P. Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Plantations of fast growing Pinus caribaea in degraded lands have become increasingly common in the recent past as a tool for ecological restoration. In Sri Lanka Caribbean pine was planted on abandoned agricultural lands in the wet zone since the late 1960s (Pereira, 1988) as an effort to counteract land degradation caused by forest clearance and unsustainable use for the cultivation. Because of its ability to grow fast and vigorously in degraded lands, this species is potentially useful in restoration. Caribbean pines are said to improve soil nitrogen status, and their light crown structure allows more light to penetrate into lower strata than other tropical lowland pines (Lamb 1973). From 1978 to 1982, plantations of Caribbean pines were established in the buffer zone of Sinharaja World Heritage Site. They are provided suitable environments for the growth of seedlings of late-successional native trees (Ashton et al., 1997 a, 1997 b, 2001). This study is to investigate natural regeneration potential beneath the pine plantations in the Sinharaja buffer zone with the distance from natural forest. To investigate the regeneration potential, three main sites were selected and each site was divided into three 100 m*10 m plots perpendicular to the edge of the natural forest with 50 m gaps. Plots were demarcated 400 m in to the interior of pine plantations on various slopes. In each plot all trees larger than 5 cm in diameter excluding lianas were identified and their height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured. A total of 81 species including 35 families were identified in the study. Among the 81 species 15 were climax and 46 were pioneers. In conclusion, species composition was decreased with the distance from the natural forest. Vegetation represented a mixture of pioneer species and climax species. However, majority of the species was pioneers and climax species were mostly absent. The highest numbers of species were found in site 02 with 57 species. And also a diversity indices was calculated for each site using Shannon index. The highest diversity was recorded in site 2 with 2.925 in value. Alstonia macrophylla was the species which the highest Important Value Index (IVI) in every site. However in three plantation sites Clidemia hirta and Oclandra undergrowth were found in high densities. Light canopy of Caribbean pines may provide a suitable environment for this Clidemia hirta.

Keywords: Regeneration, Caribbean pine, IVI, Clidemia hirta

Summary of Session Theme Talk

Waste Management System and Energy Recovery: A Japanese Casestudy

Goto N. Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan [email protected]

Japan has established a waste management system to reduce final disposal as the country has limited lands available to maintain waste disposal sites. Incineration is a key component in the overall waste management system. However, maintenance of incinerators is expensive. As such, improving the overall efficiency of the system is of high priority. Improving the waste recovery system has been identified as one such concepts in the context of overall system efficiency. At present, each municipality has its own incinerator(s). Maintenance of such facilities is a burden, especially for smaller municipalities. The conceptual idea here is to reduce the number of incineration and improve waste transportation/logistics. Some municipalities can afford to have incineration facilities of greater capacity. This will have several advantages. Instead of maintaining their own incinerators, smaller municipalities can send their waste to larger facilities and cut down on the cost of construction or maintenance of incinerators. Large municipalities can construct incinerators with greater capacity in scarcely available lands for such purposes. However this model will bring difficulties for municipalities managing larger areas. Until now the municipalities with large areas located incineration facility in the center of the city. But in the new system, the municipality may require to bring waste to the next city. This can elevate the transportation cost for municipalities with large areas. The new big facility brings another point which is energy recovery. Once the facility becomes large, it can have high efficient power generation. The waste treatment facility generates 100% renewable energy. Japanese government set a law which big electricity company has to buy renewable energy with high price. The waste treatment facility can sell the company with high price and reduce the burden of the taxpayer. One municipality is constructing waste management system which includes not only waste incineration facility but also sewage treatment facility. They mix sludge from the sewage treatment facility and kitchen garbage and get methane from fermentation system. Methane fermentation can produce methane gas, but it can also produce waste water and residue. Especially the waste water includes higher nitrogen content and can be utilized as fertilizer. However, it is difficult to utilize the fertilizer because Japan does not have much agricultural lands and agriculture sector cannot accept the entire production. Sewage treatment facility can treat waste water because the facility locates next to the fermentation chamber.

Keywords: Waste management, Incineration facility, Municipality, Recycle, Energy recover

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Management of Temple Flower Waste of Jaipur City by Vermicomposting and its Effect on Soil and Plant Growth of Pisum sativum

Jain N.

University of Rajasthan, India *[email protected] Abstract Solid waste management is one of the major challenges faced by many countries around the globe. Inadequate collection, recycling or treatment and uncontrolled disposal of waste in dumps can lead to severe hazards, such as health risks and environmental pollution . In India, at most of the religious places, a huge tonnage of solid waste is generated largely during functions, worships, ceremonies and festivals. The quantity of flower waste generated by few major temples of Jaipur city was assessed. In the present study different proportions of mixture of cattle dung and floral wastes were taken and vermicomposting process was done using Eisenia foetida earth worm species. The control (mixture without floral waste) took a longer time to decompose while the mixtures of floral waste and cow dung decomposed in less time . The bioconversion ratio i.e., waste into vermicompost was found to be high in 50:50 and 60:40 proportion. After the vermicomposting process analysis of various physical and chemical parameters was done. It was found that 25˚C temperature, 8.0 pH, 1-2 mm particle size, 80% moisture content, black colour, odourless, 0.88 bulk density were optimum parameters for floral waste vermicomposting. Vermicomposting resulted in lowering of EC, C:N ratio, C:P ratio and increase in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur.The pot culture studies of Pisum sativum plants (using prepared floral waste vermicompost as fertilizer), various growth parameters like mean stem diameter, mean plant height, mean leaf number and total plant biomass showed good enhancement of growth. The results indicate that integrated effect of all the nutrients present in flower waste vermicompost results in the increased growth and yield of Pisum sativum plants and also played a crucial role in improving soil properties, as compared to control. Thus, vermicomposting of temple flower waste is an excellent and ecofriendly method to get valuable products which will lead to a healthier and waste free environment

Keywords: Temple floral waste, Vermicomposting, Pisum sativum, Growth, Parameters

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N-POTS (Nature Based - Pots) : Organic Pot Innovation as Polybag Plastic Replacement Made from Wood Waste in Supporting Zero Waste Forestry

Nuryadin F.R.*, Iskandar M. and Afaf B.D.H.

Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia *[email protected] Abstract Indonesia is a country with a large forest area around 124,023,000 ha and forestry is a widely grown industry. Indonesian forest products consist of wood, rattan, bamboo, gum, etc. Wood is needed as a basic material for furniture, home, bearing rail, etc. N-POTS are designed as cultivation media, biodegradable organic planting media and as a substitution for plastic polybags. The raw material of the N-Pots are dried bark, compost, paper, natural adhesive and water. The addition of compost and husk fuel causes a decrease in the strength of organic pot. Bark as a by-product from logging process has the potential of combining with compost, that has elements required by the crops in their early stages of growth. Tanin is used as an adhesive for gluing purpose. Moreover, litter and compost are added to increase rigidity. The combination of basic materials newsprint and compost (50:50, v/v) with tannin gives the best growing influence with compared to other treatments. Newspapers were used as one of the mixing media of making N-Pots to recyle waste paper. Another use of N-Pots is that the media contained in the pot can be used as a planting medium. In addition to that, N-Pots are expected to function as a growing container which provides the nutrients needed for the plant growth and increase the diversity of soil microorganisms. In the study, compost can be used as a base material of organic potting mix and it can add nutrients and stimulate plant growth. The results of the analysis of nutrients in the basic ingredients of organic potting showed that the addition of compost increases the content of N, P and K, by 134%, 450% and 371.4%, respectively, while additon of litter increases the content of N, P and K by 38.3% , 66.7% and 57.1% respectively.

Keywords: Wood, Zero waste forestry, Forestry waste, Polybag, N-POTS

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Effect of Cadmium and Zinc on Three Marine Diatoms, Odontella aurita, Bellerochea malleus and Coscinodiscus centralis

Narayanan V. and Pitchai S.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract Diatoms are extremely convenient and widely used as assessment tools because they integrate and reflect the environmental changes. Biochemical approaches for the detection of environmental pollutants in microalgae, particularly diatoms are most important. Concentrations of chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate and lipid in the toxicant induced culture are also used as proxy measures, but only when they can be shown to be linearly correlated with either cell number or biomass. The present study is planned to study the Chronic (7 days) bioassay and determine the toxic effect of Zn and Cd on chlorophyll ‘a’ content, protein, carbohydrate and lipid of marine centric diatoms adopting standard methodology by APDC- MIBK extraction method(metal analysis), Spectrophotometric method, Folin-ciocalteau method, Phenol-sulphuric acid method and Chloroform-methanol method respectively. The bioassay tests were conducted by subcultures with the cell density of 0.39×105, 0.8×103 and 0.4×105 cells/ml of O. aurita, B.malleus and C. centralis respectively were exposed to different concentrations of cadmium and zinc for seven days, including control without metal. The results of the above experiments revealed that chlorophyll ‘a’ concentration reduced with increasing concentration of Zn and Cd which might be responsible for higher chlorophyll ‘a’ production relatively with lower concentration of Zn and Cd, compared to control. The protein content was gradually increased with increasing concentration of Zn and Cd, maximum of protein 30.8±0.8 µg/mL and 28.1±0.7 µg/mL , 34.8±0.5 µg/mL and 35.6±0.8 µg/mL, 36.6±0.64 and 34.6±0.74 µg/mL observed at highest concentration of Zn and Cd respectively in O.aurita, B. malleus and C. centralis. Conversely, the protein was highly reduced during high concentration of both Zn and Cd. Similarly, the maximum lipid contents of 46.8±0.56 µg/mL and 47.5±0.67 µg/mL, 44.5±0.44 µg/mL and 37.5±0.63 µg/mL and 47.5±0.63 µg/mL and 40.1±0.89 µg/mL observed at increasing concentration of Zn and Cd respectively in O.aurita, B. malleus and C. centralis. In both heavy metals, the lipid contents were decreased at higher concentration but increased production of lipid content was noticed at lowest concentrations. Zn and Cd showed maximum inhibition of the total carbohydrate content at high concentrations, the maximum carbohydrate content of 24.8±0.8 µg/mL and 23.7±0.7 µg/mL, 28.2±0.9 and 24.1±0.7 µg/mL, 27.3±0.93 µg/mL and 19.9±0.68 µg/mL observed at increasing concentration of Zn and Cd in O.aurita, B. malleus and C. centralis respectively. The study concluded that the Chlorophyll ‘a’ and biochemical composition of candidate species were found to be influenced by selected metals. Keywords: Chronic bioassay, Chlorophyll ‘a’, Marine diatoms, Toxicant, Biochemical composition

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The Application of Microalgae an Impending Bio-Fertilizer: Maize Cultivation as a Model

Sruthi S.R.1, Ramar D.2 and Pitchai S.2*

1Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, India 2Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

The increasing demand of food crops and decrease in productivity due to continuous use of chemical fertilizer has not only resulted in decline of crop yield, loss of fertility and degradation of soil but has also led us one step back in achieving sustainable agriculture. The use of algal bio-fertilizer provides an effective, ecofriendly and non-polluting approach in improving the productivity of crop by both nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis. Algal bio-fertilizers improve soil structure and increase yield productivity even if applied in a small area. The application of algal bio-fertilizers in plants has resulted in increase in root, shoot length with number of leaves and hence overall growth of the plant has been increased. India being one of the largest producer and consumer of pulses requires abundant amount of pulse production to fulfill the demands of ever growing populations which can be achieved by using algal bio-fertilizers.

Microalgae efficiently utilize and remove the nitrogen and phosphorus present in wastewater and assimilate these in valuable algal biomass. Yet, besides macronutrients such as N, P and K, microalgae also contain plant growth-promoting substances such as vitamins, carotenoids, amino acids and antifungal substances. In this study, the valorisation of microalgae as an organic slow-release fertilizer is presented.

The fertilizer potential of both fresh water and marine microalgal biomass was determined; more specifically dried microalgal biomass, cultivated on microalgae in various natural and chemical methods. In the first stage the mineralization rate of both types of biomass was determined. Also a dosage toxicity test for Ca2+ and Na+ was performed using seedlings of lettuce and garden cress, respectively. Subsequently, a greenhouse maize growth experiment was performed, wherein the fertilizer potential of both types of microalgal biomass was compared with conventional inorganic and organic microalgae fertilizers. The growth rate of the maize plants and the maize yield were assessed for each fertilizer treatment, as well as the leave composition and the water, sugar and carotenoid concentrations in the maize seed. The results of the study show there was no significant difference in plant growth between the fertilizer treatments with microalgae and the conventional algae fertilizer. This demonstrates the potential of microalgae an impending fertilizer for agriculture applications.

Keywords: Microalgae, Agriculture, Bio-fertilizer, Maize, Applications

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Alternative Livelihood for Scheduled Caste Population in Cuddalore District through Sustainable Utilization of Marine Waste for Oyster Mushroom Cultivation

Murugaiyan K. Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India [email protected] Abstract Edible mushroom cultivation is a profitable cottage industry, in which oyster mushroom occupies a prominent place in India. A good substrate is a key factor that determines the profitability of the mushroom cultivation. Marine waste were evaluated for the production of oyster mushroom as a means of managing the vast amount of organic waste that are being generated by fast growing seafood industries. In the present study, sustainable utilization of marine bio-waste for the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus florida) and the standardized technology was transferred to scheduled caste population in and around Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu, India. The participants have collected marine wastes from the landing centre and processed as per the procedure taught during the lectures as well as demonstration. The experimental work was designed with Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four treatments (375 g of paddy straw with 125 g of fish waste, shell waste, seaweed and seagrass amended separately) and a control (500 g of paddy straw) with three replications. Continuous hands on training were given for a period of one month to the participants on cultivation of oyster mushroom using marine bio-wastes as supplementary substrate along with paddy straw. During this one month training, the participants understand the technology thoroughly starting from the substrate preparation and processing, spawn handling, mushroom bed preparation, continuous monitoring of the culture environment, harvest, value addition and marketing etc. Further, the nutritive value and biological activities of oyster mushroom cultured on different marine waste were evaluated. Average yield was tested in three flushes of P.florida on four different substrates with control. Among various substrates, maximum yield (498.11±7.80 g) was recorded in fish waste. However, minimum average yield (266.91±4.35 g) was recorded in seaweed. The biological efficiency was recorded in four different substrates along with control. Among these, fish waste exhibited highest biological efficiency (99.62±1.56%). Very least efficiency was observed in control (53.38333±0.86784%). The proximate composition such as moisture, protein, carbohydrate, total lipid, crude fiber, amino acids and vitamins were estimated in P. florida which harvested from five different substrates. The highest moisture content (90.71%) was recorded in paddy straw and the least value (82.97%) was recorded in shell waste. The highest content of protein was found in fish waste (23.52%) and the lowest protein was found in seaweed (17.18%). The lowest lipid percentage was observed in fish waste (4%) and the highest lipid percentage was observed in paddy straw (8%). The lowest percentage (22.09%) of carbohydrate was observed in seaweed substrate and the highest carbohydrate percentage was observed in fish waste (36.54%). The maximum percentage of crude fiber was observed in fish waste (14.67%) and minimum in seaweed (8.75%). Three training programmes were successfully conducted to scheduled caste women population with the financial support of Department Science and Technology, Government of India. Micro funding was provided to the two self help groups belong to SC population and they became a small entrepreneur in that area. It is interesting to note that the oyster mushroom cultivation using marine waste as supplementary substrate along with paddy straw not only increase the yield and nutritional quality but it could be an alternative livelihood for scheduled caste population. Keywords: Mushroom, Marine waste, Culture, Proximate composition, Biomolegules

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Investigation of Photochemical Smog Formation after Removal of Water Soluble Organic and Inorganic Fractions in the Diesel Exhaust Fume

Palliyaguru N.P.L.* and Jayaweera P.M.

Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract The exhaust fume from internal combustion engines has been one of the largest pollutants in aquatic and atmospheric systems in the world1. The formation of oxides of nitrogen under high pressures and temperatures during the combustion process of the engine initiates a chain of reactions with volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) in the presence of UV light to form photochemical smog in the atmosphere3. This research investigates the possibility to reduce the photochemical smog by removing a water soluble fraction of diesel fumes. In the general experimental set up of this research, the diesel exhaust line that comes out from Toyota 2C diesel engine is connected to a smog chamber equipped with UV light source. It was measured that the pH of the water drops to 2.9 from 5.8 in 20 min during the function of diesel engine at idle mode. The Fig. 1(a) shows the UV-Vis spectrum of diesel fumes directly purged into distilled water samples. It shows the dissolution of some VOC’s in water. The Fig. 1(b) represents the UV-VIS spectrum of diesel fumes that initially go through the smog chamber and then purged into cyclohexane. Fig.1(c) represents the UV-VIS spectrum of the samples that were collected after the diesel fumes were fed into the water tank prior to sending it into the smog chamber. Fig. 1(c) demonstrates a good enhancement of a broad peak from 230 nm to 280 nm that corresponds to water insoluble portion of the diesel fume. The relative increase of the water insoluble fraction from Fig. (b) to (c) proves a deduction of water soluble fraction in the diesel fumes. This could in turn have a positive effect on the atmospheric pollution.

UV-VIS Spectra of diesel exhaust fumes 1.2 1 Figure 1: UV-VIS spectrum of diesel fumes (a) directly purged into 0.8 distilled water (b) purged into 0.6 cyclohexane after smog chamber 0.4 c (c) purged into cyclohexane after 0.2 sending it through the water tank

Normalized absorbance Normalized prior to the smog chamber 0 a b -0.2 200 220 240 260 280 300 Wavelength /nm

Keywords: Photochemical smog, Volatile organic compounds, UV-VIS spectrum

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Nitrogen Budget of Broiler Production under Closed-House Management Conditions

Atapattu N.S.B.M.1*, Gunawardana W.W.D.A.1, Abeywickrama L.M.1 and Munasinghe M.2

1Department of Animal Science, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 2MIND Institute, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Intensive livestock production systems while relying heavily on external N inputs generate excessive amounts of N pollutants such as NH3. In intensive closed-house system of broiler management, external N inputs are either retained in growing birds, excreted into litter, wasted due to mortalities or volatilized as noxious gasses, mainly NH3. A clear understanding about the N input flows and the partitioning of N among the products, by-products and wastes is important to increase the N use efficiency of a production process. The present study determined the fate of N inputs during the 41 day production cycle of broiler chicken in closed- house system, with a view of suggesting strategies for higher environmental sustainability of the system. A total direct N balance trial was conducted for three production cycles (from day 1-41) in three closed houses, each housed 32500 birds. The directly measured N inputs were day old chicks, feeds and paddy husk while the N outflows were mortalities, broilers slaughtered for market and spent litter. The difference between the sum of direct N inflow and outflow was considered as the loss of N as NH3. 101±4.2 kg of external N inputs were required per 1000 chicks enter into the system. Feed accounted for as high as 98% of the N inputs while day old chicks and paddy husk as the litter material accounted only 1.2 and 0.7%, respectively. Feed fed after day 20 accounted 64% of the total feed contribution. Reflecting high growth performance parameters of the closed house system, 64.8% of the total N inputs was retained in final marketable live weights. However, as high as 21.5% of N built- up in litter and 13% loss of N as NH3 indicate not only the gravity of the problem but also the possible means of interventions for better N utilization efficiencies of the system. NH3 loss was equivalent to 13.2 g of NH3 per chick in, 6.1 g of NH3/Kg live weight and 7.2 g of NH3/Kg of dressed broiler meat. Though the loss of N due to mortalities was low (0.6%), the same could further be reduced. Possibilities of improving N utilization efficiency through better feed efficiency are argued to be low under closed-house conditions. Consequently, means of reducing NH3 formation in the litter, recycling of waste and by-products such as litter, dead birds and offal are proposed to increase the environmental sustainability of broiler production under closed-house conditions. Keywords: Nitrogen, Budget, Broiler, Ammonia, Efficiency

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Designing and Evaluation of Bagasse Powered Preheating Device for Seed Cane Hot- water Treatment Plant

Bandara W.B.M.A.C.1*, Ariyawansha K.T.2 and Rupasinghe C.P.1

1Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 2Division of Mechanization Technology, Sugarcane Research Institute, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

As a solution for the energy crisis facing today, the biomass from the sugarcane industry plays major role as an energy source in developing countries. Sugarcane (Saccarhum officinarum) is a globally important source of commercial sugar, which accounts for over 75 percent of the world sugar production. It is estimated that, 30 percent of wet bagasse is produced in a normal sugar mill. Sugarcane bagasse has a heating value of 16792.44 kJ/kg. There is a high potential for using bagasse as a biomass energy source of agricultural sector when considering its thermal properties and the availability. Due to non-availability of disease-free healthy planting materials, sugarcane productivity in Sri Lanka has decreased. Hot water treatment of sugarcane planting material is practiced to control systemic diseases of sugarcane such as ratoon stunting disease and smut. Operating of the existing hot water treatment plants require high electricity for the initial heating process which is very costly and time consuming. This research is focused on designing and evaluating of a bagasse powered pre-heating device for seed cane hot water treatment plant for saving energy and time. The flue gas generated by burning of bagasse was used as the energy source for steam generation inside the pre-heating device. The pre-heating device was designed by combining the concepts of water tube boiler and shell boiler so that the device is named as the combined steam generator. Specifications of the preheating device were calculated according to the heat energy requirement of feed water, steam and fuel energy. Conceptual design for the new preheating device was developed considering the system requirements. Based on the concept, a detail design of each part of the device was developed with properly defined dimensions, using a parametric 3D modeling software and simulation process carried out using finite element analysis (FEA). Then the preheating device was completely assembled with fabricated parts. According to the evaluation results, efficiency of the combined steam generator was 80.14%. So the time and the electric energy consumption are reduced by 37% and 99.17% respectively.

Keywords: Seed cane, Bagasse, Hot water treatment, Biomass energy, Steam

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The Role of Hospital Effluent for Occurrence and Distribution of Ecologically Important Antibiotics in Sri Lanka

Liyanage G.Y. and Manage P.M.*

Centre for Water Quality and Algae Research, Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Antibiotics are among the emerging micro contaminants in the aquatic environment due to their potential adverse effects on the ecosystem and possibly on human health. Four important antibiotic classes, sulfanomides [sulfadiazine (SDI), sulfamethoxazol (SMX)], penicillin [amoxicillin (AMX), ampicilline (AMP)], tetracycline [oxytetracycline (OTC), tetracycline (TET)] and macrolids [erythromycin (ERM)] used for human and veterinary medicine, were studied. Triplicate samples of hospital effluents water and sediment were collected from 50 sampling sites in different area of the country. Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) was employed to concentrate antibiotics and quantification was done by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Recoveries for each antibiotic were remained between 83%±0.021 to 95%±0.034. Among the selected antibiotics tested; the highest concentrations of AMX and AMP were recorded in hospital effluent water while OTC was not detected. AMX and AMP were ranged between 0.001-0.023 ppm and 0.001-0.024 ppm respectively. The other antibiotics concentrations were; TET (water: 0-0.001 ppm, sediments: N.D); SDI (water: 0.001-0.003 ppm, sediments: 0.001-0.003 ppm); SMX (water: 0.001-0.018 ppm, sediments: 0.001-0.002 ppm); ERM (water: 0.001-0.008 ppm, sediments: 0.001-0.003 ppm) respectively. A relatively high removal efficiency was detected for TET (50-100%) where descending order was followed by SDI (63-72%), SMX (52-72%), ERM (48-100%), AMP (40-54%) and AMX (35- 58%) respectively. The results of the study can be incorporated into environmental risk assessments of the particular contaminants as the published information regarding antibiotic contamination status in water and sediment are limited in Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Amphicillin (AMP), Amoxicilline (AMX), Sulfadiazine (SDI), Sulfamethoxazol (SMX), Oxytetracycline (OTC), Ttetracycline (TET), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

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Optimization of Isolated Textile Dye (CI Direct Blue 201) Decolorizing Bacteria

Ekanayake E.M.M.S. and Manage P.M.*

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Textile industry is the largely employed sector of synthetic dyes which creates various environmental problems through their untreated or partially treated effluents. Most of those synthetic textile dyes are highly recalcitrant to natural degradation processes. The general approach of the study was to determine bioremediation potential of native bacteria for textile dye CI Direct Blue 201. The effect of physiochemical parameters were optimized for five bacterial isolates (Pseudomonas sp.1, Pseudomonas sp.2, Bacillus sp.1, Bacillus sp.2, Micrococcus sp.) on decolorization of CI Direct Blue 201. Decolorization potential was studied by introducing overnight starved equalized bacteria suspensions into filter sterilized dye solutions at different concentrations of dye, temperature and pH. 3 ml sample aliquots were removed at 2 days interval for a period of 14 days and decolorization percentage was determined by spectrophotometric analysis. After 14 days of incubation at 50 ppm concentration, decolorization percentage by Pseudomonas sp.2, Pseudomonas sp.1, Bacillus sp.1, Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp.2 were recorded as 67.93±1.23% , 65.20±2.94%, 58.81±0.81%, 53.60±2.51%, 50.30±1.24% respectively. The decolorization of dye by each bacterium was studied at 240C, 280C and 320C temperatures respectively for 14 days of incubation. The highest decolorization was detected when the samples were incubated at 320C than at the other two temperatures. At 14 days of incubation at pH 7.0, Pseudomonas sp.1 and Micrococcus sp. were showed the highest decolorization percentages as 55.91±1.45% and 55.54±1.17% respectively. None of bacteria isolates showed remarkable decolorization when the medium was acidic pH. In-vitro photolysis experiment revealed that decolorization of CI Direct Blue 201 dye was not occurred by natural sunlight. Hence, optimized bacterial isolates can be used as a green solution for textile dye pollution.

Keywords: Decolorization, CI Direct Blue 201, Textile dye, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Micrococcus

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The Islandwide Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program in Sri Lanka

Manamendra P.P.

Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

In recent decades, the combination of growth of major cities across the country, increased use of vehicles, rapid industrialization, and deficiencies in both planning and environmental regulations, has led to increasing the levels of air pollution and consequent health and environmental impacts. The observed levels of criteria air pollutants (CAPs) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) often reach magnitudes that are considered to be a threat to human health. Ambient concentrations of gaseous pollutants and fine particles are stable or even increasing over time. Being a responsible key organization in Sri Lanka, Central Environmental Authority has been engaged with an urban air quality monitoring program across the country since 2014 under financial sponsorship of the vehicle emission trust fund of the department of motor traffic. In this program, the criteria air pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NOx, CO, O3 and Non methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) are monitored in major cities. The 24-hour continuous monitoring for seven days in each and every city are accomplished by using fully automated mobile ambient air quality monitoring station. As observed, the recorded average concentrations of each parameter, in major cities are maintained below the National ambient air quality standards. But it was found that there is a little increasing trend of PM2.5 and PM10 in major cities compared to other pollutants. It is also notable that the average concentrations of other parameters such as SO2, NO2, CO and O3 have been recorded below the National ambient air quality standards. However, these values are defined to 24-hour continuous monitoring for 07 days and it is an instant situation on ambient air quality in the cities considered. These pollutant concentrations have been given for 24-hour consecutive 07 days for a particular city and once a year monitoring for a particular season. Hence the data is very limited and not representative for the entire year. A large set of continuous monitoring data representing all seasons in Sri Lanka is also requires in order to introduce a standard methodology at the data processing. Further an improvement of current ambient air quality monitoring program is recommended in Sri Lanka taking into account the drawbacks identified.

Keywords: Ambient air quality, Criteria air pollutants, Hazardous air pollutants, National ambient air quality standards

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Controlling Algal Blooms in Beira Lake, Colombo: Evaluating the Effect of the Effective Microorganism Preparation ‘Bokashi® Balls’ and Eichhornia Crassipes

Karunarathne U.T.1* and Nanayakkara C.M.2

1Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka 2Department of Plant Sciences, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka * [email protected]

Abstract A study was conducted to determine the use of effective microorganisms (EM) in the form of Bokashi® balls, and Eichhornia crassipes plants in controlling the algal blooms, which is a major health concern for the people living around the Beira Lake located in the Colombo city. For the experiment, Beira water was collected into clean glass fish tanks (apprx. 50 L). Three replicates were used for each simulation: Beira water with Bokashi® balls; Beira water with Bokashi® balls and Eichhornia crassipes as floating wetlands; Beira water with E. crassipes as floating wetlands; Beira water alone. Weekly, samples were collected and tested for the parameters; physical parameters– temperature and turbidity; chemical parameters-dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), pH, total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium concentrations and electrical conductivity; biological parameters-algal density, and bacterial density. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and the results indicated a significant reduction in algal density from 6250-43.33±30.14 cells/mL in 10 weeks in the treatment that used Beira water with Bokashi® balls (p=0.000). The treatment that used Bokashi® balls in combination with E. crassipes showed the next lowest algal density compared to the Control and E. crassipes alone treatment. The turbidity and BOD of the treatments were significantly reduced when using Bokashi® balls alone, from 128-5.97±1.24 NTU and from 4.92-0.48±0.24 mg/L, respectively. Electrical conductivity of the water was also reduced significantly in the presence of Bokashi® balls (from 340-284±26.06 µS/cm). E. crassipes plants exhibited the ability to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations of the treatments significantly (p=0.001) (0.42±0.17 in week 2 to 7.14±0.25 mg/L in week 10, and 1.91±0.39 mg/L in week 2 to 0.37±0.15 mg/L in week 10, respectively). Based on the results Bokashi® balls can be successfully used to reduce the algal density, turbidity, BOD and electrical conductivity in polluted water. E. crassipes plants were more effective in reducing the nitrogen and phosphorus content and hence important in preventing recolonization of algae. However, none of the treatments were effective in reducing the COD, total dissolved solids or potassium concentration. Keywords: Algal blooms, Beira Lake, Bokashi® balls, Effective microorganisms, Eichhornia crassipes, Floating wetlands, Water pollution

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Community-based Waste Management Programs: Case Study in Maharagama Urban Council Area

Wijayawardhana W.P.M.A.1*, Athapattu B.C.L.2 and Karunarathna A.K.3

1Department of Local Government, Western Provincial Council, Sri Lanka, 2Department of Civil Engineering, The Open University of Sri Lanka, 3Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Waste disposal and management are common issues in urban and rural areas of Sri Lanka. Limited resources at Local Authorities for management and inappropriate dumping aggravate those issues. However, in a broad perspective, every person in the society is a potential generator of waste and thus a stakeholder in the issue. Many of the formal interventions over the past several years for community based waste management Programmes (CBWMP) unfortunately failed to meet expected benefits. The Maharagama Urban Council (MUC) is an example where in-situ bin composting was introduced yet no information is available on its success. Therefore, this research is focused to explore feasibility and effectiveness of CBWMP and how it affects source reduction of waste generation in MUC area. This research used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies. A questionnaire survey was designed to identify the income levels, social attitudes about the waste management, attitudes of waste segregation, land extent, waste management knowledge, reasons for failures of existing organic waste management methods. Alternatively, “Takakura” composting method was introduced as a pilot study for 15 households and 3 institutions as a mean of in-situ organic waste management process and evaluated its sustainability. The Takakura method uses native organisms for composting-cultured and fermented from locally available materials such as fresh fruits, vegetable peels, soy source, brown sugar, curd and mushroom rice bran and rice husks. The findings of the questionnaire revealed that a majority of households in the MUC are concerned about waste management and yet sorting of waste is not adopted by many. The practice of reuse, recycle and reduce (3Rs) concepts are also low in MUC area. People were of the opinion that it is not possible to reduce the volume of waste generation. The pilot programme of the Takakura composting method showed reduction of 40% organic waste generation which was also a fast, easy and economic method. Consequently, the new adaptation to Takakura composting can improve environmental hygiene, eliminate of foul odors and reduce emission of methane gas. Further, it is important that the Central Government support the local authorities in implementing such projects through provision of financial support for the household composting and institutional mini composting centers, promoting its usage in urban agriculture, and providing other financial and political incentives to reduce waste generation. In perspective, this type of in-situ waste management strategies will always improve people’s living standards and opt for a green life in a greener city. Keywords: Community based waste management programmes, Takakura composting method, Maharagama Urban Council area

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Quality of Municipal Solid Waste Compost Produced in Sri Lanka

Wijerathne P.W.D.S.S.1*, Senanayake D.M.N.1, Gamage S.2 and Jayakody A.N.3

1Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka 2LIRNEasia, Sri Lanka 3Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Rapid urbanization has made solid waste management a serious problem for local authorities in Sri Lanka. The compost production with Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and good quality assurance of compost produced by such is crucial in utilizing these problematic wastes as an agriculturally important product. This study was focused on evaluating the overall quality of Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC) in Sri Lanka. Primary and secondary data of compost physicochemical and biological characters covering 45 composting sites representing 88% of functioning Pilisaru composting sites of SL were used for the study. A large set of secondary data on MSWC quality parameters were collected from well reputed government laboratories with the approval of the Central Environmental Authority (CEA). Inadequate data were analyzed. Box plots were developed using data on color, moisture, odor, sand content, particle size, PH, conductivity, organic carbon, C:N ratio, total nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Lead, Mercury, Nickel, Zinc, Fecal coliform and Salmonella in MSWC samples. Central tendency, data distribution and deviations of each parameter were identified after eliminating outliers. The conformity percentage to Sri Lankan Standards (SLS) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) were calculated. The heavy metal contents were compared with Portugal, France and Italy standards for MSWC in addition to SLS and BIS. Normal probability plots of the residual were designed in order to identify the data distribution pattern. Spatial variability of data in each individual parameter was analyzed in district basis. Mean and median value of moisture content, sand content, MgO, Hg content and fecal coli form was not conformant with SLS and BIS. Although the mean value of particle size conformant with BIS it has exceeded the levels in SLS. Cd, Cu, Zn and Ni contents showed 100% conformity with SLS, BIS, France, Italy and Portugal standards. Cr and Pb contents showed more than 90% conformity to all the standards. Colour, odour, pH, organic carbon, total N, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn and salmonella resulted in more than 75% conformity to SLS. Sand content is the most deviated parameter from SLS. Significant special variability was reported for particular districts with regard to sand content, pH, total N, P2O5 and K2O. Thus, MSWC quality in SL could be improved via giving the emphasis on the parameters which are not conformant with the standards. Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste Compost (MSWC), Sri Lankan Standard (SLS), Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS)

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Phytoremediation Using Constructed Wetlands to Treat Reverse Osmosis Rejected Concentrates

Athapattu B.C.L.1*, Thalgaspitiya T.W.L.R.2, Yasaratne U.L.S.2 and Vithanage M.3

1Department of Civil Engineering, Open University of Sri Lanka 2National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Rathmalana, Sri Lanka 3Chemical and Environmental Systems Modeling Research Group, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Reverse Osmosis (RO) water purification systems are common over many farming areas of North Central Province in Sri Lanka for providing potable water to protect public from the Chronic Kidney Disease of unknown etiology (CKDu). About 50-70% of raw water with higher concentrations of ions release from RO systems with no beneficial use. Such a practice will end up with long term environmental impacts to soil and groundwater and therefore it is at utmost requirement to find suitable remedial technique. This research was focused to investigate the potential remedial measures for concentrated contaminants of RO rejected water through phytoremediation process using Constructed Wetlands (CW), before discharging into the environment.

A field experiment was carried out focusing on the Sangilikanadarawa at Medawachchiya community based RO water supply unit. Two types of constructed wetlands (CW): surface and subsurface water bio-geo CW were established and tested to measure the removal efficiency of RO concentrates through phytoremediation and filter materials. Locally available soil, Calicut tile and biochar were used with proportions of 81, 16.5 and 2.5% by weight respectively as filter materials. Vertiver Grass and Scirpus Grossus were carefully selected for the sub surface wetland while Water Lettuce and Water Hyacinth were chosen for free water surface CW. Both constructed wetlands were fed with a uniform flow of RO concentrate and water quality parameters were tested periodically against two controls systems for a given hydraulic retention time. The results showed that the Total Dissolved Solids, Hardness, Total Alkalinity and Fluoride were reduced significantly and met desirable levels of stipulated ambient standards. This study indicated a great promise of purifying aforesaid contaminants of water which is obvious and considerable in ground water sources in the North Central Province, with a very low construction and maintenance cost in comparison to other water purifying methods as this approach directly dealt with locally available aquatic plants and ecofriendly filter materials. Therefore the invented bio-geo constructed wetland is an economical and effective option for reducing high concentrations of RO rejected water before discharging into the inland waters.

Keywords: Reverse osmosis, RO concentrate, Phytoremediation, Constructed wetlands, biochar

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In vitro Study on Bio Removal of Cadmium (Cd 2+) by Freshwater Cyanobacterium Oscillatoria sp. and its Isotherm

Wijesekara W.A.M.A.1, Wijeyaratne W.M.D.N.2 and Manage P.M.1*

1Center for Water quality and Algae Research, Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology and Environmental Management, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Enormous quantities of heavy metals are released into the environment over a long period of time due to various industrial, manufacturing and other anthropological activities. Physical and chemical methods which are being practiced to remove metals in contaminated water were not given a sound solution for this problem so far. Also, the conventional metal removal methods have disadvantages such as low efficiency, production of toxic sludge and expensiveness. Therefore, as a better alternative bio removal methods have been identified and microorganisms have been suggested as potential green agents to remove heavy metals from contaminated sites. It is a known fact that microorganisms are capable of accumulating metal ions by absorption and bioaccumulation. Presence of Cd2+ in the environment is of major concern and identification of cost effective methods to remove Cd2+ is a major national and international research priority. Therefore, in the present study, Oscillatoria sp. was employed to study the Cd 2+ removal potentiality. Batch cultures and mass cultures of Oscillatoria sp. were prepared prior to evaluating metal removal by living and activated dried cells. Bio removal of metals by Oscillatoria sp. was carried out using different concentration of cadmium solution (0.06, 0.08 and 0.10 mg/L) along with different incubation time (24 hrs for dried bio mass and 7 days for living cells). Chlorophyll-a was analyzed to detect the growth of Oscillatoria sp. Non absorbed metal concentration in samples were assessed by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (GFAAS).

The adsorption capability of functional groups in fresh dried and cadmium treated samples were analyzed by FTIR and Langmuir and Fendrich isotherm in order to calculate properties of the adsrobate. The results of the study revealed that chlorophyll-a concentration and sorption efficiency increased when initial heavy metal concentration is low. In living cells maximum sorption percentage was recorded as 86% when chlorophyll-a concentration reached to 520.01±0.02 µg/L in 0.06 mg/L cadmium concentration after 5 days of incubation. Bio sorption of dried cells with living cells, showed a significant sorption capability (p<0.05) within 24 hrs. The highest sorption capacity of dried cells was recorded as 87% against 0.10 mg/L of metal concentration and 67% metal ions were removed within 30 mins. The estimated Langmuir isotherm maximum sorption capacity of adsorbent was 88.45 mg/g for dried cells and 3.43 mg/L for living cells respectively. The results of the FTIR transmission spectra revealed that carboxilc acid, amide, sulphonyl and suphanate groups are present as functional groups in chemical structure of Oscillatoria sp. Therefore, this study identified the cyanobacterium Oscillatoria sp. as an effective organism and a low cost absorbate to remove Cd2+ from aqueous medium and future studies are recommended to identify the removal mechanism and to improve effectiveness of the method.

Keywords: Cadmium (Cd2+), Oscillatoria sp., FT-IR, GFAAS, Chrolophyll-a

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Analysis of Compost Quality with Time after Mixing with Different Weight Percentages of Dried Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plants

Dadigamuwa P.N.1*, Bandara N.J.G.J.1, Pathirana C.D.K.1 and Mannapperuma N.2

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Waste Management Authority-Western Province, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Composting is the aerobic biological decomposition of organic waste which turns unusable biodegradable solid waste into a valuable soil amendment. This study was carried out at Karadiyana compost yard managed by the Waste Management Authority, Western Province. The Water Board, Ratmalana also dump dried sludge from the wastewater treatment plant to the same dump site since mixing is easy at Karadiyana The objective of this study was to analyze the performance and durability of compost after mixing with dried sludge in different weight percentages (10%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 90% from pile 1-5). In addition, piles of 100% compost and 100% sludge were also analyzed for the parameters. The standard characteristics of compost (SLS 1246:2003) were measured momentarily after mixing and continued monthly to determine the sturdiness. The colour, pH, and texture were determined as physical parameters. Moisture content was measured through Dry & Wet analysis, total organic carbon (TOC) using Walkley-Black method, nitrogen content from micro-kjeldhal method, potassium, calcium, magnesium, heavy metals through AAS and phosphorus content from UV Spectrometer. When considering the results, the colour was darkened with the weight percentage of sludge. Samples had a finer texture than regular compost. The pH values have decreased with sludge but were within the accepted range with the exception of the lot using 100% sludge in every month. None of the subjected mixtures reached the standard levels of moisture content in the first 3 months and after controlling moisture, the 1st , 2nd and total compost piles reached the standards by December. The TOC percentages were positive in all samples other than the first three months’ 100% sludge and first month’s 5th pile. The Nitrogen amount was increased in the first sample set with sludge but decreased with time. Only the pile with 100% compost and 5th pile remained in the range for four months. Phosphorus wasn’t favorable in any of the samples but values increased with the amount of sludge and with time. Potassium amounts had a higher variation. Total calcium increased with sludge in the 1st month but then showed an uneven performance. None of the samples reached the required magnesium amount where highest was recorded in the 100% compost. The C/N ratio was good in each sample. All the samples were within the heavy metal standard minimum levels. From the results, the pile containing 75% dried sludge and 25% compost showed best results just after mixing. In the 2nd month, best results were shown in the pile which contained 50% dried sludge and 50% compost. Mixtures of 90% compost and 10% sludge and also 90% dried sludge and 10% compost were good to use after 4 months from preparation. Keywords: Dried sludge, Compost, Compost quality

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Feasibility of Developing Up-Cycled Products Using Plastic Waste For the Sri Lankan Market

Weerawardana P.A.H.1, Prasadi H.L.A.2* and Jayasinghe R.A.1

1Australian-Sri Lankan university partnerships project, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka 2Center for Sustainability, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Proper waste management and therefore, waste disposal is a huge problem in Sri Lanka. Waste generation increases with the increase of the gross domestic production. As a result, more plastic packaging waste are added to the mounting waste dumps around the country. There are many recycling methods that use up a considerable amount of energy and water. Waste upcycling using low-cost machines can be a better alternative to the conventional methods. As such, the aim of this study was to explore the feasibility of developing upcycled products using plastic waste for the Sri Lankan market. In the first stage of the study, a number of designs were developed and sketched on paper based on the initial needs assessment. Then different waste materials were selected for production where the matrix material is a waste plastic. Thirdly, materials were processed using a low- cost laminating press that heats on both plates. These laminated materials are used to make the final product. A series of upcycled products are developed incorporating locally available materials to obtain a better quality product. In the second stage of the study, a market analysis using a detailed questionnaire is underway to assess a number of key parameters – 1. Acceptance for up-cycled products from waste, 2. Willingness to buy, 3. Available markets and 4. End-of life disposal mechanisms. Prototype products are shown as examples to provide an idea of the production possibilities. The initial results indicate that there is a potential and feasibility to develop useful products using waste materials using low-cost machines. All upcycled products are developed using clean plastic packaging waste sourced from different industries. The plastic types used are LDPE, HDPE and PP. Other local fibre materials available as waste such as banana fibre, paper and textile waste are used as the reinforcement. The process does not use any chemical additives and binds the materials only by using heat and pressure. Based on the initial discussions with industries, designers, and marketers, different paths to sell the upcycled products are identified. Further analysis that ae underway will also take into consideration the energy consumption of this method compared to the conventional recycling methods, time spent to produce one unit and the cost per unit. The final practical outcome of the study is to nucleate low-cost waste upcycling businesses in communities as a means of sustainable income generating mechanism. This will provide a dual-benefit for the society-an income generation activity using waste as a raw material. Keywords: Dried sludge, Compost, Compost quality

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Leachate Characterization and Assessment of Surface Water Quality near Karadiyana Solid Waste Dump Site

Mandakini L.L.U.1*, Mannapperuma N.1, Bandara N.J.G.J.2, Silva K.D.C.C.J.1 and Perera M.T.C.2

1Waste Management Authority (Western Province), Sri Lanka 2Center for Sustainability, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Leachate generation is one of the major issues associated with open dumping of solid waste. In Sri Lanka, the most common practice of municipal solid waste handling is open dumping and the leachate generated from these sites create serious environmental and social problems. Therefore leachate should be treated before been discharged to the environment. When developing a sustainable leachate treatment strategy, leachate characterization is important in order to identify critical contaminants. Karadiyana solid waste dump site which is located in the Western Province is the second largest dumpsite in Sri Lanka. It receives 550 MT of solid waste daily from 7 local authorities in Colombo district. As this dumpsite is located in a highly urbanized and environmentally sensitive area which is adjacent to the Bolgoda river in Piliyandala it is essential to take measures to prevent adverse impacts of leachate. Therefore this monitoring study was carried out to identify the characteristics of leachate. Leachate samples and surface water were collected from 7 locations around the site for 10 - months. Analysis was done on temperature, pH, conductivity, TDS, NO3 , BOD, COD, and heavy metals i.e. Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb and Ni. - According to the results temperature, pH and concentrations of NO3 , Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb and Ni of all sampling locations were within the permeable levels of Sri Lankan standards. Heavy metal concentrations are very low which may be because this dump site only is not accepting industrial waste. However the conductivity, TDS, BOD and COD levels of all the locations have exceeded the tolerance limits significantly due to the municipal solid waste which consist of large portion of organic waste. Furthermore all the parameters are higher in leachate samples than surface water samples. This study reveals that an applicable leachate treatment system should be introduced in order to reduce BOD and COD levels.

Keywords: Karadiyana dump site, Leachate, Solid waste

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Effectiveness of Domestic Reverse Osmosis Units for Removal of Fluoride and Hardness for Drinking Purposes in Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) Affected Areas in Anuradhapura

Perera K.K.W.1*, Bandara N.J.G.J.1 and Jayaweera M.W.2

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract The hypothesis having excessive fluoride and hardness levels in ground water in combination is said to have been associated with the onset of CKDu. Provision of good quality drinking water devoid of fluoride and hardness to levels less than nephrotoxic levels would be considered of paramount importance. In this respect, several types of water filters have been introduced to CKDu affected areas of which RO units are the most popular filters. Hence, this research aims at investigating the effectiveness of domestic RO units in removing fluoride and hardness levels reported in CKDu affected areas under different climatic conditions for a period covering dry and wet seasons. Two monsoons and the 2nd inter monsoon were simulated in the laboratory and the removal of fluoride and hardness by the RO unit were evaluated according to the drinking water guidelines. Northeast monsoon was subdivided into extreme wet and wet to dry periods. Hardness and fluoride concentrations in the raw water during above periods were 110 ppm and 578 ppm and fluoride concentrations were 0.52 ppm and 2.93 ppm respectively. In the above periods hardness values obtained in the permeate were 12 ppm and 24 ppm and the fluoride was completely removed during extreme wet period and 0.15 ppm fluoride was observed in wet to dry period. In the 2nd inter monsoon, hardness and fluoride concentrations in raw water were 1032 ppm and 7 ppm respectively and in the permeate 40 ppm hardness and 0.39 ppm of fluoride were observed. All the above fluoride and hardness values in the permeate do not comply with the required drinking water guidelines. Southwest monsoon was subdivided in to three periods namely extreme dry, dry and dry to wet. In extreme dry period hardness and fluoride in raw water were 1230 ppm and 15.5 ppm respectively. In the permeate hardness concentration varied from 48 ppm-184 ppm and fluoride concentrations varied from 0.19 ppm- 1.67 ppm. At the latter stage both the fluoride and hardness values have exceeded the required drinking water guideline values. This happen when all the adsorption sites of the filter unit get saturated with the increase of the raw water concentration and then excess amount of water constituents will pass through the RO membrane. Flow rate was dropped from 0.24 litres/min to 0.03 liters/min during these periods implying that the membrane of the unit has started to get clogged. As the performance of the RO unit depends on the initial constituent’s concentration in the raw water, according to this study people can use RO unit for a period of 6 months without getting clogged. Keywords: Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology, Fluoride, Hardness, Reverse osmosis

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Performance Assessment of Moratuwa- Ratmalana Biological Nutrient Removal Industrial Wastewater Treatment Plant

Danushika U.A.A.G.1*, Bandara N.J.G.J.1 and Rupasinghe S.K.L.S.2

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Research and Development Department, National Water and Drainage Board, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract This study evaluates the performance of Moratuwa-Ratmalana Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) plant during the dry period of 2016. This treatment plant is 1st ever reverse A2/O (anoxic/ anaerobic/ aerobic) treatment plant in Sri Lanka which was established by the National Water and Drainage Board (NWDB) in 2013. This study was confined to the dry period. This study was carried out to achieve two objectives. First objective is to monitor and evaluate the overall efficiency of the treatment plant in terms of removing pollutants from the influent. Second objective is to analyze nitrogen and phosphorous removing ability in each compartment. Samples were collected weekly for a stretch of 15 weeks from February to May. The sampling method utilized in this study was ‘grab sampling’ and ‘composite sampling’. First samples from each three layers of each of the three compartments were collected through grab sampling and then composite samples for each layer was prepared by using the grab samples. Composite samples were used for final testing. In addition samples were also collected for influent and effluent from the composite sampler which is located in the treatment plant. The analysis was carried out to test for physical (pH, Temperature) and chemical (BOD, COD, TSS, TP, TN) parameters of each collected sample. The performance evaluation has indicated that 88.52% COD removal, 97.05% TSS removal, 94.12% BOD removal, 84.23% of TP removal and 81.65% of TN removal efficiencies have been achieved. Also the analytical measurements obtained of the treated effluent are compatible with the discharge water quality standards issued by CEA, Sri Lanka. In addition it was shown that each compartment of the treatment plant meets the design expectations regarding Nitrogen and Phosphorous removing abilities. Keywords: Wastewater Treatment, Plant performance, Reverse A2/O

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Development of a Laboratory Scale Filter Using Laterite to Treat Landfill Leachate

Nayanthika I.V.K.* and Jayawardana D.T.

Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Municipal Solid waste (MSW) is a severe problem in Sri Lanka due to lack of proper solid waste management system, and leachate is one of the major issue associated with MSW. Around 95% of MSW is disposing into poorly managed open dump sites, where do not have methods to treat the leachate. Therefore, proper low-cost leachate treatment method is highly demanded in Sri Lanka. This study was carried out to develop a laboratory scale filter using laterite based earth materials in order to remove the pollutants from leachate. Study the durability of the filtering media and possible composition are the other aims. Six laterite soil samples were collected from six different locations in western province were geochemically tested prior to use as a filtering media. The experiment setup was designed with five filter columns. Four columns were made using laterite soil by mixing with 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% compost ratios by weight. Remaining column was made from pure laterite as a control. Each column consists of 2 kg of filtering medium. Leachate from Karadiyana landfill site was used for the experiment after 50% dilution. Leachate feeding was done, with total volume of 750 ml per day by keeping two days of recovering time between each feeding session. The removal efficiencies of BOD, COD, TSS, TDS, conductivity, pH, Oxidation-Reduction Potential, phosphate, nitrate, and selected heavy metals such as Cu, Mn, Zn, Cd, Ni, Pb, and Fe were analyzed in fifty days of time period. Results indicate that, there are different filtering efficiencies for different parameters. In each column, pH level of the filtrate was within 6.3-8.0 and all were contributed to oxidize in the influent leachate. Filtering efficiencies for the important pollutants of leachate such as BOD, COD, phosphate, nitrate, and all the heavy metals were stable in considerable level even after fifty days of experiment except TSS, TDS, and conductivity. This indicates higher level of durability of the filtering materials. In general, life time of the filtering media has been enhanced by the batch wise feeding method. Therefore, further feeding of leachate is needed to select the suitable filtering media.

Keywords: Laterite, Leachate, Removal efficiency

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Development of Fuel Briquettes and Pellets by Biomass Densification Technology for Energy Application Can Save Sri Lanka’s Trees

Sirikumara K.J.

Sri Lanka Standards Institution, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Behind coal and oil, biomass is the third largest energy resource in the world. The least expensive biomass resources are the waste product from wood or agro processing operations such as saw milling residues, coconut residues, paddy residues, sugar cane residue, and maize residues. Many of the developing countries produce huge quantities of agro residues. Understanding the technology behind the densification and adapting to suitable technology would provide a better market for it in Sri Lanka. Densification of biomass is a solution for this issue. Densification (baling, briquetting or pelleting) is used to improve characteristics of materials (especially low density biomass) for productive transport and improved fuel characteristics.

Densified biomass is acquiring increasing importance because of the growing domestic and industrial application for heating, combined heat and power and electricity generation in many countries. Various studies have looked in considerable details at biomass densification techniques and cost of production. Through briquettes and pellet are produced in Sri Lanka by different manufacturers at the moment, any significant study has not been conducted in the context of Sri Lanka.

This paper highlights the problems associated with the dependency on wood as the main source of fuel for household and industries in rural and urban areas. It is also discusses the measures to promote the production, marketing and use of briquettes from loose biomass materials as alternative energy, as well as their advantages. It then concludes that to control deforestation for the purpose of fuel wood collection and their negative impacts on health, climate and ecology: affordable and environmentally friendly fuel sources for homes and local industries are vital.

Keywords: Agro residues, Saw milling residues, Briquettes, Technology

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Economic Factors and Physical Properties of Finger Joint Timber Product to Promote Effective Utilization of Natural Resources

Abeysinghe L.S.1*, Pathirana S.1 and Kumara M.2 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 2State Timber Cooperation, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Finger joint (FJ) is one of the most sustainable, eco-friendly and economically valuable concept. It ensures the sustainable utilization of small wood cut pieces which removed as waste. Wood pieces are jointed together using glued box comb finger joint cut. It is a new concept for Sri Lankan furniture industry. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze about economic parameters and physical properties of FJ product to ensure the sustainable utilization of FJ timber products. This study attempted to compare strength, appearance and economic variables such as prices, cost of production and profit of FJ products. Comparison of FJ product (Model: STC B-FJ 0019) with the similar size normal timber products (Model:STC B-132) was done to achieve the objective of the study. Three point bending test was done to evaluate Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture and maximum force by using UTM. Timber cooperation laboratory was utilized to evaluate strength properties. According to the results of the statistical analysis, strength reduction for FJ products was significantly high. Strength also varied with timber species. Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus showed the highest strength properties while Teak showed the lowst value. MOE values did not show significant difference (0.224) between Jak, Kumbuk, Teak, Mahogany, Pinus, and E. grandis. Strength on vertical and horizontal FJ cuts did not show significant differences although vertical cut was slightly higher. Timber cost for FJ product showed the lowest because of small cut pieces but finishing material, labour, machinery and factory overheads costs were higher than common furniture. Unit production cost for FJ was Rs.171.91 which is higher compared to the cost of normal furniture of Rs. 147.88. FJ furniture showed the higher price most of the time. Therefore, profitability of FJ furniture was significantly higher than common furniture. The uniqueness and high demand help to increase market price and gain more income for producers. On this context FJ product can be promoted to ensure sustainable utilization of timber. Further, this subject is open for further researchers.

Keywords: Finger joint, Strength properties, Satisfaction

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Potential of Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Efficient Phosphate Utilization with Eppawala Rock Phosphate : A Review

Jayaneththi J.P.H.U. Department of Agricultural Engineering and Soil Science, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka [email protected] Abstract Phosphorus (P) is a vital element in crop nutrition. In most soil, P remains as insoluble and only less than 10% is available for plants due to high P fixation. Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) are capable of dissolving insoluble forms of phosphates into plant available forms. Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) is commonly used source of P fertilizer for many crops in Sri Lanka. However, TSP applied fields in Sri Lanka has recorded notable contents of certain heavy metals such as cadmium and arsenic. Eppawala Rock Phosphate (ERP) is a cheap, phosphate-rich source but due to its low solubility usages are limited for annual crops as a P fertilizer. However, PSM have shown the capability of solubilizing ERP and supplying P to plants. At present, several research studies pertaining to the application of PSM as inoculum for crops were condcuted. Hence this review based study is focused in identify the potential of PSM in agriculture. Literature reveled that PSM have shown their potential knack on solubilizing P in ERP with producing clear halo zones and organic acids proportionally. Thus more research studies have to be undertaken under field condition in order to optimize PSM innocula with ERP. Keywords: Halo zones, Eppawala rock phosphate, Organic acids, Phosphorous, Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms

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Price Behavior of Selected Sawn Timbers in Sri Lanka

Abeysinghe L.S. Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka [email protected] Abstract This study attempted to analyze the price behaviour of sawn wood in the recent past of Sri Lanka Forecasting of timber is important for all the parties such as consumer, timber growers, marketers and policy makers. Common timber species such as Teak (Tectona grandis), Jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Nadun (Pericopsis mooniana), Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), Burutha (Chloroxylon swietenia), Halmilla (Berrya cordifolia) Milla (Vitex pinnata), Blue gum (Eucalyptus globules lahill), Kumbuk (Terminalia arjuna), Sooriyamara (Albizia odoratissima), Hora (Dipterocarpus zelanicus), Coconut (Cocos nucifera) and Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) were selected for this study. Real Market Price (RMP) was analyzed with the time. Colombo consumer price index (CCPI) (1952=100) was used to calculate the RMP. Price behaviour of selected sawn timbers were tested using different models; linear, quadratic and compound growth rate models with the time factor. The goodness of fit of model was tested by using coefficients of determination (R2). Compared to the 1996 price, Teak, Kumbuk, and Rubber real prices have increased by 6%, 22% and 1%, respectively. Real price of all the other timbers have decreased. Real price of Halmilla (1009%), Sooriyamara (266%), Milla (61%), Burutha (49%), Mahogani (45%), Nedun (42%), Hora (39%), Eucalypts (36%), Jak (36%), Coconut (20%) and Microcorys (22%), has decreased significantly. This result however, was not aligned with the past research results related to price forecasting of timber and other commodities. This result clearly illustrates the exploitation of timber like natural resources. Otherwise, real price of the timber like natural resources should be increased drastically with the limited supply. Policy makers therefore this situation should be carefully taken into consideration for taking appropriate decision to protect the natural resources like timber because real prices of timber should increase with their low supply.

Keywords: Price, Price forecasting, Price behaviour

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Comparison of Growth Parameters, Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity of Two Pogostemon Species under Two Different Growing Systems

Lakshmi J.W.P.H.1, Abeysinghe D.C.1, Rathnayake R.M.D.1 and Dharmadasa R.M2*

1Department of Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2Industrial Technology Institute, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. and Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. are two industrially important medicinal plants belonging to family Lamiaceae. The essential oil extracted from the leaves is used to give a basic and long-lasting feature to fragrances in the manufacturing of cosmetics and soaps and as a natural additive in foods for human consumption. Even though both P heyneanus and P. cablin are commercially cultivated in other countries, information on phytochemical and bioactivity of Sri Lankan grown Pogostemon species are scarese. Present study was undertaken to compare P. heyneanus and P. cablin grown in two different growing systems (i.e. field grown and hydroponically grown) by means of the growth, bioactive compounds and biological activities. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total phenolic content (TPC) were determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and colorimetric Folin-Ciocalteu method respectively. Plant height (cm), canopy spread (cm), number of leaves and number of branches were also determined as growth parameters. Both the plant species grown under field conditions performed higher plant height, number of leaves, canopy spread and number of branches compared to the hydroponic conditions. Significantly higher TAC and TPC contents were observed in field grown plants of both P. heyneanus and P. cablin compared to hydroponically grown plants. The higher contents of TAC and TPC reported in leaves of P. cablin compared to P. heyneanus. Moreover, the highest TAC and TPC were reported in leaves and followed by stems and roots. The order of increase of TAC and TPC in both species was roots < stems < leaves. According to the results of this study, it is evident that leaves of P. cablin grown in the field possess higher content of secondary metabolites and bioactivities.

Keywords: Antioxidant capacity, Growing systems, Phenolics, Pogostemon cablin, Pogostemon heyneanus

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Spatial and Temporal Changes of Forest Cover in Minneriya National Park Using GIS and Remote Sensing

Dilanjani H.U.K.*and Ranagalage M.M. Department of Environmental Management, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Forest cover change can be identified as both combining with natural influence and also the anthropocentric activities. Minneriya National Park is a unique area of interest to visitors and researchers. However, at present climatic change and human interference such as some of the development projects that have a negative impact to the park. Therefore identification of the changes of forest cover in Minneriya National Park is timely valuable. GIS is more effective tool for identify the change detection of forest cover. The general objective of this study is to identify the spatial and temporal changes of forest cover in Minneriya National Park using GIS and Remote Sensing. This research mainly depended on secondary data of land use maps. GIS analysis was conducted for the identification changes took place over time on the park area using Google images. Park area changes data were collected from 2000 to 2014, within 14 year period as using secondary data for the analysis using only GIS. By using 2000 land sat data and 2014 Google map it created a new map by georeferncing. By the supervised classification and digitization it could be created the land use map of 2000 and 2014. By overlaying of these two maps the changes of forest cover were identified within the 14 year period.

The change of forest area has been identified. In 2000, forest cover was 42.67 km2 and there was a reduction in 2014 to be 36.65 km2. The scrub area changes from 21.2 km2 in 2000 to 27.83 km2 in 2014 Therefore scrub areas were increased during the last 14 year period . In 2000 tank area was 22.89 km2 which was reduced in 2014 to 22.37 km2. Therefore the comparison of land use maps of 2000 and 2014 showed the considerable changes in forest areas, scrub areas and the tank areas.

Keywords: Forest cover, Minneriya National Park, Geographic Information System, Remote sensing

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Efficacy of Leaf Extracts of Invasive Tithonia diversifolia Against Selected Fungal Pathogens Causing Leaf Spot Diseases

Mapa M.H.M.N.*, Damunupola J.W. and Jayasundera A.C.A.

University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Invasive alien plant species are recognized as a significant threat for species extinction globally. Sri Lanka, been a tropical country has the optimum conditions for distribution of various invasive plant species, and they are a threat to the local biodiversity. Many research have been carried out towards utilization of such plants as a method of successful eradication. Horticultural growers use synthetic fungicides to overcome the problems caused by plant pathogenic fungi, and it has lead to many negative impacts on environment and human health. Consequently, demand for the natural fungicides is increasing. With this background, there is a potential to use invasive plants as natural fungicides due to the presence of bioactive compounds within them. Tithonia diversifolia is an invasive plant species in Sri Lanka. The aim of this study was to find the efficacy of T. diversifolia leaf extracts to inhibit selected fungal pathogens causing leaf spots in ornamental plants. Extractions were done using methanol, dichloromethane and n-hexane. Antifungal activity was tested using standard methods against Curvularia sp., Fusarium sp., and Alternaria sp. Highest inhibition for Curvularia sp. and Fusarium sp. were obtained in n-hexane and methanolic leaf extracts respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the Curvularia sp. in n-hexane was 0.0175 g/ml and MIC for Fusarium sp. in methanolic extract was less than 0.0175 g/ml. Leaf anatomical observations revealed three types of trichomes. They were non-grandular and two types of glandular trichomes; capitate and non-capitate. Preliminary tests and Gas chromatographic analysis were done to determine the phytochemical constituents of the three extracts. Results revealed that the three extracts are different from each other where methanolic and dichloromethane were capable in extracting more secondary metabolic compounds. Methanolic and dichloromethane were tested for total phenolics and methanolic extract had the highest content with a 4.4963 µg/ml. Therefore, it can be concluded that leaf extracts from T. diversifolia have the potential to be used as a natural fungicide on disease causing fungi in plants while conserving biodiversity.

Keywords: Invasive species, Tithonia diversifolia, Natural fungicides, Phytochemical, Biodiversity

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Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities of Passiflora suberosa L. Leaf Extracts

Bandara K.R.V.1, Padumadasa C.2 and Peiris L.D.C.1*

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Deaprtment of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

In the Ayruvedic herbal system in Sri Lanka, Passiflora suberosa is used to treat many diseases including diabetes. The present study was conducted to evaluate in vitro antioxidant potential and cytotoxic activities of methanol and water extracts, obtained from P. suberosa leaves. P. suberosa leaves were powdered and extracted with methanol and water to obtain the crude extracts. Antioxidant capacity of different concentrations of aqueous and methanol extracts were determined by their ability to scavenge free radical using 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil (DPPH) and by antihaemolytic activity. Similar concentrations were further tested for cytotoxicity using brine shrimps cytotoxicity assay. IC50 values were calculated to evaluate both antioxidant properties and toxicity of plant extracts. According to DPPH assay, IC50 values of both aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were 74.33 μg/ml and 418.67 μg/ml respectively. The IC50 value of the aqueous extract of P. suberosa leaf was significantly less than that of the standard ascorbic acid, which was found to be 166.17 μg/ml. Whereas IC50 values of antihaemolytic activity were 80.08 μg/ml and 610.25μg/ml in aqueous and methanol leaf extracts respectively. Results from brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay, showed that IC50 values for aqueous and methanol extracts of P. suberosa leaves were 60.26 μg/ml and 309.02 μg/ml respectively. The aqueous extract of P. suberosa leaves exhibited better antioxidant activity and cytotoxic activity than the methanol extract. Hence, present findings suggest that extracts of P. suberosa leaves possess applicable natural antioxidant and cytotoxic potential. Further, P. suberosa leaves possess better antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid, which is a well-established antioxidant. Hence, extracts from P. suberosa leaves can be considered as potential antioxidant and cytotoxic agents as well as imminent candidate for cancer therapy.

Keywords: Passiflora suberosa, Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, IC50 values

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Association of Forest-Origin Tree Species on the Development of Brown Root Disease in Sri Lankan Rubber Plantations

Silva M.K.R.1*, Wijesundara R.L.C.2, Fernando T.H.P.S.1, Tennakoon B.I.1 and Wijekoon W.M.S.P.1 1Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka 2University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Brown root disease caused by Phellinus noxius is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions in Asia and becoming an important root affecting fungi in Sri Lankan rubber plantations. Most of the economically-important plantation and other crop species as well as forestry species have been reported to be affected by this disease. However, the significance of the brown root rot was recognized only recently in Sri Lanka with the expansion of rubber to non-traditional areas in Uva, Northern and Eastern provinces and with low adoption of the recommended land preparation measures. According to the literature, this disease is usually found in many plantations where crop established on cleared forest sites. The objectives of the current study was to investigate the local host species of the disease and to evaluate the role of those species in the development of brown root disease in rubber. Seventy brown root disease incidences were used to assess the host range and the disease transmitting pattern. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the background information. In association with the roots of the diseased tuber trees, decayed roots of twenty species of forestry origin which were kept in situ were identified, exhibiting the similar signs and symptoms of the disease. However, the pathogen isolates could be isolated from only five alternative species, as some of the roots were too decayed. They were Cereya arboria (kahata), Ginelina arboria (eth demata), Bridelia retusa (keta kela), Mangifera indica (mango) and Artocarpus heterophillus (jak). These isolates showed a variation in their morphological and physiological characteristics. The studies on the pathogenicity and the cross infection ability are in progress. It was observed that in all disease incidences, the initially diseased rubber tree had a root contact with a diseased roots of some other species. Moreover, at all the incidences, land had been previously either under the forest or abandoned for years with trees and shrubs of forest origin. Based on these facts, it can be concluded that the infection of brown root disease to rubber has a correlation with the presence of other tree species in the root contact. It can therefore be expected that the innoculum is present in native forests on infected roots or woody debris and rubber plants got infected when the roots made contact with the infected roots and other woody debris of cleared native forests. Keywords: Brown root disease, Rubber, Forest species

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Phytochemical Screening and Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts from Passiflora suberosa L. Leaves

Bandara K.R.V.1, Padumadasa C.2 and Peiris L.D.C.1*

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Cemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Plants are the basis of traditional medicine system and have been the source of many of novel drug components. Passiflora suberosa is used in Sri Lankan Ayurvedic system to treat many diseases including diabetes. The objective of the present study was to evaluate phytochemical constituent of different extracts and antimicrobial effect of methanol and aqueous extracts of leaves of P. suberosa. Aqueous, methanol, chloroform and hexane extracts of leaves of P. suberosa obtained under reflux conditions were subjected for phytochemical screening according to previously established methods. Aqueous and methanol extracts of P. suberosa leaves possessed more phytochemicals, thus those extracts were subjected for antimicrobial study which was obtained using minimum inhibition assay as determined by agar well diffusion method. Both methanol and aqueous extracts ranging from 6 μg/ml - 800 μg/ml were tested against both gram positive (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecium) and gram negative bacteria (Pseudumonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimuriam and Escherichia cloi) while Gentamicin was used as the standarded drug. The phytochemical screening revealed the presence of saponins and anthraquinones in the chloroform extract, alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids in the hexane extract and alkaloids, unsaturated sterols, triterpenes, saponins, flavonoids and tannins in both methanol and aqueous extracts. Proanthocyanidin, which is a potent free radical scavenger, was observed only in the aqueous extract. Further, only methanol extract was found to possess moderate activity against all the tested bacterial strains. Highest concentration (800 μg/ml) of methanol extract showed widest zone of inhibition (7 mm), indicating moderate activity against tested bacterial strains. In contrast, the aqueous extract showed poor activity against tested bacterial strains. In conclusion, results revealed the presence of bioactive natural compounds in aqueous and mehtanolic extracts that may be used in the development of pharmaceutical products. Similarly, preliminary studies on antimicrobial activity exhibited antimicrobial potential of methanol extract, which could be used as future antimicrobial sources for natural therapies, food industry. Keywords: Passiflora suberosa, Phytochemical, Antimicrobial activity, Agar well diffusion

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Santalum album as a Specialty Seed Oil Source: A Preliminary Study

Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P.1* and Hettiarachchi D.S.2

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Wescorp Agarwood,Wescorp Group of Companies, Western Australia *[email protected]

Abstract Sandalwood is a commercially and culturally important plant species belongs to Family Santalaceae. Genus Santalum consists of 16 species where eight of them are commercially used as sources of valuable stem oil. In recent times sandalwood has been cultivated as an agroforesty crop to provide a sustainable solution to global sandalwood demand. Apart from stem oil, Western Australian scientists and industry identified sandalwood seed oil as a potential income for the plantation sector during the long crop cycle. Seed oils are increasingly used for cosmetic, nutritional and medicinal product, thus creating a niche for specialty oils. Further, an early study revealed that seeds of certain sandalwood species contain a rare acetylenic fatty acid in its lipid content, known as ximenynic acid. Further studies into Santalum spicatum (Australian sandalwood) found that the ximenynic acid has anti- inflammatory and vasodilator effects. This fatty acid is also reported in S. album, but a systematic study to evaluate its lipid content and fatty acid profile has not been reported. Therefore this study is a preliminary attempt to identify and quantify the seed parameters, lipid content and the fatty acid profile of S. album grown in plantations and home gardens of Sri Lanka. Trees growing in two different vegetations, i.e., a 4-year old plantation at Beragala (BG) and mature trees naturally growing in homegardens at Welimada (WM) were selected for this purpose. 100 seeds were collected from May to June 2015 and coats were removed and the oil of the kernel was collected by solvent extraction. The key constituents were detected using GC- MS methods. According to the results, the average seed diameter (5.57±0.05 mm) was smaller in WM trees of homegardens than the seeds of BG (6.26±0.03 mm) though the seed oil content was much higher (40.34±5.27%) than BG (27.5±6.85%). The ximenynic acid content of BG and WM were 94.67±1.03% and 91.17±0.65% respectively and those were not statistically significant. There were no significant differences of palmitic acid (BG=0.31%; WM=0.36%), palmitolenic acid (BG=0.10%; WM=0.13%); stearic acid (BG=0.42%; WM=0.35%); linoleic acid (BG=0.38%; WM=0.26%) and linolenic acid (BG=0.13%; WM=0.12%). However, significant differences were found for oleic acid (BG=2.96%; WM=6.29%) and steroic acid (BG=0.56%; WM=1.05%). Further studies are currently under way to identify the variations of the above parameters covering wider geographical areas and different plantation types. Based on these results Sri Lankan sandalwood growers could be benefitted by providing sandalwood seeds as a source of specialty seed oil. Keywords: Santalum album, Seed oil, Ximenynic acid, Acetylenic fatty acid

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Status of Multi-Geared Small Scale Fishery Operated in Koggala Lagoon and Adjacent Coastal Area

Hansika J.G.C. and De Croos M.D.S.T.*

Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Management of multi-species and multi-geared fisheries is challenging due to conflicts and competitions of fishers. However, such a complex fishery exists for the last 100 years in Koggala lagoon, which extends only for 727 ha area, in southern Sri Lanka. This study evaluated the fish catch and income sharing mechanisms which enable to survive these fisheries in highly dynamic biological and socio-economical environments. Eight landing sites at the lagoon body, lagoon mouth and adjacent coast were weekly visited from April to August 2015 in drawing random samples to determine gear-based catch per unit effort (CPUE), species diversity and income levels. Questionnaires and discussions among fishers were used to identify potentials and threats for the fishery. Dominant 25 fish species and 6 shrimp species were observed in the catches of 11 fishing methods including snares, a fish trap which was not recorded from Koggala lagoon. During the study period high variations of CPUE were observed within and among fishing methods. Hierarchical cluster analysis based on present- absent data showed two clearly separated clusters (P<0.05). Though the educational level and years of experience significantly differed between lagoon and coastal fishers (P<0.05), the respective income was not significantly different. Targeting different species and different life history stages by different types of gear seems to be the key in sustaining multi-geared fisheries in the lagoon for last 100 years. Though school education does not have any effect on selecting fishing location, fishing experience seems to be important in operating some specific gear. Species aggregation and their susceptibility for different gear reveled in this study must be important in developing fishery management strategies for the lagoon. Despite to the effective catch sharing mechanism, the sand bar formation, which is the most concerned issue by both lagoon and coastal fishers, will determine whether Koggala lagoon fisheries will survived for another 100 years due to its effects on altering species diversity.

Keywords: Artisanal fisheries, Catch composition, Socio-economic status

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Germination Potential of Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani Spores on Live Gyrinops walla Stem Tissues

Dias A.A.P.1*, Fernando K.M.E.P.2 and Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P.1 1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Gyrinops walla (Walla patta) is the only member of the family Thymelaeaceae naturally growing in Sri Lanka which produces agarwood, a fragrant resinous tissue which is highly demanded in the world market. Since natural formation is rare, fungal inoculations are commonly practiced to induce agarwood formation in Aquilaria species. However, the response of live wood tissues of G. walla for the growth of fungi has not been investigated, the present study was conducted to identify the behavior of the fungal spores on the G. walla stem tissues after the inoculation. Non-resinous, non-wounded, fresh G. walla stem samples were collected minimising contaminations and water loss from three different mature trees with the age of 10-15 years in three different locations. Samples were cut into 3.0×3.0×3.0 cm and cutting surfaces were sterilised and 5 ml of spore suspension of 107 spores ml -1 and 105 spores ml-1 of Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani respectively were applied to four vertical surfaces of the wood cube until those were saturated and placed in a sterile moist chamber. Three replicates were used for each tree for both fungal species and spore germination in sterile distilled water was used as the control. Percentage of spore germination on live tissues was determined at every 3 hour intervals for 36 hours and data were analysed by Kruskal-Wallis test using MINITAB software. Results revealed that the percentage of germination was higher in F. solani spores than A. niger after 3 hours of incubation on fresh G. walla tissues. Further at the 15th hour, germination was almost equal in both A. niger and F. solani. Though A. niger germination was lower until the 15th hour, it was gradually increased with time and obtained the maximum germination percentage at about nearly 70% at the stationary phase. However, F. solani germination was lower after the 15th hour and reached its maximum level of about 66%. However, the germination of A. niger and F. solani spores on live G. walla wood were not significantly different (p=0.817). The findings of the present study showed that percentage of spore germination of A. niger on live wood (70%) was higher than in water (60%). Similarly F. solani also showed an increment of germination on live wood (66%) than in water (53%). Results revealed that the germination on live wood tissues of A. niger and F. solani was not inhibited by biochemical/ phytochemical compounds in wood of G. walla on the cutting surface. The findings demonstrated the compatible interactions between two tested fungal species and G. walla stem tissues.

Keywords: Germination, Gyrinops walla, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani, Wood tissues

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Screening of Fungi Capable of Degrading Lignin from Decaying Woods in Dry and Intermediate Zone Forests of Sri Lanka

Daraniyagala S.R.A.S. and Attanayake R.N.*

Department of Botany, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Lignin is the third main constituent in wood and is a complex macromolecule formed by the polymerization of three phenylpropane monomers. It is resistant to degradation due to its phenyl propane monomers in the structure and the recalcitrant linkages between them. Therefore, finding microorganisms capable of breaking down lignin is of great interest in biotechnological research specially in biofuel technology. This research was initiated with the aim of isolating strong lignin degraders from the decaying wood pieces obtained from the dry and intermediate zone forests. It was hypothesized that the fungal species found in dry and intermediate zone forests are strong lignin degraders since these forests are rich in hard wood bearing plant species. White rot fungi were isolated into pure cultures from decaying wood pieces showing white rot symptoms on hard wood pieces. In addition, fungal fruiting bodies were also selected whenever possible. Total of 35 pure fungal cultures were isolated and used for further analysis. Each isolate was grown on minimal agar amended with wood powder (mango+burutha powder in 1:1 ratio) and colony diameter was measured after 3 days. Three class of growths, fast growers (6-9 cm), intermediate growers (3-6 cm) and slow growers (0-3 cm), were tentatively identified based on their colony diameter on wood agar media after three days. Twelve were fast growers, 5 were intermediate growers and the rest were slow growers. Since laccase is one of the important enzymes required for the lignin degradation, the ability to produce laccases by these fungi was estimated by observing the ability to change the color on guaiacol amended PDA. Only three out of 12 fast growers and 4 out of 5 intermediate growers were able to change the color on guaiacol containing media indicating that these isolates were potential wood decaying fungal species with the ability of laccase production. Most of the strong guaiacol producers were basidiomycetes and isolate characterization is being carried out using molecular and morphological methods.

Keywords: Lignin degrading, Dry zone forest, Wood decay, White root fungi

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Anti-Obesity Effect of Rhizophora Mucronata-A True Mangrove

Dinesh P. and Ramanathan T.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Methanolic extract of Rhizophora mucronata (MERM) on phytochemical studies and body weight, behaviour, organ weight, serum biochemical parameters in obese mice. The preliminary phytochemical analysis of MERM revealed the presence of protein, phenols, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, terpenoids and tannins. Six groups of male Wistar albino mice were used. Group I was negative control and the other 4 groups were fed on progesterone for 6 weeks to induce obesity. Group II was kept obese (positive control) and the other 3 groups were orally given MERM at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg/day, respectively, for 4 weeks. Group VI were orally given by standard drug Sibutramine 10 mg/kg. Blood samples were collected for biochemical analyses. Oral dosage of MERM to obese mice significantly reduced food intake, body weight, organ weight and decreased serum levels of aspartate amino transferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) enzymes, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and low density lipoproteins (LDL-c) and improved atherogenic index. Blood glucose, insulin and leptin hormone decreased by administration of MERM.

Keywords: Rhizophora mucronata, Obesity, Wistar albino mice, Phytochemical analaysis, Biochemical analysis

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Extraction of Toxic Metabolites from Selected Strains of Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani

Withanage S.V.1*, Fernando T.H.P.S.2, Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P.1

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Plant Pathology and Microbiology Department, Rubber Research Institute, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Aspergillus niger and Fusarium solani have been reported to show the ability of inducing agarwood formation in Gyrinops walla. Both these species are also well known for the ability to produce mycotoxins; products from secondary metabolism of fungi, with varied biochemical structures and modes of action. Therefore it is worth knowing the characteristics of the toxins formed by these fungal species before using them as potential inoculants. Since the production of mycotoxin is limited to certain fungal strains, the present study aimed to identify the potential of selected strains of A. niger and F. solani for toxin production and its extraction. Therefore, two strains of A. niger and two strains of F. solani were screened to identify their ability to produce mycotoxins in Yeast Extract Glucose (YEG) and CzapekDox (CDB) liquid media. These media were inoculated with three agar plugs from fully grown plate cultures and incubated at room temperature under normal light and dark regimes. The filtrates were obtained after incubation periods of 4, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 21 and 28 days. Production of toxins was identified by assessing the damage caused on the surface of Piper nigarum leaves by a known volume (20µl) of filtrate. Toxicity of culture filtrates were evaluated qualitatively by a graded scale of Group 1 to Group 5. According to the results, both strains of A. niger produced positive results for the production of mycotoxin. However, Asp-MBL1-C strain showed the maximum toxin production in YEG medium after 4 days of incubation while Asp-U strain showed the maximum toxin production in the same medium after 12 days of incubation. The maximum toxin production in CDB medium was observed after 14 days of incubation. More intense leaf damage was observed to be associated with Asp-U strain in CDB medium. Out of two strains of F. solani tested in two selected media, only U-Fus strain produced positive results in YEG medium, where maximum toxicity was observed after 10 days of incubation.

Keywords: Mycotoxin, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani, agarwood inducement

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Investigation of Properties of Rubber Wood Related to Solid Wood Flooring

Venukasan T.* and Amarasekera H.S.

Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract A large scale solid wood flooring factory is to be established in Sri Lanka. On the planning stage of this industry it was found that information on wood properties of local timbers such as Hevea brasiliensis for wood flooring are not available. Hence, the present study has been conducted to gather data on selected wood properties of Rubber wood and how the wood quality changes with growth rate of trees. Hevea brasiliensis 35 year old trees were selected from three size classes: suppressed, co- dominant and dominant. Sample disks were removed at top (80%), middle (50%) and breast height of the log length. Radial variations were also studied at percentage distances from pith to bark. Wood quality was assessed by ring specific gravity. Ring width remained more or less constant from pith towards bark with slight decrease towards the bark indicating the uniform growth rate. However no specific variation was observed in ring specific gravity. This radial variation of growth rate and specific gravity was similar in all three size classes. Application of Rubber wood as solid wood elements for flooring was experimentally assessed by hardness to loads applied to the wood and specific gravity. The mean specific gravity of suppressed, co-dominant and dominant trees were 0.564, 0.629 and 0.631 respectively indicating that the specific gravity of Rubber wood lies within the required standard for flooring which is 0.5-0.75. In the hardness test, it was observed that all three size classes generally show a gradual increase in hardness from pith towards bark. The values of average hardness of suppressed, co dominant and dominant trees were 341 kgf, 405 kgf and 433 kgf, hence co dominant and dominant trees have hardness values above 400 kgf, the standard value for wood flooring. These results indicate that Hevea brasiliensis has wood properties which are within European standard and Indian standard for manufacture of wooden flooring.

Keywords: Rubber wood, Flooring, Specific gravity, Hardness

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Growth Comparison of Young Three Agarwood Producing Species Intercropped with Rubber under Different Light Conditions

Lanka M.P.D.1*, Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P.1, Senevirathna A.M.W.K.2 and Nayanakantha N.M.C.3

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Export Agriculture, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka 3Department of Plant Science, RRI, Agalawatta, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Sri Lankan rubber industry is facing severe challenges due to the presence of relatively cheaper synthetic rubber, poor quality lands, high labour cost and white root disease epidemic. Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL) has found intercropping of short rotation commercial crops with rubber as a solution for these problems. Agarwood producing species of family Thymalaeaceae are suitable crops for this reason as those can be rotated about three times in a 30 year lifespan of a rubber plantation. Those species form a highly valuable resin due to a self-defense mechanism which can be induced artificially inside the stem. Therefore the present study was conducted to identify the most suitable agarwood producing species to be intercropped with rubber under different light conditions. A field trial was established in RRISL premises of Dartonfield, Agalawatte for this reason. Three agarwood producing species; Aquilaria crassna, A. subintegra and Gyrinops walla were intercropped with rubber clone RRIC 121 planted in single and double row systems. The first two have recently been introduced to Sri Lanka and G. walla is native to the country. Agarwood species planted at 3m intervals in these intercropping systems were exposed to full sunlight and 50% artificial shade. Stem diameter at 30 cm above the ground and total height were taken as the growth measurements at monthly intervals for 15 months. Growth at the end of each three month period was compared using one-way ANOVA using Minitab software. According to the results, both diameter and height were not significantly different for all three species when grown in 50% shade or under full sun. However, both diameter and height growth of Gyrinops walla was significantly lower than A. crassna and A. subintegra when grown under full sun and 50% shade in both single and double row systems of rubber at the 14th month. Apart from the height growth at the 14th month under full sun of double row system, significant differences were not observed for both diameter and height between A. crassna and A. subintegra for all above treatments. Therefore it is evident that the growth of G. walla which is native to Sri Lanka is lower even at the early stage than the introduced two agarwood producing species.

Keywords: Gyrinops walla, Agarwood producing species, Intercropping, Rubber

Summary of Session Theme Talk

Wood-based Bioenergy: An Update for North America with a Focus on Pellets

Vlosky R.P. Director, Louisiana Forest Products Development Center, Crosby Land and Resources Endowed Professor of Forest Sector Business Development, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, United States [email protected]

Over the past decade, renewable energy has accounted for approximately nine percent of the energy usage in the United States. Of this, biomass has consistently been about 50 percent of this, or 4.5 percent of the nation’s total. In Canada, the contribution of renewable energy has been much less with hydro-power being the primary power source. In recent years, the landscape has changed, not so much in domestic demand for wood-based energy, but rather in the arena of manufacturing of wood pellets for export. To a lesser degree, wood-based agricultural-based cellulosic biofuels have become a prominent part of North American policies, programs and even mandates. Wood-based bioenergy is potentially an important integral part of renewable energy portfolios in the U.S. and Canada. The growth of this sector globally has been driven by demand in Europe, Japan, and other countries. European policies have been the driver for a change in the global pellet sector. The goal in Europe of creating a 20 percent renewable energy share of energy consumption by 2020 has created a burgeoning wood pellet manufacturing sector in many countries. The U.S. and Canada have increased pellet production capacity to over three billion tons. The sector is concentrated in the Southern region of the U.S. Demand, again, primarily in Europe, has been driven by the desire to transition to non-fossil fuel energy. However, the reality has been a mix of great anticipation as well as disappointment with where wood fits into the renewable equation. A number of European countries are revising their incentives and subsidies that have allowed the pellet industry to flourish. The incentives are costly and have resulted in high consumer electricity prices in these countries. Currently, the underpinnings of the global renewables sector, particularly wood-based energy, is in a state of instability. This presentation will cover an overview of where wood currently stands in addition to a discussion of successes, challenges, pitfalls, and the overall reality of the future. Keywords: Renewable energy, Bioenergy, Wood pellet

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Green Energy Initiatives by Tokyo Cement Group

Kandapola C.S.

Tokyo Cement (Lanka) PLC, Colombo

Abstract

The principal causal factor of global warming identified is the excessive release of CO2 to the atmosphere by anthropogenic activity. The primary cause identified for this phenomenon is the combustion of hydrocarbons such as fossil fuels, natural gases, peat and coal for the derivation of energy for human activity. More recently, the production of cement has also been identified as an excessive emitter of CO2, due to the release of this gas as a by-product of the process treating limestone. Thus for reducing the release of CO2, which is principally responsible for climate change, emphasis is on the use of alternative sources of energy, preferably those that do not utilize fossil fuels but use renewable sources. Tokyo Cement Company was launched the early 1980’s in the eastern port city of Trincomalee to cater to the demand of much needed cement for the housing and construction industry of Sri Lanka. Since the inception of operation in early 1980’s the production process depended on the electricity from national grid. In 2008 Tokyo Cement Company commissioned Sri Lanka’s first of its kind 10 mw biomass power plant fueled by rice husk, saw dust and wood of Gliricidia sapium. The biomass power plant provided stable power supply in the production of cement while displacing electricity from the national grid same time supplying the excess to the national grid. The project is supported by UNFCCC carbon credit program and annually generates 40,000 t CO2e. In 2014, the Tokyo Cement Group has commissioned its second wood based dendro power plant in the city of Mahiyanaganaya. The 5 MW dendro power project is fueled by Gliricidia sepium wood supplied by the out growers in the area. The aim of our organization is to promote enterprises that help Sri Lanka, both economically and environmentally. The organization firmly believes that this objective is met through the development of Green cement using Green energy, and thus is a step in the correct direction. Hence the organization has embarked upon these renewable energy projects in Trincomalee and Mahiyanganaya with 15 MW capacity. Although we are walking on a tightrope, we are proving that our aspirations are being realized and thus hope that our venture will be the first of many, to help our motherland and its populations receive energy and products through Green energy in an environmentally friendly manner.

Keywords: CO2, Dendro power, Green energy

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Closing the Loop through Green Technologies

Peiris V.R.S.

Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Human consumption has led to depletion of resources and huge environmental impacts. High ecological rucksack of products causes industries to generate vast amounts of resource wastes and all the products end up as post -consumer wastes. Unless we decouple economic development from resource use and environmental impacts the long term survival of humans is threatened. The key strategies for decoupling are reducing the resource intensity in products, Recovering resources from wastes, product redesign to eliminate wastes and responsible consumption. Green approaches and technologies can be our salvation in decoupling. Practicing Cleaner Production in industries will enhance eco efficiency. In Cleaner Production waste is defined as misplaced resources. Using resources diligently through source reduction, recycling and product modification are key techniques for industries to improve eco efficiency. Achieving high material efficiency, energy efficiency and water efficiency needs green technologies. Resource efficiency cannot be achieved looking at the product alone. This needs a broader approach of life cycle thinking. Addressing the negative impacts from extraction of material to post consumer management of products is the basis of life cycle thinking. Elimination of fossil based fuels a major step in decoupling and using green technologies. Most of the renewable energies eliminate emission of obnoxious gasses to atmosphere. Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) of water will ensure no wastewater flows to environment. A range of green technologies are required to achieve ZLD. Solid waste can be made into useful raw materials through industrial symbiosis. None of these can be achieved by industries using the same business model. Decoupling needs a paradigm shift to an environmental sustainable business model through Eco Innovation. These green approaches will lead us to a low carbon, resource efficient world where we and the future generations are safe. Keywords: Decoupling, Cleaner production, Life cycle thinking, Industrial symbiosis, Eco innovation

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Extraction and Application of Eco-Friendly Natural Dye Obtained from Kitchen Waste: Big Onion Skin

Wijayapala U.G.S.

Department of Texile and Clothing Technology, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Dyeing is an ancient art which predates written records. It was practised during the Bronze age in Europe. Primitive dyeing techniques included sticking plants to fabric or rubbing crushed pigments into cloth. Those methods became more sophisticated with time and techniques using natural dyes from crushed fruits, berries and other plants, which were boiled into the fabric and gave light and water fastness (resistance), were developed (dyeing of textiles , practical action.

Environmental issues are becoming more crucial all over the world. Natural dyes due to their eco-friendly nature create a superior value to the textile substrate. With the advent of synthetic dyes in abundance and a wide range of colours of remarkable fastness properties made its way making natural dyes a past. The dyes extracted from natural sources like plant, animal and minerals are called natural dyes. Pharmaceutical, food and fruit industry wastes are one of the main sources of colourants which can be employed for textile coloration.

The onion (Allium cepa), also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is used as a vegetable and it is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. Onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, but usually treated as an annual and harvested in its first growing season. The skin of the big onion contains a colourant which gives colouring component. Therefore extracts of waste big onion skin can be used to dye textiles to give better shades. As this dye is natural in origin it is eco-friendly dye suitable for green technology. In this way waste can be utilized for getting best.

Keywords: Big onion, Colourant, waste, Textile, Colouration

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Toward Sustainable Manufacturing of Natural Rubber: The Case of a Concentrated Latex Mill

Dunuwila P.1*, Rodrigo V.H.L.2 and Goto N.1

1Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan 2Rubber Reasrch Institutre of Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Natural rubber (NR) processing industry plays a critical role in the economies of many developing countries where the rubber exports have been one of the major foreign exchange earners. At present, the growth of NR processing industry has been challenged by low productivity, rising cost of production and many environmental issues (large volumes of wastewater, greenhouse gas emissions, etc.) occurred due to its material and energy intensive nature. In order to face these challenges, adapting sustainable manufacturing measures which address the use of less energy, water and materials, and producing less waste is crucial. Accordingly, based on a case study of a Sri Lankan concentrated latex mill, this study highlights the importance of using sustainable manufacturing techniques and tools to uncover the underlying potentials for improving performances in NR processing sector. This study consists of three steps; (i) Material and economic loss, and global warming potential (GWP) quantification through the deployment of material flow analysis (MFA), material flow cost accounting (MFCA), and life cycle assessment (LCA) in a gate-gate basis, (ii) Selection and proposal of improvement options with the help of Pareto and one-way sensitivity analyses, field interviews,and literature, and (iii) Validation of suggested improvement options through the re-execution of MFA, MFCA, and LCA. With the support of this methodical hierarchy, the underlying economic and environmental hotspots in the current manufacturing process can be identified, and moreover, the degree of improvement potential can also be evaluated. Final outcomes indicate that the current manufacturing process can considerably be improved to become more economically and environmentally sustainable. To conclude, this study`s research methodology and findings are believed to be enormously beneficial in both introducing and establishing a sustainable manufacturing model in NR processing industry to sustain its growth in the future.

Keywords: Natural rubber processing, Sustainable manufacturing, Material flow analysis (MFA), Material flow cost accounting (MFCA), Life cycle assessment (LCA)

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Organic Fertilizers and Biofertilizers to Improve Growth, Yield and Nutrient Quality of Soybean (Glycine max L.)

Samarakoon S.M.D.T. and Yapa P.N.*

Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Soybean (Glycine max L.) is one of the major legume crops cultivated in the dryzone of Sri Lanka. Most farmers use excess amounts of synthetic fertilizer to increase the yield of soybean and this causes serious health and environmental problems. Organic and biofertilizers can be used as an alternative, is a reliable solution for avoid the many of problems of synthetic fertilizer. The microbial consortium in the soil is critical to improve soil quality in agricultural fields. Organic residue recycling is becoming an increasingly important aspect of environmentally sound sustainable agriculture. Interactions of organic fertilizers with soil microorganisms are complex and improve the growth and yield of crops in tropical soil. The present study was conducted to find the effectiveness of organic and biofertilizers as an alternative to chemical fertilizer on growth yield and nutritional quality of soybean.

A pot experiment was carried out in plant house at Faculty of Applied Sciences Mihintale, dryzone of Sri Lanka. Treatments were field soil only (T0), field soil and 5% biochar (T1), field soil and 5% cow dung (T2), field soil, 2.5% biochar and 2.5% cow dung (T3), field soil, 5% biochar and Bradyrhizobium (T4), field soil, 5% biochar and mycorrhizae (T5), field soil, 5% cow dung and Bradyrhizobium (T6) field soil, 5% cow dung and mycorrhizae (T7), field soil and synthetic fertilizer (T8), field soil, 2.5% cow dung 2.5% biochar and synthetic fertilizer (T9), field soil, 5% cow dung, mycorrhizae and Bradyrhizobium (T10), field soil, 5% biochar, mycorrhizae and Bradyrhizobium (T11). The treatments were tested in a Completely Randomized Block Design (CRBD) with six replicates. Considering the growth, significantly high (p<0.05) initial relative growth rate, number of leaflets, root dry weight, shoot dry weight, nodule dry weight was observed in T9, the addition of 2.5% cow dung, 2.5% biochar and synthetic fertilizer. Soybean yield such as number of pods and dry weight of 100 seeds were significantly high (p<0.05) in T10, the addition of field soil, 5% cow dung, mycorrhizae and Bradyrhizobium. Higher seed protein percentage was observed in T10, fat percentage in T4 and crude fiber percentage in T8 treatments. It can be concluded that yield and nutrient quality of soybean can be enhanced by the application of organic and biofertilizers together. This provides optimism for applying organic and biofertilizers on sustainable agricultural practices in dryzone of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Biofertilizers, Organic fertilizers, Glycine max, Growth, Yield, Nutrient quality

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A Methodological Framework to Rank Energy Efficiency of Cities

Hewawasam H.U.C.P.1*, Bandara J.M.S.J.1 and Wirasinghe S.C.2

1Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka 2Department of Civil Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada *[email protected]

Abstract Out of 17 sustainable development goals established by United Nations, the goal of sustainable cities and communities achievement can be addressed by having more energy saving cities. In this context this study will be useful in identifying sustainable cities in the evaluation of goal achievement as one indicator to measure sustainable cities. The objective of this study is to propose a methodology that would enable to rank energy efficient cities and to establish their rank priorities. Energy efficiency may be the cheapest, most abundant, and most underutilized resource for local economic and community development.In today’s context motorized transportation is highly being used, which resulted in more energy waste and pollution. Walking receives a considerable interest as non polluting transportation mode which results in energy saving as opposed to motorized traffic. We can have more energy saving cities by reducing the motor traffic and promoting more pedestrian friendly cities. In this context, measure of “walkability” has been used. This research attempts to identify a ranking system of cities to base on their energy efficiency in terms of walkability with the identified indicators.These indicators included daily traffic flow composition, Public transport network, pedestrian movements and an evaluation of existing pedestrian facilities within the city limits. On the basis of the surveys performed, the significance of indicators was determined.Since this being an initial attempt in ranking energy efficient cities in terms of walkability, researches can further develop this methodological framework and fine tune it towards an all inclusive ranking system of energy efficient cities. Keywords: Sutainable cities, Motorized transportation, Walkability, Pedestrian, Indicators

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Removal of Rhodamine B from Aqueous Solution on to Modified Jack Wood Sawdust:A Comparative Study

Marks S. and Jayaweera C.D.*

Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Among many environmental pollutants, dyes releasing from industries play a major role in contaminating the aquatic environment. Most of the dyes are non biodegradable, stable and carcinogenic due to their synthetic nature and aromatic structure. Therefore it is necessary to reduce the pollution load including decolourization of industrial effluents before disposal. Though the adsorption on to commercial activated carbon is a promising method, it is expensive. The present study was carried out to investigate the possibility of using a low cost adsorbent for the removal of carcinogenic dye, Rhodamine B in a more effective manner.

Three different forms of sawdust, formaldehyde treated sawdust (SD), base treated sawdust (BTSD) and acid activated charred sawdust (AASD) were prepared and used for the removal of Rhodamine B from an aqueous solution. Batch experiments were carried out to investigate the potential efficiency of the three forms of sawdust to remove Rhodamine B from the aqueous solution as a function of the initial Rhodamine B concentration, Contact time and temperature. Equilibrium was found to be attained at about 30 min, 50 min and 60 min respectively for SD, BTSD and AASD. Based on Langmuir isotherms, the maximum adsorption capacity was found to be 319.5 mgg-1 at 60˚C for AASD among three different forms of sawdust.

Various isotherms and kinetic models were fitted to describe the adsorption process and the activation parameters were evaluated in all three types of sawdust. Kinetic data of all three types of sawdust were well fitted for the second order rate model. Based on Langmuir, Frendlich and D-R isotherms, a better adsorption capacity was obtained for the AASD adsorbent compared to SD and BTSD. Thermodynamic parameters suggest that the adsorption of Rhodamine B onto all three type of adsorbent is spontaneous and the process is physisorption. SEM images revealed that AASD has more porous and irregularities in the surface which makes it a better adsorbent. IR spectral data reveal the disappearance of many functional groups in AASD adsorbent compared to SD and BTSD.

Keywords: Rhodamine B, Kinetics, Equilibrium, Iisotherms, Modified jackwood sawdust

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Co-Inoculation of Pleurotus ostreatus with Beneficial Bacteria Enhanced Substrate Utilization and Mushroom Production: An Implication for the Development of a Novel Bio-Fertilizer

Dhanushika P.T.N. and Jayasinghearachchi H.S.*

Department of Botany, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) is one of the most widely cultivated edible mushrooms around the world. Mycelial colonization by beneficial bacteria has been shown to promote the growth of P. ostreatus and the other cultivated mushrooms. Therefore, present study was conducted to investigate the effect of beneficial bacteria which was isolated from soil, on growth, mushroom yield, primordia initiation of P. ostreatus, reducing sugar release, secretion of lignolytic enzymes such as laccase and manganese peroxidase aiming at developing a novel bacterial inoculum for P. ostreatus cultivation. Minimal salt medium (MSM) supplemented with cellulose and/or starch as a sole source of carbon and energy was used to isolate bacteria from soil whereas Ashby’s nitrogen free mannitol medium was used for the isolation of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria. Pure cultures of bacterial isolates were obtained after several rounds of streaking on solid plates of the same medium, and co-cultured them with P. ostreatus to screen the isolates which did not cause inhibitory effects on mycelial growth. The beneficial isolates were identified based on Gram staining morphology and biochemical tests. While in vitro mycelial colonization studies were performed in liquid medium, the in vivo studies were conducted in pots filled with sterilized lignocellulosic solid substrate to evaluate beneficial effects of isolates on growth, mushroom yield, nitrogen content, primordia initiation of P. ostreatus and laccase and manganese peroxidase activities. Pots which did not receive any bacterial inoculum were treated as control. Heavy mycelial colonization by beneficial isolates was observed in liquid cultures. Mushroom yield was enhanced by two-fold in pots treated with microbial inoculum. While 30% and 50% increase in laccase and manganese peroxidase activities were observed in pots treated with bacterial inoculum than that of control pots, about 42.73% increment in nitrogen content of the dried mushroom samples was observed in treated pots. This could be possibly due to the presence of diazotrophs, cellulolytic and amylolytic isolates in the inoculum. Significant increase (p<0.05) in median values of primordia formed in pots treated with bacterial inoculum was also observed. The results of this study, therefore clearly indicate the importance of the application of such microbial inoculum as a bio-fertilizer in mushroom cultivation. Keywords: Pleurotus ostreatus, Laccase, Bio-fertilizer, Co-inoculation, Mycelial colonization

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Secondary Metabolite Profile and Maize Weevil Repellent Activity of the Leaves of Ruta graveolens

Perera A.G.W.U.1*, Karunaratne M.M.S.C.1 and Chinthaka S.D.M.2

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Secondary metabolites which make the major contribution to specific odors and flavors of plants play a critical role when dealing as repellents against insects in storage pest management. Thus, identification of those secondary metabolites that have repulsive effect on insect pest behaviors could greatly facilitate the development of green pesticides while ensuring ecological sustainability. Hence, the present phytocentric research study provides the first investigation on volatile profile, chemical composition and repellent potential of the leaves of R. graveolens (Aruda) against the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky) infestations. The volatile organic compound (VOC) profile of fresh leaves of R. graveolens was analyzed with headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (HS- SPME/GC-MS). Qualitative phytochemical screening of 11 phytoconstituents (alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, phlobatannins, coumarins and phenols) for four leaf extracts (aqueous, n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol) was also performed following the standard procedures. In addition, contact and fumigant repellent properties of R. graveolens were also evaluated. A total of 14 compounds representing 99.95% of the total quantum of volatiles were detected in R. graveolens leaves consisting mainly of 2-ketones (93.32%), sesquiterpenoids (1.48%), aliphatic acids and esters (1.29%): 2- Nonanone (25.71%) and 2-Undecanone (55.51%) were the major volatile compounds followed by 2-Decanone (5.60%), 5, 6-diethenyl-1-methyl-cyclohexene (3.76%), 2-Dodecanone (2.74%) and 2-Tridecanone (2.98%). Phytochemical results revealed the absence of phlobatannins and the presence of alkaloids, glycosides and coumarins in each leaf extract. Aqueous leaf extract exhibited the presence for majority of phytoconstituents while hexane demonstrating the least presence. The data on contact and fumigation repellency against S. zeamais indicated strong maize grain protection activities at the highest dosage accounting for 97% and 96% respectively. The present study provides the evidence that R. graveolens leaves contain agriculturally important bioactive secondary plant metabolites, thus justifying the use of plant species with respect to its significant repellent role against S. zeamais populations in post-harvest storage pest management programs.

Keywords: Ruta graveolens, Sitophilus zeamais, Secondary metabolites, Repellency, Headspace-solid-phase micro-extraction

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Combinations of Leaf Powders of Ruta Graveolens and Azadirachta indica to Enhance the Repellent Activity of Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) in Stored Maize in Sri Lanka

Perera A.G.W.U.1*, Karunaratne M.M.S.C.1 and Chinthaka S.D.M.2

1Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepur, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais, Motsch.) is an utterly ubiquitous and cosmopolitan field-to- store insect pest with an economic importance of stored maize in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Current renewed interest in replacing the synthetic insecticides has served as the impetus for the evaluation and intensification of eco-friendly anti-weevil measures such as the use of plant based post-harvest bio-insecticides. This study was therefore, designed to investigate the repellent potency of the leaf powders of Ruta graveolens and Azadirachta indica individually and in combinations of various proportions under ambient laboratory conditions against Sitophilus zeamais in both contact and vapour forms. For both plants, 50 g each of maize grains were mixed with leaf powders at different doses of 1.0, 3.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 10.0 g and the repellent rate was recorded within an hour of weevil introduction. The repellent potency of three combination ratios of 1:1, 1:2 and 2:1 of R. graveolens and A. indica leaf powders incorporating into the dosage level of 10.0 g was evaluated at every 10 minute intervals up to an hour of weevil exposure. The highest contact repellent effect of leaf powders was produced by R. graveolens (97±2.74%) followed by A. indica (74±5.48%) whereas highest fumigation repellent effect of leaf powders was exhibiting by R. graveolens (96±2.24%) followed again by A. indica (47±2.74%) at the highest dosage of 10.0 g within an hour of weevil exposure when they were tested individually. All combinations repelled S. zeamais adults at a faster rate than when either powder was tested individually whilst the 2:1 combination of R. graveolens and A. indica exhibiting the highest repellent rates of 100% and 98% in both contact and vapor forms respectively within 50 minutes of post treatment thus increasing the repellent potential of the respective leaf powders to a great extent. The leaf powders of the two plants under present investigation revealed their improved grain protecting capability when used individually and in mixtures to be used as bio-rational and natural leads in large-scale protection of stored maize.

Keywords: Sitophilus zeamais, Ruta graveolens, Azadirachta indica, Repellency, Leaf powder

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Fabrication of Antimicrobial Material for Food Packaging Applications

Egodage D.P., Jayalath H.T.S., Samarasekara A.M.P.B.* and Amarasinghe D.A.S.

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Nowadays, polystyrene is the widely used material in disposable food packaging applications. One of the main disadvantages of polystyrene as a food packaging material is the microbial attack during the food storage. Objective of this research is to fabricate a nano silver based antimicrobial coating on polystyrene based packaging material to extent the self-life. In this research nano silver solution was prepared using polyvinyl alcohol and silver nitrate. Nano silver formation was confirmed by analyzing UV-Vis spectrum. Citric acid was used as the crosslinking agent of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). UV assisted treatment was used to modify the internal surface of the polystyrene containers to improve the wettability. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy - Attenuated total reflection method was used to identify the surface modifications after the UV treatment. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy test results showed the significant changes occurred on internal surface of Polystyrene samples due to UV treatment. The prepared Ag/PVA/Citric solution was coated on UV treated polystyrene container and kept under the heat to crosslink with the surface. Antimicrobial activity of prepared nano silver coated polystyrene based food packaging was tested against E.coli bacteria. There was a clear inhibition zone in nano silver coated Polystyrene sample under E. coli growth. It indicated that nano silver coated polystyrene containers showed signiﬁcant antimicrobial activity. There will be various human health, safety, minimum waste generation and economic benefits from these developed nano silver coated polystyrene food packaging products. These products can be used to control the waste generation in near future.

Keywords: Food packaging, Nano silver, Antimicrobial, Polystyrene

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Community and Industry Attitude Towards Using Prosopis juliflora as a Dry Matter Energy Source: A Case Study in Hambantota

Udadini K.M.E. and Bandara W.A.R.T.W.1*

1Department of Zoology and Environmental Management, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

At present, Sri Lanka’s first RAMSAR wetland, Bundala National Park, and surrounding area has affected with the rapid growth of Prosopis juliflora and it has become a threat to the native plant species of Salvadora persica and Gymnema sylvestra. Past studies have shown that P. juliflora grown in Sri Lanka has a high energy potential as it contains high calorific value, high wood density, low moisture content and low ash content comparative to the current fuel wood species exist in the country. This study was conducted with the primary objective of investigating surrounding community and industry attitude towards using of P.juliflora as a dry matter fuel wood for their businesses. Total of 55 industries and 50 households from Thissamaharama, Ambalantota and Hambantota divisional secretaries were randomly selected and surveyed using face to face interviews with a pre tested questionnaire. Study findings revealed that 90% of study respondents in both groups use fuel wood as their main energy source and most common fuel wood species are Manilkara hexandra, Drypetes sepiaria, and Fluggea leucopyrus. 90% of respondents in the community are able to identify the species and 93% of them are aware of different uses of P. juliflora. Even though awareness level about the advantages of using this species as an energy source is comparatively low majority of respondents identified high heat capacity as a favorable energy property of P. juliflora. Results of the industrial survey revealed that difficulties in handling due to presence of a thorny stem, difficulties in harvesting due to hardness of the stem, difficulties in transportation and lack of consistent supply as factors which hinder the usage of Prosopis juliflora as a fuel wood species. Further, study findings suggest that Prosopis juliflora is more appropriate for the small scale local industries such as bakery, salt and sweet manufacturing and existing such SCI require between 750-1500 kg of fuel wood per week. As community and industry in the region prefer P. juliflora as a dry matter fuel wood, strengthening the supply chain management is crucial to make use of the species. Keywords: Prosopis juliflora, Fuel wood, Invasive species

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Elucidation of Microcystin-LR Degrading Mechanism of Bacillus cereus

Idroos F.S.* and Manage P.M.

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is a cyclic peptide produced as a secondary metabolite of certain freshwater cyanobacteria species such as, Microcystis, Anabaena, and Oscillatoria. Biodegradation of MC-LR by heterotrophic bacteria have been accepted as a reliable and cost effective method to treat MC-LR contamination. To date, more than 30 different bacterial genera have been recorded as potential MCs degraders. However, limited information are available on MC-LR degradation mechanism of bacteria. Intracellular MC-LR degradation by enzymes encoded by mlr A,B,C and D genes is the only hypothesis accepted so far. Hence, the present study focused on the elucidation of MC-LR degradation mechanism of KJ954304 Bacillus cereus 12GK strain which was previously isolated and characterized by authors as an efficient MC-LR degrader. Overnight grown and starved B. cereus bacterial suspension (0.5 µl) was inoculated into 100 ml of filter sterile (0.2 μm) Beira lake water containing MC-LR at a final concentration of 5 µgml-1. Control sample was prepared without bacterial inoculation. All flasks were incubated at 28°C and shaken at 100 rpm for 3 days. Following three days of incubation 0.5 ml sub sample aliquot was removed from both experimental and control flasks and frozen at (-20°C). Then 45 ml of experimental sample was kept aside as initial experimental sample and remaining 45 ml of sample was filtered under sterile conditions using 0.2 μm filter to remove bacterial cells. Then the filtrate was placed immediately in ice to prevent denature of enzymes. Subsequently, MC-LR was spiked to both initial experimental samples and filtered samples at a final concentration of 5µgml-1, and incubated at 280C, 100 rpm for 3 days. 1ml aliquots were removed from initial experimental sample and filtrate sample for 0-3 days of incubation. These samples were frozen and processed for High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis. A PCR analysis was carried out to detect the presence of MC-LR degrading mlr A,B,C and D genes in B. cereus. Amplifications were performed in 50 µL volumes, containing 1 mM of each primer. A GeneAmps 2400 PCR System was utilized for the amplifications. At the end of 3 days of experiment MC-LR concentration of the initial experimental sample with bacteria was 1.8 µgml-1 whereas the filtrate sample without bacteria had 4.8 µgml-1 of MC-LR. Furthermore, the PCR study confirmed the presence of mlr A,B,C and D genes in B. cereus. Thus, MC-LR degradation is performed as an intracellular degradation by B. cereus with the involvement of intracellular enzymes.

Keywords: Microcystin-LR, Biodegradation, Bacillus cereus, Intracellular degradation, mlr genes

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Construction of Fuel Wood Value Index (FVI) for Common Fuel Wood Species and Compare the Performance with Rarely Use Invasive Prosopis juliflora

Bandara W.A.R.T.W.* and Ranasinghe O.R.

Department of Zoology and Environmental Management, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Sustainable Energy Authority of Sri Lanka has recently introduced several fuel wood species for the country’s energy fulfillment as a solution for nation’s over dependency on imported fossil fuels. Though country has identified some common fuel wood species there is no proper mechanism to evaluate and compare overall performances to identify species with optimal performance. Countries like India and Kenya have developed an index known as Fuel wood Value Index (FVI) to evaluate overall performance of fuel wood species. Prosopis juliflora has been identified as a major Invasive Alien Species (IAS) in Bundala national park in southern dry zone, Sri Lanka. Though it is an uncommon fuel wood species in Sri Lanka it is widely used as a dry matter fuel wood in certain countries. The study was designed with the primary objective of constructing FVI for invasive P. juliflora and other widely use fuel wood species. Secondary objective of the study was to estimate the amount of fossil fuel that can be replaced by 1 kg of each fuel wood species. Part of the Bundala national park where P. juliflora is abundant was selected as the study site according to a reconnaissance survey. Fourty individuals were randomly selected and moisture content (oven dry method), density (Archimedes principle), ash content (loss on ignition method) and calorific value (ASTM D 5865) were obtained. Energy characteristics of other commonly used fuel wood species for FVI construction were obtained from secondary sources. Constructed FVI for P. juliflorawas 3276±274 respectively. FVI values obtained for other fuel wood species were Leucaena leucocephala 3336±389 Gliricidea sepium 1,686, Acacia auriculiformis 902, Casurina equiseriflora 3,552 and Pterocarpus indicus 2,733. Study findings revealed that 0.50 L of diesel and 0.45 L of furnace oil could be replaced by 1 kg of P. juliflora wood. 1kg of G. sepium, L. leucocephala, A. auriculiformis and C. equiseriflora wood could replace 0.54 L, 0.48 L, 0.53 L, 0.55 L, of diesel and 0.49 L, 0.43 L, 0.49 L 0.50 L of furnace oil, respectively. Keywords: FVI, Rnewable energy, Fuel wood, Fossil fuel, IAS

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Microbial Bioremediation of Copper by a Bacillus cereus Strain Isolated from Coastal Waters of Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu

Rohini R. and Jayalakshmi S.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract Coastal contaminated waters near industrial areas are one of the many environmental compartments where heavy metals and harmful xenobiotics accumulate. Although Cu2+ is an essential micronutrient for most organisms, it exerts several toxic consequences above a threshold concentration. It is known to be a potent toxic element to bacteria and it is one of the most widespread contaminants of the environment. Hence the present study on a copper resistant bacterium isolated from a contaminated coastal water to evaluate its bioremediation potential. The potent B. cereus strain was isolated using copper incorporated nutrients agar plate and checked for its antibiotic resistant pattern against commonly used antibiotics. The strain was found to grow up to 600 ppm copper. The level of thiols produced in response to copper was analyzed and the total thiols, non protein and protein thiols were estimated. High total thiol content was observed at 48 hours of incubation with high protein thiols which coincided with high protein content. Optimization parameters for copper accumulation were determined. Regarding optimization, pH: 6, temperature: 40oC, salinity: 10% and glucose and beef extract were found to be the ideal carbon and nitrogen sources respectively. Resistance of B. cereus against other important heavy metals like mercury, nickel and cadmium, cobalt, chromium and lead were also analyzed. Varied levels of toleration for these metals were also obtained. With all the ideal optimization parameters 49% of copper accumulation was observed. Thus the strain seemed to have high bioremediation potential against various toxic heavy metal pollutants.

Keywords: Bacillus cereus, Bioremediation, heavy metals, Xenobiotics

(218)

Biofuel Production Using Marine Microbes

Kalaiselvi V. and Jayalakshmi S.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract

One of the greatest challenges for world in the twenty-first century is to meet the growing demand for energy for transportation, heating and industrial processes and to provide raw material for the industry in a sustainable way. Today, ethanol is being promoted as a clean and renewable fuel that will reduce global warming, air pollution and reliance on diminishing gasoline. In the present study conversion of agricultural residue such as wood powder, corn stalk, paddy straw, ragi stalk, millet stalk and sugarcane stalk in to ethanol production was aimed by two processes. 1. Hydrolysis of cellulosed in lignocellulosic materials to fermentable reducing sugars using cellulolytic marine bacteria and 2. Fermentation of the sugars to ethanol using marine yeast. Among the 15 potential cellulase producers isolated, 3 strains namely Klebsiella ozeanae, Pseudomonas aerugionsa and Enterobacter cloacae were found to be the most potent strains. Growth optimization study revealed that K. ozeanae preferred pH: 7, temperature: 35oC, salinity: 3% and 30 hours of incubation period as optimum for maximum growth. Whereas for P. aeruginosa the optimum growth conditions were pH: 8, temperature: 35oC, Salinity: 2% and 36 hours incubation period. Likewise for E. cloacae it was pH: 7, temperature: 35oC, Salinity: 2% and 36 hours incubation period. All the strains preferred cellulose as the most preferable substrate for the cellulase production at which 271, 263 and 231 U/ml/min. of enzyme activity was observed for K. ozeanae, P. arurginosa and E. cloacae respectively. Among the nitrogen sources yeast extract showed maximum enzyme activity in the above strains respectively of 282, 275 and 263 U/ml/min. in mass scale production with 1% cellulose as carbon source and 1% yeast extract as nitrogen source resulted in 293, 280 and 264 U/ml/min. enzyme activity was observer for K. ozeanae, P. aeruginosa and E. cloacae respectively. It was interesting to note that with cheaper substrate (wood powder) also almost equal amount of enzyme production was observed. When all three strains were used as a consortium at optimum growth conditions such as pH-7, temperature-35oC, salinity -2%, 30 hrs incubation period in an anaerobic condition 11% of ethanol production was observed which was found to be highest ever reported. These wild strains as such cane be used for industrial ethanol production.

Keywords: Microbs, biofuel, Hydrolysis, Fermentation

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Exploring Motivational Drivers in the Corporate Sector Toward Green Purchasing and Promoting Upcycled Products to Adopt Environmentally Responsible Business Practices

Prasadi H.L.A.1*, Weerawardana P.A.H.2 and Jayasinghe R.A.2

1Center for Sustainability, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri lanka 2Australian-Sri Lankan University partnerships Project, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The global and local environmental problems are becoming critical where natural environment has turn out to be a perplexing issue to business organisations, specially the business operations like sourcing, manufacturing and logistics. As a result, business operations are subject to increasing pressures and scrutiny from various stakeholders inside and outside the organisation such as government agencies, workers, public, and not-for-profit groups. Waste upcycling is one of the most sustainable practices that any business entity could adopt in order to promote environmentally responsible business practices. Upcycling is a process where already used materials are transformed into something of greater value and/or higher quality in their second life. The concept of upcycling has received worldwide attention from businesses in recent years. However, this is a fairly new concept in Sri Lanka. The rationale aim of this study was to determine the foremost reasons that motivate purchase intention of green products for different corporate events. Further, the study investigated the willingness to accept new upcycled products by corporate customers. Data were collected through a questionnaire distributed among 35 corporations. Results indicate that an increase environmental awareness, eco-labels becoming a life style, new legislations on waste and eco-cultural value (man-nature harmonization) have greatly influenced the green purchase intentions in business organizations. In addition, the findings reveal that upcycled products in Sri Lanka are more visible in a niche market as environmental education and life style has a significant positive impact on eco-consumerism. It further offers insights for suppliers, manufacturers, marketers and policy makers who are concerned on encouraging green purchasing intentions which require differentiated strategic marketing plan than other conventional products.

Keywords: Upcycling, Green Ppurchase, Eco-consumerism

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Comparative Study of Embodied Energy in Different Walling Materials

Udawattha C.D.* and Halwatura R.U.

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Calculating embodied energy of a construction material is a wholistic method of measuring the environmental sustainability factor because by reducing embodied energy can mitigate the environmental pollution. Along resolution, the embodied energy is the amount of all the energy devoured while manufacturing transporting constructing and maintaining specific product. Sri Lanka is using brick and cement block as main walling material. Brick walling materials use 1,5541 MJ of energy per 100 ft2 and cement block using 1,1542.9 MJ per 100 ft2. In this study, the embedded energy of brick and other mostly available walling materials such as cement blocks, wattle and daub, mud concrete block, rammed earth wooden planks and steel sheets were accounted and compared according to the origin of energy consumption. The processes of walling material were carefully studied and analyze to calculate embodied energy. One 100 ft2 square (10x10 ft) was used to measure and compare the embodied energy content. Then overall rank was given considering the embedded energy cost and usability factor.

According to the collected data, the most industrious walling materials such as brick and cement blocks consuming large amount of energy in the manufacturing process. Wattle and daub is the obvious eco-friendly walling material. Since the study compare walling material, overall soil blocks made of cement and soil (altering wattle and daub) shows best results with minimum embedded energy and yet provide essential strength to support the structure. Notwithstanding, replacing brick and cement block with alter walling material would save millions of trees.

Keywords: Embodied Energy, Energy content, Process analysis, Walling materials

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Product Carbon Footprint of a Fabric Manufactured in Sri Lanka

Wahala W.M.P.S.B.1*, Siriwardana H.1 and Senadheera D.K.L.2

1Department of Tourism Management, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka 2Carbon Consulting Company, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Quantification of total greenhouse gas emission of a product throughout its life cycle is known as Product Carbon Footprint (PCF). Assessment of PCF of a product system measures the climate change impact of a product either from cradle- to- gate (raw material extraction to factory gate) or from cradle-to-grave (raw material extraction to final disposal of the product) methodology. The product footprint was conducted in one of the leading fabric manufacturing plant in Sri Lanka. In this study, PCF was applied to measure the climate change impact of three different products from the knit fabric production process within the boundary level of cradle-to-gate. The selected product was a cotton fabric and three main products were considered which have different compositions of materials. Each product has different production process routes and the main process stages involved in fabric manufacturing process are; knitting, dyeing and finishing process. The functional unit of the study was 1 m2 of fabric. All the material inflows and outflows to the product systems were considered when preparing the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of the three knitted fabric products separately. The main activity data considered are indirect emissions from transportation of raw materials, purchase electricity and direct emissions from generators, boilers and other process related emissions. The climate change impacts of these selected knitted fabric products were assessed in accordance with PAS 2050 and ISO standards. Umberto for carbon footprint version 1.2 software which is a flexible modeling was used to create a multi-phase product life cycle model and calculate the carbon footprint. The analysis results shown that, product 3 has the highest impacting on climate change and its amount is 3.2733 kg CO2e on average and product 1 and 2 showed a carbon footprint of 3.1606 kg CO2e on average and 3.0581 kg CO2e on average respectively. According to this study, raw material extraction and material processing phase has the highest impact on climate change as the embedded carbon of raw material has an high impact. and the second highest impact is from knitting and greige preparation phase.

Keywords: Knitted fabric, Product Carbon Footprint (PCF), Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), PAS 2050, Umberto for carbon footprint v 1.2

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Rock Quarrying and Sustainable Environment Management

Dharmaratne P.G.R.

Department of Earth Resources Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Nearly 90% of Sri Lanka consists of Precambrian crystalline rocks except for a belt of Miocene sedimentary rocks along the north and North-west coast of the country. Gravel, sands and clays, particularly along river terraces, belonging to quaternary system are found resting on the Miocene formations and crystalline rocks. Precambrian crystalline rocks which most often occur as hills or mountains, consists of charnokites, migmatites and varieties of gneissic rocks. These rocks are suitable for road development and other constructions. Annual production of rock aggregates in the country is around 8 million cubic meters. During the recent times, due to large scale projects such as development of harbours, new air port and expressways, required large amount or aggregate material than usual. Colombo port city project alone will require about 3.5 million cubic meters of rock material within two years., There are over 2,500 Industrial Mining License (IML) grade quarries in Sri Lanka. The production vary between 1,500 m3 to 15,000 m3.per month. The operation of such a large number of rock quarries cause immense environmental damage. While development needs rock material, it is imperative to take remedial measures to mitigate the environmental damage caused by dust, noise, ground vibrations, fly rocks. Spraying of water at quarry and crusher plant sites, spraying of water into crushers and conveyor belts will reduce dust immensely. Quarry and crusher plant sites should be well protected by erecting temporary mesh to prevent spreading of dust and a permanent tree barriers should be created as early as possible. Noise, ground vibration and fly rocks should be controlled by designing proper blasting geometries and proper explosive usage. Ground vibration which causes severe damage to buildings and structures can also be reduced by excavating trenches between the blast and the relevant structure. Mined out area should be rehabilitated by refilling and planting useful trees or if it is a pit, it should be converted in to a pond, for breeding fish or providing water for agriculture or converted into a municipal garbage dump by sealing the bottom with a impermeable clay layer.

Keywords: Rock quarrying, Ground vibration, Dust, Noise, Environment impacts mitigations

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Variation in Soil Parameters in the Thaulla Area of Ulankulama Tank at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

Abeysingha N.S.1*, Jayaneththi J.P.H.U.1, Kosgollegedara E.J.1 and Hammer S.2

1Rajarata University of Sri Lanka 2College of General Studies, Boston University, Boston,United States *[email protected]

Abstract Thaulla is the upper peripheral gentle sloping land in human-built irrigation reservoir-lakes (“tanks”) of Sri Lanka. It is considered to play a significant role in filtering incoming water and absorbing nutrients. But, at present the thaulla area of most of the tanks has degraded and changed its land cover and land use. This study investigated the role of the thaulla area in Ulankulama Tank by observing the variation in 11 soil parameters including pH, EC, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, sand, silt and clay content in soils. Soil samples were collected from 19 randomly selected points in the thaulla area (~ 0.43 Km2) from two depths (0-15, 15 -30 cm). These soil samples were tested for the above soil paramters using standard methods and point sample values were interpolated to the thaulla area using the interpolation method, Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) in Arc GIS 10.2. The results indicated that the thaulla area of the Ulankulama Tank acts approximately as a wetland as evidenced by the accumulation of P (1254 ppm) and recorded lower N (0.046%) content in thaulla area. Moreover, the thaulla area of this tank trapped elements such as Mg, Na, and Ca as shown by decreasing concentration in thaulla area towards the water spread area. This was especially evident though the south western portion where most of water flows through the grasses. The average exchangeable concentration of Mg, Na and Ca varies from 34 to 122 ppm, 11 to 154 ppm, and 123 to 505 ppm respectively in the thaulla area. Behavior of exchangeable concentration of K is different those of exchangeable Mg, Na and Ca. The concentration of K increases towards the water spread area of the tank. However, K concentration changed from 3 to 19 ppm only with a CV of 0.54. Clay and silt percentages are comparatively higher in places where grasses are concentrated. The results of this study could be helpful in rehabilitation and management of tank ecosystem in tank cascade systems of Sri Lanka. Keywords: Constructed wetland, Thaulla, Tank cascade system, Ulankulama tank

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Microbial Solubilization of Rock Phosphate to Use in Sustainable Agriculture

Jayawardhane S.G.R. and Yapa P.N.*

Rajarata University of Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Microbial solubiliztion is more environmentally sound method of modifying rock phosphate to use in sustainable agriculture as an alternative to chemical acidulation. Therefore, the present study was carried out to find the strategies for microbial solubilization of Eppawala rock phosphate with using biochar and microbial inoculants and effect of these on maize (Zea mays L.) growth and yield. A pot experiment was carried out in the plant house at Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, during July to December 2015. After searching the literature the following ratios of biochar and RP were selected assuming that the better comparison obtained in different treatments. Treatments were comprised of T1: soil only, T2: sterilized soil and 3% RP, T3: soil and 3% RP, T4: soil, 20% biochar and 3% RP, T5: soil, mycorrhizae and 3% RP, T6: soil, Pseudomonas fluorescens and 3% RP, T7: soil, 20% biochar, mycorrhizae and 3% RP, T8: soil, 20% biochar, P. fluorescens and 3% RP, T9: soil, mycorrhizae, P. fluorescens and 3% RP, and T10: soil, 20% biochar, mycorrhizae, P. fluorescens and 3% RP. The treatments were arranged in a Completely Randomized Block Design (CRBD) with eight replicates. Maize was grown as a test plant. Growth parameters were recorded in four weeks intervals and relative growth rate was estimated. After 120 days of seeding, chemical characteristics and yield parameters were also measured. Results indicated that there was a significant difference among treatments (p<0.05) in all measured parameters over control. The highest available soil phosphorus was observed in biochar, mycorrhizae and P. fluorescens addition with 3% RP (T10) and highest leaf phosphorus was observed in biochar and mycorrhizae with 3% RP (T7). Significantly high (p<0.05) relative growth rate, numbers of leaves, length of leaves, shoot and root dry weights were observed in sterilized soil with 3% RP (T2). This higher growth and yield parameters of T2 may due to soil heating which increases certain soluble mineral nutrients availability. However, growth rate and yield were shown lower in biochar added treatments (T4, T7, T8 and T10). Short term influence of high amount of (20% v/v) biochar alone in plant growth and yield is less. It can be concluded that biochar, mycorrhizae and P. fluorescens are effective in solubilizing the high grade Eppawala rock phosphate. Further, microbial inoculants such as mycorrhizae and P. fluorescens increased the soil P availability and increased P nutrition, growth and yield of maize plants. Keywords: Rock phosphate, biochar, mycorrhizae, Pseudomonas fluorescens, phosphorus availability

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Characterization of Soil Water Repellency for Agricultural Farms with Different Soil Management Systems

Wijewardana Y.N.S.1*, Kuroki H.2, Kawamoto K.2, Hiradate S.3, Muller K.4, Clothier B.E.4, Mason K.4, Simpson R.4, and Komatsu T.2

1Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka 2Saitama University, Japan 3Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Japan 4The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, New Zealand *[email protected] Abstract Soil water repellency (SWR) is a phenomenon that can reduce water infiltration into the soil. Generally, the quantity and quality of soil organic matter and the soil moisture content will govern the severity of SWR. The objectives of this study were (i) to characterize SWR for greenhouse and grassland soils using the water drop penetration time (WDPT) test and (ii) to find relationships among the field and laboratory WDPT (WDPTfield and WDPTlab), and the SDM measurements. Two farms that produce vegetables in greenhouses from Japan (Mizuho farm, Miki city, Hyogo) and a beef farm from New Zealand (Tihoi, near Taupo, Waikato) under perennial mixed grass (Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L.) were selected as experimental sites. The New Zealand hillslope site was located on an Andosol. In the greenhouses at the two Japanese sites, vegetables such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and spring onion (Allium spp.) were grown on fine-textured Haplic Brown Lowland Soil. The latter soils were fertilized once a season with farm-made compost. Water repellency was measured along a rectangular grid and selected transects. The WDPT was measured using micro-syringe water droplets (50 µL) with five replicates. The WDPTlab and SDM were measured using repacked soil cores. The values of WDPTfield varied widely from non-repellent to extreme SWR. The water repellent soil has observed for grassland soils at pF (= log [−ψ], where ψ is the soil water matric potential in centimeters of H2O) of 3.2 - 4.4 range. The measured WDPTlab showed a linear relationship with the measured SDM (r2 = 0.80).

Keywords: Soil water repellency, Water drop penetration time, Soil organic matter, Soil moisture

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Microcystin Contamination and Potential of Microcystin Production in Major Drinking Water Bodies of Sri Lanka

Piyathilaka M.A.P.C.1*, Tennekoon K.H.2, De Silva B.G.D.N.K.1 and Manage P.M.1

1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Freshwater cyanobacterial blooms limit the utilization of drinking water due to decreased clarity, bad odor, anoxia in the water column and producing a diverse range of toxins; hepatotoxins, neurotoxins and cytotoxins. Hepatotoxic microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is the most intensively studied cyanotoxin and it is the most common type of cyanotoxin. The present study was based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of cyanotoxin in diverse water bodies in Sri Lanka and thirty one water bodies in different districts of Sri Lanka were selected for qualitative and quantitative analysis of microcystin-LR using PCR and ELISA techniques respectively along with assessment of some other selected physico-chemical water quality parameters. Presence of MCs producing genes, mcy A, mcy B and mcy E in field samples were analysed by PCR using specific primers and quantification of Microcystin-LR was done by Enzyme Link Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) respectively. The results of the present study relvealed that most of the drinking water reservoirs were having acceptable physico-chemical parameters for drinking water and MC-LR contamination was ranged between 5.98 ppb to 0.03 ppb. The highest contamination of MC-LR was recorded in Giradurukotte Reservoir (435ppb) where moderate level of MC-LR was detected in Kurunagala lake (75.6 ppb). PCR results reveled that most of studied water bodies having MCs producing genes, mcy A, mcy B and mcy E except Labugama reservoir, Kalatuwawa reservoir, Rathkinda reservoirs, Kantale podi wewa, Minneriya wewa and Mahaweli river intake. Thus, PCR screening is a cost effective molecular biological tool to detect cyanotoxin contamination status of a water body in adavance and it may facilitate to future forcast for actual potential of cyanotoxins production and give an alarm to take nessaary treatment application for drinking water supply authorities. Keywords: Cyanotoxin, Microcystins, PCR, ELISA, Mcy genes

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Determination of Grey Water Footprint of Rice Cultivation in the Right Bank of Nilwala Downstream

Rathnappriya R H.K.1*, Navaratne C.M.1 and Rathnayake U.2 1Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 2Agricultural Research Station, Labuduwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Excess nutrients released through leaching and/or runoff from agricultural lands into natural water bodies has caused water pollution all over the world. Water pollution by means of discharging chemical substances from paddy fields to water bodies has become a critical problem in Sri Lanka. The grey water footprint is considered as a rough estimate of water pollution associated with a particular activity. The grey water footprint associated with the paddy cultivation in the right bank of "Nilwala” downstream was calculated based on two levels of fertilizer applications; level 1: fertilization according to the recommendations of the Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka and level 2: fertilization based on farmer's preferences. Sampling was performed once a day for a week after each fertilization. Nitrate concentration of water samples was analyzed through Ultraviolet Spectrometric Screening method while pH and electrical conductivity were measured using pH meter and conductivity meter, respectively. Daily rainfall over the study area was recorded throughout the study period. The grey water footprint calculated based on the nitrate discharge for fertilization level 1 and level 2 were 0.93 m3/ha and 2.26 m3/ha respectively. As it is analyzed by the one-sample t-tests, the nitrate concentrations, pH and electrical conductivity of paddy water are significantly lower than that of proposed ambient water quality standards for Sri Lanka. As revealed by two-sample t-tests, nitrate concentrations, pH and electrical conductivity of water samples were significantly different from each other with respect to the both levels of fertilization. However, the nitrate concentrations and electrical conductivity values of water samples related to both levels of fertilization and pH values related to fertilization level 1, were significantly higher than that of raw water in "Nilwala" river which is used for irrigation, while pH values related to fertilization level 2 were significantly lower than the same. Keywords: Grey water footprint, Paddy cultivation, Nitrate, pH, Electrical conductivity

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Detecting the Glyphosate Contamination in Manihot esculenta (Variety Alu Peradeniya) Grown in Sri Lanka

Amarasiri M.C.K., Godakumbura P.*and Prashantha M.A.B. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciencs, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Cassava is a popular local yam in Sri Lanka which is an important source of energy and a raw material for snack foods. A survey on cassava cultivation revealed that the most common cassava variety is “Alu Peradeniya” and there is a heavy usage of “Glyphosate” as a weedicide during the cultivation. This study was done to detect the contamination of glyphosate in outer peel, inner peel and starchy flesh of the M. esculenta variety as it directly relates with the human health. Tubers of variety “Alu peradeniya” were collected from local farmers from Colombo, Matara, Embilipitya, Galle, Anuradhapura and Ampara in Sri Lanka and control samples without glyphosate and with glyphosate were cultivated in my home in Mattegoda, which belongs to Colombo district. Glyphosate levels in samples were determined by a spectroscopic method using ninhydrin in the presence of sodium molybdate to give a Ruhemann’s purple product having visible absorption at 570 nm and further confirmation of results was done by using LC- MS at ITI. Due to the presence of free amino acids in inner peel and starchy flesh, ninhydrin test for glyphosate was limited to the outer peel of the tuber because ninhydrin gives a positive response with amino acids. Outer peel of the control sample with glyphosate showed a concentration of 10.1 mg/kg, which was the least concentration detected. The highest concentration of the glyphosate in outer peel was observed in one of the Colombo samples, which was 20.1±0.1 mg/kg. The amount was recorded twice than that of the recommended amount. Samples from Galle and Matara showed similar values as control sample with glyphosate, which has grown having the permitted amount. Outer peels of some of the samples did not show positive responses indicating that the usage of glyphosate is minimum or absence of glyphosate usage. Further confirmation using LC-MS for selected samples reveals that there is a possibility of penetration of glyphosate among the tuber because both inner peel and starchy flesh were positive for the detection of glyphosate. Due to the repetitive application of Glyphosate and its long half-life in the soil, the impact of the agrochemical on environment and on human life is becoming more pertinent. Keywords: Cassava, Glyphosate, Penetration

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Effects of Paddy Husk Biochar on Selected Physical and Chemical Properties of the Low Humic Gley Soil in the Low Country Wet Zone

Najim M.M.M.1 and Moragoda N.2*

1South Eastern University of Sri Lanka 2University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Biochar made by pyrolysis of various types of biomass has been recognized in recent years as a potential soil amendment. Studies from different parts of the world using a variety of feedstock materials, process conditions and applications in different soil types have reported a diverse range of effects that are sometimes conflicting. Though paddy husk biochar (Kara dahayya) has been used in Sri Lankan paddy fields since ancient times, the actual outcome of this is uncertain owing to the limited number of research that have been carried out. This study focused on studying the effects of paddy husk biochar made by traditional methods, with and without other soil amendments such as compost, mineral fertilizers and their combinations on selected physical and chemical properties of Low Humic Gley soil used for paddy cultivation in the Low Country Wet Zone.

A pot experiment was carried out from May to August 2015 with six treatments, namely; T1- Soil only (Control), T2-Soil+Paddy husk biochar, T3-Soil+Compost, T4-Soil+NPK(mineral fertilizer), T5- Soil+Compost+Paddy husk biochar and T6-Soil+NPK+Paddy husk biochar with four replicates for each treatment. The physical properties of soil were analyzed initially as well as at the end of the experiment, while soil chemical properties were analyzed once every 3 weeks during the study period.

The results revealed that paddy husk biochar used in this experiment serve as both a soil fertilizer and as a soil conditioner in the test soil. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that the application of paddy husk biochar along with mineral fertilizer (T6) is the most effective treatment for this soil. This treatment recorded the highest porosity of 60.26% and the second lowest bulk density of 1.10 g/cm3. Also increasing trends in soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen and cation exchange capacity were observed in this treatment. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the application of paddy husk biochar along with recommended levels of mineral fertilizer is effective in improving certain properties of Low Humic Gley soil of the Low Country Wet Zone.

Keywords: Paddy husk biochar, Low humic gley soil, Paddy cultivation, Soil physical and chemical properties, Soil amendments

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Trichoderma virens Mediated Rock Phosphate Solubilization: A Potential Replacement For Triple Super Phosphate in Rice Cultivation

Dilani P.V.D.1*, Nanayakkara C.M.1 and Sirisena D.N.2

1University of Colombo, Sri Lanka 2Rice Research and Development institute, sri lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Annually, Sri Lanka spends 20 billion Rupees to import Triple super Phosphate (TSP) mainly for the rice cultivation. It has been recorded that, significantly high arsenic content is present in imported TSP compared to Eppawala Rock phosphate (ERP). Further, the current understanding is that arsenic is among the major etiological agents of Chronic Kidney Disease. Hence, a progressive reduction in the use of TSP in rice cultivation may help in reducing health and environmental problems associated with it. Yet the major constraint in the use of ERP in rice cultivation is its low solubility. As microorganisms are efficient solubilizers of Rock phosphate, attempts were made to employ a local isolate of Trichodrema virens, which has a proven track record for ERP solubilization, to increase the solubility of ERP with the aim of developing an environmentally friendly liquid P fertilizer. A pot experiment was conducted at Rice Research and Development Institute at Batalagoda. An amended Pikovskaya (PVK) medium with ERP was inoculated with T. virens containing 1X 106 spores/ml and incubated at 100 rpm oscillation until maximum solubilized P content was obtained. The filtered and autoclaved culture filtrate was applied to the rice variety Bg 250 one week before transplanting. Fertilizer application included: Control without any fertilizer (C1), control with recommended level of MOP, urea and no P (C2), Control with PVK medium without P source (C3), TSP at recommended level (P1), TSP at half recommended level together with developed fertilizer added to replace half recommended level of TSP quantitatively (P2), TSP at half recommended level (P3), developed fertilizer applied at recommended level of TSP (P4). Additionally, the recommended level of MOP and Urea was applied to every treatment except for C1. Completely randomized design was employed with 12 replicates and each pot containing 4 rice plants. Plant growth parameters and plant and soil P contents were quantitatively determined by destructive sampling of 04 replicates from each treatment at tillering stage and at 50% flowering stage while yield parameters with plant and soil P were measured at harvesting stage. The results obtained were analyzed using T test and one way ANOVA. During fertilizer development, maximum P content (42.55 mg P/l) was obtained at 72 hour post incubation. All the studied parameters differed significantly among treatments (P = 0.000). Superior growth and yield performance were shown by P2 where the performance was not significantly different from that of P1 for all the tested parameters. Even though treatment P4 was not superior to treatment P1, it was significantly superior to P3. Hence, the data suggests the possibility of reducing the recommended level of TSP into half by using the developed liquid fertilizer to minimize TSP usage. Keywords: Trichodrema virens, Phosphorus, Eppawala rock phosphate, Rice, Growth parameters, Yield parameters

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Soil Carbon Storage Potential of the Home Gardens Adjoining Selected Natural Forests of the Southern Sri Lanka

Wijekoon W.M.C.J.1*, Wanniarachchi S.D.1 and Samarawickrama U.I.2

1Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna , Sri Lanka 2Computer Unit, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Conversion of forests to other land uses is inevitable despite the environmental issues associated with forest clearing. Tropical home gardens have long been identified as a land-use system analogous to forests from various perspectives. Carbon storage in the tropical forest soils is estimated to be nearly 32% of the global soil carbon. Although few in number, research conducted in Sri Lanka has shown that the home garden soils could store relatively a large amount of carbon. Present study was conducted in the low country wet zone of Sri Lanka (WL2) using the topsoil (0-15 cm) and subsoil (15-30 cm) samples taken from two sets of home gardens (HG) adjoining two natural forests (Mulatiyana and Wilpita) where latter was used as benchmark sites. Twelve samples each was collected from the topsoil and the subsoil under each system reaching a total of 96 samples for the four systems. The objective was to assess the potential of the home garden soils to sequester carbon as an alternative to the dwindling carbon storage in forest soils. Analysis of bulk density data of 12 samples each from the HGs and forests showed no significant difference (T-test, α=0.05) between the forests and the HGs for the selected soil depths. Therefore, the assessment of the systems was done in terms of the percentages of soil organic matter (SOM). All the comparisons were done using T test with α=0.05. For the topsoil, Mulatiyana HGs and the forest had mean SOM contents of 4.14%±0.98SD and 5.50%±0.71SD, respectively and, it was significantly different (p=0.001). On the contrary, Wilpita HGs and the forest had values 3.71%±1.6SD and 3.17%±0.059SD, respectively and, they were not significantly different (p=0.296). When the two forests and the home gardens were compared separately, Mulatiyana forest had significantly higher SOM content (p=0.000) over Wilpita forest while the home gardens had no significant difference (p=0.437). When the subsoil was compared neither Mulatiyana forest and the HGs (3.62%±0.64SD, 3.18%±0.70SD; p=0.072) nor Wilpita forest and the HGs (2.60%±1.01SD, 3.10%±1.14SD; p=0.268) had significant differences in the SOM contents. When the two forests and home gardens were compared separately, Mulatiyana forest had significantly higher SOM compared to Wilpita forest (p=0.008) while HGs had no significant difference (p=0.985). These results indicate that the soils of the home gardens adjoining the forests are capable of storing carbon almost up to the natural storage limit for a given locality. Hence, it can be envisioned that the carefully structured home gardens in view of capturing and storage of carbon could be a good alternative for the dwindling forests in the humid tropical environments.

Keywords: Soil carbon, Home gardens, Low country, Wet zone

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Distribution of Selected Metals in Lake Sediments and Soils in Padaviya, Sri Lanka

Ediriweera R.T.1, Cooray P.L.A.T.2* and Liyanage S.S.L.W.1

1Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Central Instrumentation Facility of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

This main objective of this study was to examine the distribution of metals in soil and lake sediments in Padaviya, Sri Lanka. During the initial stage of the study, six soil samples, three from paddy fields and three from domestic lands and three sediment samples from the Padaviya Reservoir were collected and analyzed. At each sampling point, three samples were collected; surface soil/sediment from surface to 20 cm deep, sub-soil/sediment from 20 cm to 50 cm deep and deeper soil/sediment from 85 cm to 100 cm deep. The acid and water soluble metal concentrations were determined after digesting the sample in a mixture of concentrated HCl and HNO3 and in Mehlich 3 (M-3) solution respectively. The digested samples were filtered and analyzed for the metals Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn using atomic absorption spectrometry. The metal concentration data are expressed in units of mg per kg of dry soil.

According to the experimental data, acid and water soluble concentrations of Na, Mg and Fe in soil increased with increasing depth of soil or sediment column whereas K, Ca and Mn concentrations deceased with increasing depth. The average acid soluble concentrations of Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe and Mn at the surface were 1290±310, 1460±650, 2350±1800, 4450±1800, 700±250 and 710±95 respectively. On the other hand, the average concentration Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe and Mn at the deepest were 2300±625, 765±235, 3750±1260, 2700±1500, 1190±260 and 370±70 respectively. The water soluble metal ion concentrations were significantly lower for Fe and Mn and moderately lower for Na, K, Mg and Ca compared to the acid soluble concentrations. Lake sediments and soils from paddy fields showed high metal concentrations than domestic lands. In addition to the metals, soil pH, organic matter content and cation exchange capacity were also studied. The metal ion distribution in soils and sediments is difficult to explain using a single natural or an anthropogenic process. The research is still in progress to understand the processes responsible for the observed metal distribution. Keywords: Metals, Padaviya, Soils, Sediments

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Soil Loss Estimation Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE): A Coarse Resolution Dataset in the Indian Himalayan Region

Arjune V.1* and Dawa D.2

1Centre for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru University 2Cluster Innovation Centre, University of Delhi, India *[email protected]

Abstract

Soil erosion is considered a very critical environmental issue that has repercussions for almost every aspect of the world. In developing countries, such as India, soil erosion continues to be a major limitation. A prediction and assessment of erosion prone areas is of utmost importance for soil fertility and water management. Recent technological advancements have provided useful models through which remotely-sensed data for a large scale area can be analyzed and interpreted. This study aims to adopt an erosion model that is unique to the physiography, biological and climatic conditions of the Indian Himalayan Region. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model estimates the average annual soil loss A in tonnes ha-1 year-1. Recognizing the conditions of the region, the RUSLE developed by Renard et al., (1997) was applied in conjunction with Geographic Information System (GIS) for estimating soil loss. All parameters of the model were thoroughly studied, starting from reviews and research papers on soil erosion assessment at national and catchment levels. The study follows the RUSLE soil model in estimating the rate of soil erosion at state and district level. The model was developed around coarse resolution data requirements, with practicality in providing annual soil loss rate for a large study area. It provides a means to describe specific districts that are vulnerable to soil erosion, rendering immediate action for soil conservation practices. To determine the spatial distribution of average annual soil erosion within the study area, cell-based parameters of the RUSLE were multiplied in the specified 500m x 500m spatial resolution using the raster calculator function in ArcGIS 10.0 software. The spatial pattern of soil erosion indicates that maximum erosion takes place in the north, north-western and eastern regions of the study area while the areas with low erosion rates are located in the eastern-most part of the study area.

Keywords: Soil erosion, Remote sensing, Geographic information system, Soil erodibility

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Topographical Effects on Soil Carbon in a High Grown Tea Plantation of Nawalapitiya

Kosvinna K.T.* and Lokupitiya E.

University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Soil organic carbon (SOC) storage is an important component of global carbon cycle and climate change mitigation. SOC storage depends on climate, topography and soil properties. The main objective of this research was to quantify average soil SOC content across the toposequence of a selected mountain terrain. The secondary objective was to compare the impact of microclimatic variables and slope angle on soil organic carbon content. It was hypothesized that mountainous locations with an overall high percent slope have lower SOC than the mountainous locations with lower percent slope.

In this study, four slope positions across the toposequence of two tea fields (Field A and Field B) within Queensberry tea estate, Nawalapitiya were sampled for soil analyses. Measurements on micrometeorological variables (soil and air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, light intensity), litter and soil cores were taken in the field, and soil parameters including soil moisture, pH, texture and SOC stocks were analyzed in the laboratory.

The overall average soil organic carbon stock in the studied soils was 159.85 t/ha .The overall percent slope of field A (25 percent) was higher than that of field B (21 percent). A significant difference in soil carbon stock could be seen among the slope positions considered across the toposequence of each field (P<0.0005). Percent soil moisture (P<0.0005; adjusted R²=61.60%) and sampling fields (which differed in overall slope angle; P<0.005; adjusted R²=26.48%) have a notable effect on SOC stock while litter depth (F=2.68; P>0.05) have no significant effect on SOC stock. The SOC stock was higher at the field B (172.16 t/ha) which had the lower percent slope while SOC stock was lower at the field A (147.52t/ha) which had the higher percent slope. Therefor our hypothesis that mountainous locations with high percent slope would have lower SOC than the mountainous locations with lower percent slope was supported.

Overall, the SOC stocks were significantly different with regard to the differences in slope angle (as found for the two fields) and the slope position across the toposequence (as observed within each field) in the medium-gradient tea plantation considered in the current study. Among the microclimatic variables, only the moisture had a significant influence on the SOC stock.

Keywords: SOC stock, Slope position, Slope angle, Percent soil moisture, Medium-gradient tea plantation

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Assessment of Grey Water Footprint: Kalu Ela Sub Basin of Kelani River

Athapattu B.C.L.1*, Sandarekha H.M.S.S.1, Sameera P.A.K.1, Jayathunga G.L.1, Perera G.A.A.U.2 and Niroshani S.L.N.3

1The Open University of Sri Lanka 2Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Cooperation 3Central Environment Authority, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Deterioration of water quality of inland water resources is most attended environmental problem due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. Kelani River is the main source for domestic and industrial water supply to Colombo district. Therefore, a special attention has been paid on pollution prevention and the present study focuses on estimating the Grey Water Footprint of the Kalu Ela sub basin of lower reach of Kelani river. Water of Kalu Ela sub basin flows through an outfall to Old Dutch canal to Kelani River. The Kalu-Ela basin located between Ja-Ela basin to the north and the Kelani Ganaga to the south and it covers 58Km2 area out of divisional sectorial Mahara, Wattala, Jaela, Kelaniya, and Biyagama where highly urbanized and industrial DSs in the country.

The Grey Water Footprint (GWF) is generally use as an assessing tool to present extent of pollution of a river basin based on natural background concentrations and existing ambient water quality standards. The GWF is estimated by using concentration of pollutants with run off the water body. The total basin was separated into five sub basins and flow rate of sub basins were evaluated by using the Hydrological Modeling System (HEC-HMS) while six water quality parameters were selected for estimating the highest concentration of pollutants. Actual flow rate was recorded by calibration and validation of the Modeling system using area, soil type, land use pattern, ground cover and precipitation data of each sub basins.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was recorded as the highest concentration in all basins and ranged in between 269.88mg/L to 56mg/L. COD at the outfall of Kalu Ela sub basin was measured as 56mg/L while the average flow rate of the sub basins was 2.967m3/s. Accordingly, GWF was given as 11.077m3/s at the outfall of Kalu Ela sub basin which is based on recorded highest concentration of pollutant ie. COD. Resulted GWF reveals that the need of clean water is 11.077m3/s to assimilate the pollutant load in Kalu Ela basin. This implies that the Kalu Ela sub basin is in the critical condition at present. It is envisaged that releasing by-products and hazardous chemicals from industries which are situated in the Kalu Ela sub basin accelerate the pollution rate. Further, agricultural runoff, domestic and municipal effluent, and the nutrient rich marshy itself are other contributing factors. If the present pollution status is continued, it would create adverse impacts on human health and influence the socio-economic development of the whole country due to growing demand on the clean water resources. Hence, GWF is recommended as an assessing tool on pollution rate estimation and engineering applications are much important to control the pollution rate to accomplish the national needs.

Keywords: Grey Water Footprint, Kalu Ela sub basin, Pollutant Load, HEC-HMS, Kelani River

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Sedimentary Characteristics of Offshore Sediments in Maggona to Induruwa, South- Western Region of Sri Lanka

Samaranayake T.B.D.T.

National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA), Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract

Particle size is a fundamental property of any sediment which can provide important clues on its provenance and the mode of transport. During depositional process the particle size is characterizing with the energy conditions of the environment. A study on grain size distribution, textural and statistical parameters of the south western region: Maggona to Induruwa was carried out to interpret the sediment deposition and energy dispersion status of the area to understand the relationship between them. Twenty eight surface sediment samples were collected using Van-veen grab .Sieve analysis was done using mechanical sieve shaker at 1/2 phi intervals and statistical parameters were obtained using “GRADISAT” software following Folk and Ward (1957) method for classifications. The visual observations revealed that majority of the sediments are typically light yellow to olive green in color and contain 5- 20% biogenic carbonates with exception of six samples which composed of totally shell fragments. Sediments grabbed around Bentota Ganga inlet are sub rounded to rounded in shape while the majority of other locations are of rounded to sub angular grains. Larger and angular sediments close to rocky islands show that they are younger sediments and perhaps derived from nearby rocks. The mean grain size of the sediments range between 1.55-4.36phi with an average of 3.52 phi, indicative of very coarse silt to medium grained sand. The sediments fall under fine sand to very fine sand (50% of total samples) are localized near areas where the bottom is rough and rocky. Among the analyzed samples, 45.5% are well, 22.72% moderately, 18.18% moderately well and 9.09% poorly sorted. The ~68% of samples are exhibited unimodal distribution and all samples of bimodal distribution are poorly or moderately sorted and it probably due to debris of organic origin mixed with the normal bottom sediments. Majority of the sediments (~54%) are negatively coarse skewed and are localized opposite headlands. It indicates the selective removal of fine grains by the action of high energy waves which dissipate on headlands. The Kurtosis varies from 0.56 to 2.95 phi. Kurtosis of the inlet face of Bentota Ganga shows mesokurtic to platykurtic nature indicating high energy and wide distribution of sediments. Moreover, the sediments in north-south (towards south) direction shows leptokurtic nature except near headlands, which indicates the moderate energy conditions toward south.

Keywords: Statistical parameters, Sediment distribution, Skewness, Kurtosis

(198)

Engineered Solution to Improve Water Quality of Urban Water

Athapattu B.C.L.1*, Perera G.L.E.P.1, Perera H.K.M.1, Dayarathna G.C.R.1, De Silva P.K.C.1, Vithanage M.2 and Perera G.A.A.U.3

1Department of Civil Engineering, The Open University of Sri Lanka 2Chemical and Environmental Systems Modeling Research Group, National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka 3Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Cooperation *[email protected]

Abstract

The Kirulapone canal is one of the most polluted urban canals situated in residential and commercial area of the metro Colombo region. Although this is a drainage canal which is facilitated to prevent flooding in urban city of Colombo, it consists of unfavorable colour, eutrophication, and bad odor due to the haphazard wastewater disposal, crummy attitudes of inhabitants, which contribute to the nutrient enrichment of surface water ecosystems. This research illustrates the use of a constructed wetland to purify the canal water in the tributary of Kirulapone canal which flows across the Open University Premises.

This study is focused on designing a constructed wetland to reduce the high phosphate level and to reduce or remediate the disrupting compounds that negatively effect on the canal water quality. A canal bed level and pilot scale water quality surveys were carried out to identify the canal behavior and its current pollution status. The catchment area of the tributary is 0.47km2. The canal water discharge of the tributary was measured using a v-notch and the minimum discharge 0.05 m3/s was used for the designing purpose. After a continuous hydrological study on canal routing such as water level fluctuation, flood frequency condition with the interaction of precipitation within the selected catchment area, the retention time of the constructed wetland was decided. Subsequently size of the wetland is driven simultaneously providing good flood reduction and adequate supply even in the dry season with series of additional technical components to optimize the wetland functions. Biochar was obtained by pyrolyzed Gliricidia sepium, which is a byproduct of dendro power generation of Sri Lanka. The phosphate removal rate of biochar within the retention time was determined and suitability of native hydrologic plants for the wetland was in cooperated to the canal purification system.

According to the analysis, horizontal subsurface constructed wetland system with the combination of biochar was suggested due to the high potential of biochar to recapture excess nutrient. The wetland is designed with several technical aspects to properly function in both tropical and rainy climates. The benefit of constructed wetland system is discussed in the context of the global trend for introducing sustainable methods of environmental management and low cost pollution treatment system.

Keywords: Biochar, Kirulapone canal, Urban water quality, Constructed wetland, Phosphate removal

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Development of a Cost Effective TISAB Buffer for Fluoride Analysis

Cooray P.L.A.T.1* and Deraniyagala S.P.2

1Central Instrumentation Facility of the Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura Sri Lanka 2Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Fluoride in drinking water is well recognized for its both beneficial and detrimental effects on human health. Excessive amounts of fluoride in drinking water have affected the well-being of thousands of people in the dry climate zone of Sri Lanka. Fluoride content in aqueous samples is frequently analyzed by fluoride ion selective electrode (ISE) method; however, the TISAB (Total Ionic Strength Adjusting Buffer) reagent used in the ISE method is expensive and costs around Rs. 25,000.00 per liter and therefore, ISE is not a cost effective method. The main objective of this project is to develop a cost effective TISAB solution that could produce comparable results to commercial off-the-shelf TISAB solutions.

At the initial stages, three TISAB solutions were developed and their performance was evaluated with respect to a WTW branded TISAB solution (TISAB-W). TISAB-1 is a 1.0 M NaCl solution, TISAB-2 is a 1.0 M NaCl solution buffered to pH=5.5 and TISAB-3 is 1.0 M NaCl solution containing of EDTA buffered to pH=5.5. Fifty six (56) natural water samples were analyzed for fluoride using a WTW fluoride electrode connected to a pH/ION 340 i meter and the above mentioned TISAB solutions. The data produced by TISAB-W was considered as the accurate fluoride concentration of the samples for statistical evaluation. All the experiments were duplicated. In addition, other physico-chemical parameters, including pH, conductivity, hardness and metal ion concentrations were also analyzed.

The fluoride concentration of the samples varied from 0.292 to 5.521 mgL-1. Approximately 90% and 50% fluoride data produced by TISAB-1 and -2 solutions were significantly different from TISAB-W data and the results were unacceptable. Often, TISAB-1 and -2 solutions produced significantly lower fluoride concentrations than TISAB-W. On the other hand, approximately 75% of samples tested using TISAB-3 produced acceptable results. This observation suggests that that most of the fluorides ions present in the analyzed samples are complexed to metal ions and a strong metal ion chelating agent is required to decomplex them. In the second stage of the research, TISAB solutions containing strong metal chelating agents including CDTA, triethanolamine, and tartrate were produced. The initial results are encouraging and more data is required to evaluable their performance. Keywords: Fluoride, ISE, TISAB

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Pesticides Contamination Status of Ground and Surface Water in the Selected Head and Transitional Regions of the Kelani River Basin, Sri Lanka

Mahagamage M.G.Y.L.1, Chinthaka S.D.M.2 and Manage P.M.1* 1Center for Water quality and Algae Research, Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka 2Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Pesticides are useful to civilization because of their ability to eradicate or control insects, weeds and other pests. Most pesticides may be harmful for humans, animals and the environment because of their eco-toxicity, bio-accumulation and hormone disrupting effects. Pesticides usage in Sri Lanka gradually increased during the past decades and herbicides were recorded as the highest usage. Since the Kelani River basin is the most populated river basin in the country, a considerable percentage (60%) of the land covered with agricultural crops. Tea is the main crop in the central highlands and rubber is the most visible character within the basin. Scattered small patches of paddy cultivation area are also visible in head and transitional regions. The present study was focused on analyze of occurrence of pesticides in both ground and surface water in the head and transitional regions in the Kelani river basin. The study was focused on seven pesticide standards namely; Fipronil, Chlorothalonil, Profenofose, Oxyflurefen, Penthoate, Chlophyriphose and Diazinon. Twelve water sampling locations including ground and surface water selected to collect water from head and transitional regions to cover different land use practices. Quantification of pesticides were carried out using GCMS analysis. Out of twelve sampling points nine were positive for at least one pesticide was detected. The highest concentration of Profenofose (0.329 µg/L) and Oxyflurefen (0.246 µg/L) were recorded from Tientsin sampling location which was situated near by tea plantation and large scale vegetable farm. Diazinon (0.511 µg/L) and Chlorothalonil (0.030 µg/L) was high at Maththemagoda sampling point which situated near by a paddy cultivating area. The highest Chlophyriphose concentration (0.397 µg/L) was detected from Thoranakada location and it was situated close to the tea land. None of sampling locations were detected Fipronil and Penthoate pesticides. In the present study revealed clear relationship between pesticides and agricultural practices. Thus, the results of the study showed most of the pesticides applied in to the field can be detected in water as it is or as derivatives. Therefore, attention should be given to evaluate the contamination status of pesticides as majority of people use ground and surface water of the Kelani river basin as drinking water. Keywords: Kelani river basin, Surface and ground water, Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides

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Chemical Speciation Modeling of Drinking Water in Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) Affected Areas

Perera D.H. and Liyanage J.A.* Department of Chemistry, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Chronic kidney disease of unknown Etiology (CKDu) has become a major health problem in many areas of Sri Lanka. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, Fe, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn, Pb, Al and 3- 2- - dissolved PO4 , SO4 , F were determined in drinking water in Ampara and Ruwanpura areas using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Ruwanpura is an affected area and Ampara is the reference. MINTEQ version 3.0 software was used for the determination of the species distribution of water in above affected two areas. Chemical speciation is critical for understanding chemical toxicity, bioavailability, and environmental fate. Chemical speciation of trace elements is in general highly dependent on temperature, pH, pE and concentration of major elements and mainly considered how chemical speciation change according to the temperature, pH and ionic strength. Temperature was varied from 25˚C to 32˚C and obtained the chemical species distribution of drinking water at Ampara and Ruwanpura. At Ampara mainly percentage of total concentration in different chemical speciation of most of the elements which determined not varied very much with each other. But the percentage of total concentration in chemical speciation of Cu2+, Cu(OH)+, Pb2+, Pb(OH)+ and Al(OH)4- were + 2+ 4- varied considerably. But in Ruwanpura only Pb(OH) , PbSO4, AlF and Al(OH) were varied. When pH was varied from 5.0 to 8.0 in two areas, percentage of total concentration in different 2+ + 2+ + 2+ chemical speciation of Zn , ZnOH , Zn(OH)2, Pb , Pb(OH) , PbSO4, Al(OH) , Al(OH)3, Al(OH)4- and AlF2+ were varied considerably at Ampara and Ruwanpura. The variations of other elements with the pH is not considerable. Ionic strength was varied from 0.001 to 0.01 in 2+ + two areas and the percentage of total concentration of Pb , Pb(OH) , PbSO4, Al(OH)3, 4- 2+ Al(OH) and Fe , FeSO4 were varied slightly. Keywords: Chronic kidney disease, Chemical speciation, Ionic strength

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Investigation of Multiple Drivers and their Impact on Chronic Kidney Disease Unidentified - A Case Study in Padaviya Divisional Secretariat, Sri Lanka

Fernando I.A.A.M.1, Ranasinghe D.M.S.H.K.1*, Udayakantha P.M.P.2 and Bandara W.M.P.3

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Survey Department, Sri Lanka 3Ministry of Health, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Starting in the mid 1990s, Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown aetiology (CKDu) was discovered among the rice paddy farmers in the North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Districts. The disease has now spread to neighboring districts in the North Western, Eastern, and Uva as well as the Central and Northern Provinces. The CKDu prevalent area covers approximately 17,000 km with a predominantly rural population of 2.5 million. There is scientific consensus that this fatal disease in Sri Lanka is not related to known causes commonly identified with kidney disease, such as, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, or other factors such as snake bite. Many studies are ongoing to find the causative factor/s to this disease. This study was conducted with the intention of finding single/multiple causative factors which contributes to the disease incidence in the North Central Province with special reference to Padaviya Division which was identified as a high intense division for the disease by Ministry of Health. From the 15 Grama Niladhari (GN) Divisions 4 divisions were selected for the study (Sudarshanagama, Ruwanpura, Buddangala and Parakramapura) based on their relatively high disease prevalence. 30% of the households were selected from each GN Division randomly and a questionnaire was administered. In addition to this key informant surveys were carried out with priests of temples, Grama Niladhari, School teachers and Principals, leaders of farmer organisations, shop owners and keepers selling agrochemicals etc. Water samples were collected from selected wells for analysis of heavy metals. The results showed that similar trends were prevalent in the causative factors in all the GN Divisions although the percentage of disease incidence varied slightly (Parakramapura-33%; Sudarshanagama-35%; Ruwanpura-16%; Buddangala-40%). Of the respondents having the disease 94% had used well water for drinking prior to the disease and had been using it for more than 20 years. 88% of the affected persons used aluminum utensils for their cooking. The age of the affected ranged from 37 to 83 years with the mediun of 63. Significant difference was not seen among the gender. About 82% of the affected personnel were farmers who had used agrochemicals in their farming practices. A significant relationship was shown between the income level and disease incidence (82% were drawing less than Rs. 10,000/month). Persons who had hypertension were more prone to the disease while prior diabetes conditions did not show a relationship. People consuming alcohol and tobacco were more prone to the disease. Those who had snake bites previously were not shown to be susceptible while usage of ayurvedic drugs showed a weaker relationship. The well water samples taken from the affected areas showed elevated concentrations of Cadmium and Lead compared with the drinking water standards stipulated by the Sri Lanka Standards Institution. It can therefore be concluded that multiple factors contribute to the prevalence of CKDu such as occupation, income level, drinking water source, type of utensils used and personnel habits but the most prominent ones were drinking water quality, utensils used for cooking and farming occupations using agrochemicals.

Keywords: Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown, Agrochemicals, Cadmium, Lead

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Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopic Analysis of Soil Organic Matter in an Alluvial Type Gem Deposit in Pelmadulla, Sri Lanka

Madusanka R.M.T.D.1*, Jayawardana D.T.1 and Jayasinghe R.M.N.P.K.2

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Gem and Jewellery Research and Training Institute, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Organic matter is one of the most important and fundamental constituent in soil, which usually present in transported sediments. Therefore a wide spectrum of physically and chemically different organic matter can be expected in alluvial type sedimentary gem deposits. Composition of soil organic matter is very important, because it is tightly link with environmental issues such as mine gas poisoning, carbon budget and bioavailability of toxic elements in the soils. This study was conducted to identify the composition, distribution and impacts of the soil organic matter in the sedimentary profile of an alluvial gem deposit in Pelmadulla, Sri Lanka. Seventy seven soil samples were collected along the sedimentary profile in three different locations using auger drilling method. Chemical bonding structure of the each soil sample was analyzed in the mid IR region of FTIR spectroscopy. Total organic matter (TOM) and the total organic carbon (TOC) contents of the of each soil sample were measured using loss on ignition and the Walkley-Black wet oxidation methods respectively. In addition, selected basic physical and chemical parameters of the soil such as pH, oxidation-reduction potential, moisture content, and elution conductivity were also tested. Results indicate pH is in slightly acidic in nature and soil elution conductivity is higher in the peat layer of the bottom alluvial deposit. FTIR spectroscopic analysis proved the presence of several organic functional groups/bonds such as saturated aliphatic (2950-2970 cm-1, 2860- 2880 cm-1), unsaturated aliphatic (2915-2935 cm-1, 2845-2865 cm-1), alcoholic (3200-3645 cm- 1), carbonyl (1680-1820 cm-1), aryl (1450-1615 cm-1), disulfides (570-705 cm-1) and ether (2815-2850 cm-1). Some of those functional groups such as carbonyl and disulfide in organic matter may cause for the poisonous gas emissions. The ratio of TOC/TOM is slightly higher in the top and the bottom of the alluvial deposit. This indicates the high-carbon organic matters are present in the top and the bottom most layers. Conversely, carbon content of the middle layers in the deposit is less due to the intermediate level of organic matter degradation. In addition, middle region of the alluvial deposit is consisting of sandy nature, which reflects the dry climatic formation in the past thus the organic matter content is low. High soil elution conductivity in the bottom of the deposit indicates that the soluble ions were leached to the bottom and accumulate in the peat layer.

Keywords: FTIR spectroscopy, Soil organic matter, Alluvial gem deposits, Geochemistry

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Socio Economic Development of Coastal People Through Kappaphycus alverzii Farming Using Different Cultivation Methods in Tamil Nadu, Southeast Coast of India

Periyasamy C.1*, Subba Rao P.V.2 and Anantharaman P.1

1Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India 2Aquaculture Foundation of India *[email protected]

Abstract

Kappaphycus (a kappa carrageenan yielding red seaweed) cultivation was initiated in 1960 and by 1969 a farm was established by Marine colloids and MS Doty in Tawii Tawii province of Philippine waters. Following the success of its cultivation in Philippines, the same had been expanded worldwide. Kappaphycus alvarezii along with Kappaphycus striatum has been introduced in more than 20 tropical countries. Kappaphycus alone had been introduced in 26 countries. Its commercial cultivation is successfully going on in China, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Philippines and Tanzania. In India, a scientist from Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute (CSMCRI-CSIR), Bhavnagar, Gujarat was brought this alga from Japan though its original origin is from Philippines during 1984 for research and cultivation after following the necessary quarantine and introduction procedures. K. alvarezii was introduced in September 1995 at Thonithurai (Mandapam near Pamban Bridge), in the Gulf of Mannar waters, Tamilnadu, India. After repeated domestication and experimentation at Mandapam cultivation technology was transferred to PepsiCo India Holdings Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon in 2001 and expanded the same on the Palk Bay side of the Bay of Bengal. This cultivation was taken up by self-help groups (SHGs) for their livelihood. The present study deals with comparison of different cultivation methods of this alga and its economics in Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu, southeast coast of India. The income with the respective mean annual crop yield was calculated (US$=Rs. 66.00). It would be Rs 18257/- (US$ 277), Rs.16063/- (US$ 243) , Rs. 18217/- (US$ 276) and 20900/- (US$ 317) per month/ person in net enclosed open culture, raft culture, tubular culture and net bag culture respectively during the loan period and with the respective income of Rs. 19257/- (US$ 292) , Rs.18063/- (US$ 274), Rs. 19217/- (US$ 291) and Rs. 22400/- (US$ 339) per month/ person once the loan period (of three years) is over. In view of the commercial cultivation, we recommend net enclosed open culture in the shallow water, raft culture in the moderate wave motion areas and tubular culture & net bag culture in the open sea after analyzing the infra cost, replacement of the infra, cultivation operation, carrageenan yield and net income. The income might increase if the farmers maintain the farm well coupled with per kg cost increase by the buyer.

Keywords: Kappaphycus alvarezii, Crop yield, Income, Coastal people, Seaweed, Cultivation

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Experimental Cultivation with Economics of Cultivated Kappaphycus Alverzii (Doty) Doty at Three Different Locations of Palk Bay Waters, Tamil Nadu, Southeast Coast of India

Anantharaman P.1*, Periyasamy C.1 and Subba Rao P.V.2

1Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India 2Aquaculture Foundation of India *[email protected]

Abstract

Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation was carried out during January 2014 to December 2014 at three different locations (Parangipettai, Manora and Palakudi) of Palk Bay waters, Tamil Nadu, Southeast coast of India. The growth rate and carrageenan yields were compared in relation to environmental factors among these different locations. The mean crop yields were found to be 256.37±15.29 kg FW raft-1, 268.35±8.32 kg FW raft-1 and 273.35±17.02 kg FW raft-1 at Parangipettai, Manora and Palakudi respectively with respective mean DGRs of 3.22±0.13%, 3.33±0.07% and 3.37±0.13%. The mean SRC yields were 33.57±1.78%, 33.86±2.51% and 34.13±1.92% at Parangipettai, Manora and Palakudi respectively with respective mean gel strength of 352.09±32.13 gcm-2, 338.09±21.19 gcm-2 and 324.66±17.76 gcm-2. The environmental parameters viz., seawater temperature, salinity, nitrate and phosphate played an important role in the growth and carrageenan yield of this seaweed. The carrageenan yields and gel strength were comparable with the ones of International standard (Carrageenan yield more than 27% and Gel strength more than 250 gcm-2). Grazing by mollusks was severe at Parangipettai during July 2014 to September 2014. Epiphytic algae viz. Lyngbya majescula and Cladophora fascicularis created a problem in maintenance of the rafts by entangling with the substrate (bamboos and ropes) during April 2014 to June 2014 at Manora and Palakudi. The average monthly income per member expected was Rs. 17019/- (US$ 258) (Rs. 66=1 US$), Rs. 18057/- (US$ 274) and Rs. 18491/- (US$ 280) at Parangipettai, Manora and Palakudi respectively. This study indicated the feasibility of commercial cultivation in coastal waters of Cuddalore (Parangipettai), Tanjore (Manora) and Pudukkottai (Palakudi) districts creating a livelihood to the coastal fisherfolk.

Keywords: Kappaphycus alvarezii, Economics, Crop yield, Cultivation, Carrageenan (SRC) yield

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Legal Protection and Management of Marine Ecosystem: What Maldives Can Learn from India?

Shabbir S.

Maldives National University, Maldives [email protected]

Abstract

The Republic of Maldives has one of the richest marine biodiversity of the world. The country’s coral reefs are the seventh largest in the world, representing some 5% of the global reef area. Its 21,000 km2 of reefs are home to 250 species of coral, which teem with over 1,000 species of fish and this unique environment is the bedrock of their economy as well. Fisheries and tourism are their two largest industries which are heavily dependent on a healthy and diverse marine ecosystem. These two industries alone provide three quarters of jobs, 90% of the GDP and two thirds of foreign exchange earnings for the Maldives. Moreover, healthy coral reefs help protect the islands from natural disasters and guard against the adverse effects of climate change.

However, in recent years, the economic and environmental health of Maldives has been put to jeopardy by taking the biodiversity as granted and neglecting the natural environment for earning short-term profits. The real time protection of the Maldivian biodiversity is, thus, not only important for the country’s environmental health but it is also an economic and developmental imperative. As the nation has witnessed political unrest and social instability in the recent years, the legal instrument and management mechanics for the ecosystem conservation and protection is hardly available. An inspiration for a proper compliance mechanism is thus a sine qua non for the Maldives.

India, being a remarkable growth holder in terms of marine biodiversity conservation, could be a source helpful in shaping the future legal mechanism for the preservation and management of marine ecosystem in the Maldives. The Indian legal system has a distinct arrangement for the conservation of its biodiversity in general and its marine ecosystem in particular. There are 31 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in India, which cover a total area of 6271.2 km2. It has made strong coastal regulation laws for ensuring effective management of marine biodiversity which could be helpful in shaping the future legal compliance mechanism for the protection and conservation of Maldives’ ecosystem. Keywords: Marine biodiversity, Legal mechanism, Conservation, Management, Protected areas

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Development of Suitability Index for Locating Rock Quarrying Sites in Sri Lanka

Premasiri R.1*, Dahanayake T.2 and Tennakoon S.3

1Depaertment of Earth Resource Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka 2Geological Survey and Mines Bureau, Sri Lanka 3Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Rock quarrying industry in Sri Lanka has been widely expanded during the last few decades due to the rapid increase in the demand for the basic raw material in construction industry. Thus, rock quarries are operated throughout the country, which has resulted in several social and environmental issues. Most of the issues are due to unsuitable locations of these quarry sites. Therefore, finding of economically viable, environmental friendly sites for rock quarrying is a requirement. Present research is aimed at formulating an index to locate most suitable sites for the quarry mining based on the surrounding land use patterns. Gampaha and Anuradhapura districts were selected as the study area. Both these districts have large scale quarries with comparatively different land use patterns, geological and geomorphological settings. Representing both districts, 15 large scale quarry sites which are curently in operation and other 9 outcrops where there are potential reserves to establish rock quarries were used for the study. Using proximity analysis, 100 m, 250 m, 500 m and 1000 m buffer zones were created and percentage of areas of major five land use classes were calculated. Ranks and weights (from 0 to 1) were given to all land use patterns considering the sensitiveness of each land use pattern in different buffer zones. Based on the rank and the weight of the land use and the distance from the quarry, the cumulative suitability index for each site was calculated and classified. Based on the index, all sites were rated as either suitable orunsuitable for mining. In Anuradhapura district, 33% of the sites from existing quarry mines and 60% from untouched rock outcrops were rated as suitable locations.. In Gampaha district, from existing mines only 17% mines were in suitable condition.. However 50% of untouched rock outcrops were rated under suitable category. Therefore results revealed that in both districts, untouched rock outcrops locations are better than the existing quarry mines. The index developed in this study can be applied to all other districts for locating sustainable environmental friendly quarry sites.

Keywords: Aggregates, Anuradhapura, Gampaha, Rock outcrops, GIS

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Reasons for Failures in Wildlife Crime Investigations and Court Procedures of the Department of Wildlife Conservation in Polonnaruwa Assistant Directors’ Region of Sri Lanka (Qualitative Study)

Kumarathunga U.1, Prakash S.L.2* and Perera P.K.P.2

1Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka 2Department of Forestry and Environment Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) is the main government institution responsible for protection and conservation of biodiversity, and prevention of commercial and other misuse of fauna, flora and their habitats in Sri Lanka. Officers of DWC are empowered to perform their duties under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, No.2 of 1937 (FFPO) as amended. Wildlife crime investigation and taking legal actions against offenders are the main duties of field level wildlife officers with regard to protection and conservation of biodiversity in the country. However, some loopholes can be identified in the existing system that affect the effective implementation of legal actions at the ground level. The main objective of this study is to identify and critically analyze such existing gaps, and propose remedies.

This case-study was conducted in DWC Polonnaruwa Assistant Directors’ region, and 50 wildlife crime cases filed before Polonnaruwa and Hingurakgoda magistrate courts by the Minneriya National Park office and Polonnaruwa wildlife rangers’ office were analyzed. Concurrently, 20 wildlife officers who prosecute cases and 10 senior defense counselors (Lawyers) were randomly selected, information pertaining to implementation of legal actions were collected by personal interviews and structured questionnaires. Qualitative data analysis was done through framework analyzing method.The 50 cases were filed with regard to 15 different types of offences under the FFPO, and the most common offence was entering and being in wildlife protected areas without prior permission (43%). In 23 cases, the offenders pleaded guilty. The DWC succeeded in 08 cases after trial and unsuccessful in 16 cases. Three cases have not been decided. The Study found out that absence of a separate officer responsible for raids at field offices, weaknesses of initial investigations, not keeping accurate and complete records of crime incidences, errors in bail bonds, ‘B’ reports, and charge sheets, absence of relevant officials before the courts, evidence handling errors, and conflicting evidences as the major reasons for failures in wildlife crime investigations and bringing offenders before the courts.

Based on the respondent views, the case study found that giving sound hands-on training on court practices, employing a dedicated legal officer at DWC, provision of uniforms and side weapons, accelerating reward process, and appreciation of commitments would positively affected to increase the success rate of wildlife crime suppression.

Keywords: Wildlife crime, Ordinance, Investigation, Court procedures, Ranger

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Urban Coastal Ecosystem Services and Value of Cultural Landscape: An Assessment of View Value to the Indigenous Fishing Community

Guruge P.S.R.1*, Ranjan K.R.H.M.1, Jayasinghe-Mudalige U.K.1 and Weerakoon D.2

1Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Benefits from an ecosystem to support sustainable human well-being-commonly referred to as ‘ecosystem services’-are basically categorized into four major groups such as “Provisioning”, “Regulating”, “Cultural” and “Supporting”. In environmental valuation studies, these have often been taken as a bundle of services and the individual value of certain attributes such as Cultural services, which accounts for non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems, were largely overlooked. The purpose of this study was to assess the value of cultural landscape of an urban coastal ecosystem, which is made out of two categories (i.e. urban systems and coastal systems) specified under the ‘ten system classification of millennium ecosystem assessment’. Negombo lagoon was selected as the study site, and the view of the site was justified to explain the cultural landscape of lagoon in concern. Admitting those inherent difficulties associated with defining the cultural landscape, this was slender down into few values, namely: aesthetic, social relations, sense of place, and cultural heritage values. The lagoon area is geographically segregated into areas known as “Thotupola” where the fisherman used to launch their fishing boats. Choice Method was applied to assess the community preferences for lagoon view to which the ‘attributes’ and ‘levels’ identified through the pilot survey were used. There were number of lagoon front properties as lagoon provides many other amenities. Therefore view was classified into three levels as “full view” (unobstructed lagoon view), “partial view” (some obstruction by buildings and trees) and “no view” (fully obstructed or no view can be seen). Face-to-face interviews supported by a structured questionnaire were carried out with 300 respondents representing 15 ‘Thotupola’ areas to collect data. The level “no view” was omitted as the dummy variable; “full” and “partial” view were combined to value the cultural landscape. The outcome of analysis shows that the Marginal willingness-to- pay (MWTP) for cultural landscape is Rs. 309.50. Further, the lagoon view had significant impact on implicit price of overall ecosystem services in terms of both ‘full’ (Rs. 161.50) and ‘partial’ (Rs. 148.50) view. The overall implicit price for the ecosystem services is derived as Rs. 1062.75. Cultural landscape account solely 30 percent from whole ecosystem value that cannot readily provide a substitute to the indigenous people in community. Therefore in formulating conservation policies and exploiting land development activities the policy makers must account the fact and importance of cultural landscape of an ecosystem to the indigenous people in community.

Keywords: Choice Methods, Cultural landscape, Negombo lagoon, Urban ecosystem services, Value of view

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Valuation of Ecosystem Services Provided by Pigeon Island National Park, Trincomalee, Sri Lanka

Jayaratne C.T.1*, Wattage M.P.2 and Rev. Wimalaratana W.3

1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2University of Portsmouth (Emeritus), United Kingdom 3Department of Economics, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Pigeon Island National Park (PINP) is a complex marine ecosystem, which is a part of extensive system of marine habitats in Trincomalee area. PINP provides a number of Ecosystem Services that include provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services. Although this has been included under the list of conservation, PINP associated ecosystem is under the risk of degradation due to overexploitation of extractive users and additional pressure by booming tourism activities.

Present study makes an attempt to establish a gross, lower bound value for the conservation of PINP. This study has asses the willingness-to-pay for conservation of the resource users in the form of a hypothetical scenario of village level corporative society. The assessment was based on surveys covered at households (150) and visitors (170) separately. Key Informant discussions & Focus Group Discussions were also held in order to gather qualitative information with the relevant stakeholders.

According to the results obtained from the study, visitors are willing to contribute Rs. 68/= month and when this amount is extrapolated to annual basis it amounts Rs.60, 702,487.68 per year. Households are willing to contribute Rs.16 per month when this amount is extrapolated to population in Kuchcaveli DS division which PINP belonged to, on annual basis it amounts to Rs. 1,653,566.40 per year. These amounts can be considered in calculating national income to express the contribution from this pristine ecosystem to the national economy and hence improve the effectiveness of policy decisions.

Keywords: Pigeon Island National Park, Ecosystem services

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Documentation of Indigenous Knowledge of Indian Traditional Medicinal Mangroves in a Coastal Village of Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, India

Sambandam R.T.

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India [email protected]

Abstract

An ethno botanical survey was undertaken to collect information from traditional healers on the use of mangrove plants in Thirupullani coastal village of Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, India. The indigenous knowledge of local traditional healers and the native plants used for medicinal purposes were collected through questionnaire and personal interviews during field trips. The investigation revealed that, the traditional healers used some species of plants to treat various diseases. The documented mangroves and associated plants are mostly frequently used for the treatment of diseases. This study showed that many people in the studied parts of coastal villages of Thirupullani still continue to depend on medicinal plants at least for the treatment of primary healthcare.

Keywords: Mangroves, Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plant

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Life Cycle Assessment of Selected Wooden Products with Special Reference to Furniture Production in Different Scales

Illesinghe S.D.* and Gunawardena U.A.D.P.

Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract A growing concern about the environmental effects of the production and use of goods, has led to increasing interest in wood-based products made in a sustainable manner. To understand the environmental impacts a product can cause the entire life cycle of the product must be examined, from raw material extraction through production, use, recycling and ultimate disposal. The furniture industry employs several raw materials including wood, metals, plastics, textile, leather or glass and impacts vary according to the materials. LCA is a multiphase process consisting of four interrelated steps: goal definition and scoping; life-cycle inventory (LCI); life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA); and interpretation. The main objective of the study was to determine product impact on global warming potential of three furniture types and to compare the impact between three different production scales. A pretested questionnaire with details on production, raw material and energy usage was used to collect data from manufacturing units in Moratuwa and Galle area. Around 30 sawmills were surveyed from different scales. Global warming potential of a wooden settee, Almyrah and a Double bed was compared in three different scales of sawmills using Simapro software. The functional unit considered was 1m3 of product. Product boundary was from gate to gate and there is no consideration on the transport and the usage of the product. Products is made of teak and mahogany timber. Greenhouse gas emissions from energy usage and wood waste during the entire life cycle are considered. The total global warming potential is lowest in medium scale and in small scale it is two times higher and in large scale it is four times higher. The total global warming potential for almyrah is lowest in medium scale and two times higher in small scale and four times higher in large scale. For wooden settee it is lowest in medium scale and slightly high in small scale and four times higher in large scale. For the double bed it is lowest in medium scale and two times higher in small scale and five times higher in large scale. The usefulness of the results in minimizing the impacts from the industry is discussed. Keywords: Product impact assessment, Wooden products, Life cycle analysis

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An Assessment of Variation of Damage with the Distance from an Open Dump Site: A Case Study of Methotamulla Dumpsite, Sri Lanka

Udugama G.K.* and Gunawardena U.A.D.P.

Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Present Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generation in Sri Lanka is around 6,500 to 7,000 metric tons per day of which 50% is collected and disposed by local authorities. Western province collects 2,100 metric tons of MSW of which Colombo Municipality is responsible for 800 metric tons per day. Open dumping has been the most common method of disposal of such waste. After prohibition of the use of the Bloemendhal site in 2009 by the Supreme Court, Colombo municipality used Meethotamulla area for waste dumping which had a small dump site used by the Kolonnawa municipality. Currently 800 metric tons of MSW is being dumped daily and around 1000 households have been affected around the dumpsite. Open dump sites often generate certain non-uniformly mixing pollution externalities. The main objective of the study is to assess the variation of damage perceived by the surrounding community with the distance from the dumpsite. A household survey was conducted using a pre-tested questionnaire among the surrounding community of the dump site. Stratified random sampling was adopted and households were selected from distances of 100m, 200m, 300m, 500m and 700m along three directions. Total of 117 households were surveyed from May to August 2016. The respondents were asked to rank various disturbances in a 1-5 Likert scale. Common disturbances identified in a pilot survey including damages to the property, risk of life and health impacts, disturbance from insects and other animals, etc. were used in the survey. Kruskal-Wallis test was performed to test the significance between different strata. In general, results indicate that all the damages decline with the distance. The damages to structure of the houses, damages to pipe lines etc. have a higher impact within first 100m from the dump site. Risk of illness had a gradual decline with the distance away from the dump site. The disturbances due to dust significantly declines after 200 m away from the dump site. Disturbances due to mosquitoes and flies tend to drop significantly after 200 m. Disturbances from crows have a higher impact within first 300 m. The odor seems to have a higher impact up to 700 m compared to other disturbances. Impact of flooding due to blockage of channel system by the dump is high within first 200 m. The disturbances by stray dogs prevail to exist only within first 100 m. The risk of life has a higher impact within first 200 m. The noise nuisance of heavy vehicles used for operations of dumpsite has a gradual reduction however it significantly reduces after 100 m and beyond 300 m there is no significant change in impact. The study emphasizes the usefulness of assessments of damage variation for their subsequent estimation.

Keywords: Municipal solid waste (MSW), Open dump site, Damage variation, Distance

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Evaluation of Performance of Environmental Protection License of Rice Mills of the North Central Province

Chandrasiri G.N.1* and Gunawardena U.A.D.P.2

1Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka 2Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Improper management of industrial pollution can result in serious damage to the environment and as well as to human health. Environmental Protection License (EPL) is a regulatory tool under the NEA to control the discharge of effluent, emission and deposits of solid waste. Present study was carried out to assess the effectiveness of EPL of rice processing industry in the North Central province and to investigate the factors affecting adoption of pollution control by the industries. Data were collected from 100 rice mills from two divisional secretariats (Thamankaduwa and Hingurakgoda) from Polonnaruwa district and three divisional secretariats (Kekirawa, Nachchaduwa and Thalawa) form Anuradhapura representing different scales of the industry. Information on production capacity, milling technology, management of solid waste, waste water and emissions, adoption of EPL, expenditure on pollution control were collected using a pretested questionnaire. Results indicate that production capacity of rice mills varied from 0.3 to 150 metric tons per day for type A and B industries. Total waste management cost varied from LKR 165 million to 12,000. Although majority of the mills had modern mills, most common waste water treatment method was open discharge. Fly ash control was done mainly with ash rooms. Only 60% of the operating industries (of A and B categories) have obtained EPLs. A multiple regression analysis indicates that total waste management cost was mainly influenced by the factors such as treatment method, production capacity, land extent and the type of mill. It was identified that information gaps regarding best available technologies act as barriers of adoption of pollution control which could be mitigated by supportive consultation services and close monitoring.

Keywords: Environmental Protection License, Rice mills, Pollution control

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Identification of Relationship between Urban Heat Islands & Vegetation Cover through Landsat 8: A Case Study of Colombo & Gampaha Districts in Sri Lanka

Fernando G.M.T.S.

Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka [email protected]

Abstract Global Warming is a major environmental problem that all kind of organisms has been affected at present. Urban Heat Island (UHI) is one of primary impacts of Global Warming. UHI is a phenomenon that the temperature of urban area is higher than surrounding rural areas or suburban areas. This increasing trend of temperature in urban areas affects many environmental entities such as air quality, water resources, habitats behaviors, climate changes. The most remarkable incident that relate with UHI, is the difference of thermal properties of the surfaces. Many countries experience the consequences of Urban Heat Islands in many aspects such as economic, health, social and environmental affects. Thus to mitigate such impacts of UHI, it is very important to identify the main reasons behind this. In this paper UHIs in Colombo, Gampaha Districts and the relationship between UHI and vegetation cover were analyzed based on Landsat 8, 30 m resolution data. Land Surface Temperature was derived from Landsat thermal Infrared band through several equations of United State Geological Surfay (USGS) guidelines using Arc GIS 10. Conversion of Digital Number (DN) values to Top of Atmosphere (TOA) Radiance, Conversion of TOA Radiance to Satellite Brightness temperature and final calculation of Land Surface Temperature considering land surface emissivity are the steps that had been done for the analysis. Vegetation cover was derived by using vegetation index with the Red and Near Infra Red bands. The result shows that the land high surface temperature directly relates with the urbanized regions where vegetation cover is very less. High temperature difference could be identified that cause to arise the urban heat island effects in Colombo & Gampaha districts. There is a strong linearly negative correlation with correlation coefficient value of -0.742 between land surface temperature and vegetation cover. 78.8 km2 (including water) of total area had been identified as NDVI value less than 0.1. And extent of high temperature area was 74.12 km2 where temperature more than 27˚C at 10.22 am. The area in temperature range of 25-27 was 464.95 km2 and area in NDVI value range 0.1-0.2 was 333.04 km2. 1471.1 km2 was identified as NDVI value between 0.3-0.4 and the area at low temperature was 1529 km2 where temperature less than 25˚C. According to this results, high temperature at non-vegetated areas and low temperature at vegetated areas could be noted very clearly. This is probably due to the ecological function of vegetation that lay down the surface temperature from high evapotranspiration. Vegetated areas are mostly sensed with surface temperature. Thus research output can be useful for policy-makers and planners of development projects such as Western province Megapolis project as well as for general public to understand the urban heat island effects and importance of vegetation cover to mitigate such impacts. Keywords: Urban heat island, Vegetation, NDVI, Arc GIS, Landsat, Sri Lanka

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Arboricultural Assessment of Street Trees in Colombo City, Sri Lanka

Madurapperuma B.D.1*, Kuruppuarachchi K.A.J.M.2, Herath W.N.2, Wijayathunga L.2, Ranaweera T.2, Sirimanna R.2 and Sumanarathna A.R.2

1Department of Environmental Science and Management, Humboldt State University,United States, 2Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Open University of Sri Lanka, *[email protected]

Abstract

Roadside trees are beneficial for providing ecological services, such as heat absorbance, natural air conditioning, and reducing GHG emissions in urban landscapes. This study examines the tree structure, species composition, species diversity, and some field observations (i.e. tree structural defects and disorders) on roadside trees in Colombo City. The vegetation parameters, such as diameter-at-breast height (DBH), tree height, and crown radius were measured in each tree. Purposive random sampling was adapted to invent street trees along High-level Road (Nugegoda to Tummulla junction), Bauddhaloka Mawatha (Tummulla junction to Borella Cemetery junction),Viharamahadevi Park circle and suburbs, Ananda Coomaraswamy Mawatha-Sri Jayawardanapura Mawatha (Kollupitia to Rajagiriya), Jawatta Road, Torinton Avenue and Keppitipola road. A total of 1458 street trees belonging to 92 species, 71 genera and 33 families were recorded along the roadways of Colombo City expanding ca. 20 km in length. Average 41±18 trees were located per kilometer. The survey shows that 64% of the species were exotic and 36% were indigenous species, reflecting the trend towards planting more exotic tree species in streets in recent past. The most dominant street trees were Albizia saman [% Relative Density (RD)=8; % Relative Basal Area (RBA)=34, % Relative Crown Cover (RCC)=30] and Peltophorum pterocarpum [% RD=11; % RBA=16; % RCC=19]. The highest number of trees was recorded from Public Library to Town Hall via Anagarika Dharmapala Mawatha (69 trees/km and 36 spp./km) and the most diverse tree species composition was found along Marcus Fernando Mawatha (66 trees/km and 52 spp./km) at Viharamahadevi Park circle. In conclusion, maintaining urban forest inventories, silvicultural managing of street trees from Ficus invasion, and introducing suitable native trees viz., Lagerstroemia speciose (Murutha), Pongamia pinnata (Magul-Karanda), Barringtonia asiatica (Mudilla) and Phyllanthus emblica (Nelli) for future tree planting areas will be recommended.

Keywords: Street trees, Forest inventory, Silvicultural management, Colombo city

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Greenhouse Gas Emission from Colombo to Galle due to Southern Expressway in Sri Lanka: A Variance Study.

Subhashinie D.A.K1* and Peiris V.R.S.2

1Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka 2Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The climate change is a major global problem, due to releasing the greenhouse gases (GHG) to the atmosphere at an alarming rate. The main constituent of GHGs is carbon dioxide (CO2) and impact of all other gases is measured in relation to CO2. Hence, GHG emissions are referred to as carbon dioxide equivalent or carbon emissions or carbon footprint (CFP). Transport is a major human activity which contributes to the emission of GHGs. In Sri Lanka there are no previous studies done to evaluate the carbon emissions from any road project. Unless mitigation measures are implemented, Sri Lanka’s GHG emissions will reach dangerous level.

The objective in this study is to estimate the carbon footprint on Southern expressway (SEW) from Colombo to Galle due to vehicle movement under the operational stage.This study is mainly descriptive, based on secondary data. Vehicle fleet data was collected from RDA, November 2011 to June 2014. The DEFRA carbon factors were used to calculate the emissions from each category of vehicles, according to the fuel types. This study was conducted using distance based method using DEFRA guidelines. Distance between each interchange was considered according to the data gathered form RDA. ISO guide lines were used to develop the methodology and DEFRA guide lines for emission factors.

Total Carbon Foot Print = Total Distance Travelled (km) x Emission Factor (kgCO2e / km)

The total CFP for the expressway is 130,793.01 t CO2e for the period 2011 to 2014 and category one vehicles are the highest contributors of carbon emission (91%) in the SEW. The average GHG emission per day has increased by 47% from 2011 to 2014 and if continued so, carbon emissions on the SEW will increase to 221.2 tCO2e per day, leading to an increase of 135.77% from the base year (2011). The study showed that the emission per km between Kahathuduwa- Gelanigama interchanges, is highest among interchanges.

The annual increase of the emission by 2014 indicates that the SEW has become popular. The yearly increase of traffic can drastically reduce these advantages unless steps are taken either to reduce this trend of increasing the vehicle emission or to widen the expressway. Since emissions between Kahathuduwa to Gelanigama is higher than others, it is evident that the usage of the expressway around this area is high and authorities to consider development of road infrastructure external to the SEW in this area.

Keywords: Carbon footprint, Climate change, Southern expressway, Green house gases, Carbon dioxide

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Analysis of Diurnal Air Temperature Range Change in Sri Lanka

Jayasundara J.M.S.B.1 and Kasthuri M.M.T.D.2*

1Department of Environmental Management, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka 2Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Increased atmospheric temperature alone is an insufficient indicator to determine its effects of on agriculture and ecosystems. Diurnal Temperature Range (DTR) has been considered as an appropriate indicator. This is critical in the tropical region where DTR is higher than seasonal range and where short-day plants are grown. This study attempted to ascertain whether there is a change in DTR and its spatial and temporal patterns within Sri Lanka resulted by rapid climate change. Daily maximum and minimum temperature of stations selected from wet zone (Colombo, Nuwara Eliya,) and dry zone (Anuradapura and Batticalo) were used to calculate weekly means of DTR. According to the climatologists, rapid climate changes have occured after 1950s. Therefore, period from 1911 to 1940 and 1981 to 2010 were selected for comparison. Spatial variation was calculated by comparing average of data from dry and wet zone stations separately. Seasonal variations were calculated comparing averages of four climatic seasons. Analysis show that there is a reduction in DTR during the compared period in both zones. The highest reduction in the range was observed for the wet zone during the First Inter-monsoon season being -1.31C˚ and the lowest in the dry zone during the Northeast monsoon season being -0.01C˚. This reduction of DTR in both zones is caused by the increase of nocturnal minimum temperature rather than the daytime maximum. Nuwara Eliya demonstrates the highest DTR change in all seasons with the highest (-2.37C˚) in the Northeast monsoon season. A slight increase has been recorded in Anuradhapura (0.18C˚) and Colombo (0.01C˚) in the same season and 0.13C˚ in Colombo in the 2ndInter-monsoon season resulted by higher rate of day-time increased temperature. Higher rate of DTR change in Nuwara Eliya compared to lowland stations in both dry and wet zones suggests increased role of orography in the modification of climate with global climate change resulting increased day time laps rate. The result of reduced DTR is comparable with results of the simulated model and empirical studies conducted in USA and Australia. Further, the consequence of DTR reduction would reflect negatively on crop yields and ecosystem dynamics. Same process may be true for other tropical mountainous areas and this would be an issue requiring attention of climate change adaptation researchers. Keywords: Laps rate change, Dry zone, Wet zone, Seasonal variation, Climate change adaptation

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High Salinity Tolerance of Aedes to Breed in Brackish Waters Around the Negombo Estuary

Madushika K.K.W.T.1, Dayananda P.D.1, Fernando H.S.D.1, Fernando A.L.2, De Silva H.3, Nanayakkara L.4 and De Silva B.G.D.N.K.1*

1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2General Hospital, Negambo, Sri Lanka 3Lady Ridgway Hospital, Borella, Sri Lanka 4World Food Programme, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

In the midst of dengue control programs, a high occurrence of dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever cases around the Negombo estuary is reported at the Centre for Clinical Management of Dengue & Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever, Negombo, during April/May and Sept/Oct 2014. Although preimaginal development of Aedes-dengue vector mosquito is known to exist in fresh water environment for many years, few recent findings have revealed the possibility of Aedes breeding and immature stage development in brackish water conditions. In Negombo estuary- being a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water, we investigated the possible Aedes mosquito breeding in brackish water in and around the lagoon. Natural breeding sources were examined, and an ovitrap based study was also carried out to investigate the possible breeding, immature stage development, hatching and adult emergence in brackish water environment. The study revealed the oviposition preference (0-22 ppt), egg hatching (0-6 ppt in field conditions and 0-6 ppt in laboratory conditions for Ae.aegypti; 0-14 ppt in field conditions and 0-18 ppt in laboratory conditions for Ae. albopictus) and preimaginal development (0-6 ppt in field conditions and 0-6 ppt in laboratory conditions for Ae.aegypti; 0-14 ppt in field conditions and 0-14 ppt in laboratory conditions for Ae.albopictus) of Aedes mosquitoes. Further, the study reported the natural prevalence of preimaginal stages of Ae.albopictus in brackish water collections (2-14 ppt) around the estuary. The study confirmed the brackish water breeding of Aedes mosquitoes around the Negombo estuary. Higher salinity tolerance, compared to brackish water collections of the Northern coast, Sri Lanka was revealed. Negombo, being a fishing village and having a high population density, the study identifies the potential risk of dengue transmission in the area by providing breeding grounds for vector mosquitoes and possibly explains the high occurrence of dengue incidence around the lagoon. Further, the study suggests incorporating larvivorus fish and removing trapped receptacles in the marshy environments to intensify the control programs. Keywords: Salinity tolerance, Aedes, Negombo lagoon

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Effect of High Temperature and Low Rainfall on Quantity and Quality of Sri Lanka Dwarf Green Female Flowers That Are Used for Controlled Hybridization in Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

Amarasinghe K.G.A.P.K.1*, Ranasinghe C.S.2, Abeysinghe D.C.1 and Perera A.A.F.L.K.3

1Department of Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2Plant Physiology Division, Coconut Research Institute, , Sri Lanka 3Genetics and Plant Breeding Division, Coconut Research Institute, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Development of climate resilient hybrid coconut cultivars is an important strategy to increase the coconut yield in changing climate. To accomplish this, understanding the impacts of heat and drought stress (HTDS) on reproductive organs of coconut plays a vital role. Accordingly, this study was conducted to assess the impact of HTDS on the quantity and quality (weight and carbohydrate accumulation) of female flowers in Sri Lanka Green Dwarf (SLGD) palms that are used as female parent of hybrids CRIC65 and Kapruwana. The study mainly focused, HTDS during the four month period prior to inflorescence opening (0 stage; month of inflorescence opening, -1; 1st (embryo sac formation), -2; 2nd (meiosis) and -3; 3rd (ovule development) month prior to inflorescence opening) on quantity and quality of the female flowers. The experiment was conducted in Ambakelle and Pallama seed gardens of Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka from September 2013 to June 2015. The study revealed that water stress prevailed at -2 stage reduced female flower production by 33% - 45% compared to non- stressed flowers, irrespective of the heat and/or water stress prevailed in other development stages (p<0.05). Further, weight of the female flowers reduced by about 50% when they experienced continuous water stress during -3, -2 and -1 stages compared to non- stressed flowers. The water stress combined with heat stress at -3 stage, reduced starch content by 90% and total soluble sugars (TSS) by 33% compared to non stressed flowers. However, inflorescences experienced HTDS at 0 stage depleted starch by 65% whilst increased TSS by 26% compared to non stressed flowers. Carbohydrate content in female reproductive tissues at the receptive stage is important for growth of pollen tube after pollination. Fluctuation of the carbohydrates may impair the fertilization process. Therefore, knowledge on sensitivity of female flowers to stress is important to develop pollination strategies to minimize drought induced fruit set failures in hybrid seed production.

Keywords: Coconut inflorescence, Flower carbohydrates, Heat, Water stress

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Ex-Post Environmental and Social Review of Tsunami Involuntary Resettlement Housing Schemes in Sri Lanka

Abeysinghe U.M.* and Manatunge J.M.A.

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Disaster induced resettlement subject is widely discussed in recent past due to massive disaster events all around the world. The critics of resettlement projects usually argue that relocation creates tremendous negative impacts on communities. Whatever the cause of the displacement, some level of service provision are required to normalize and restore peoples’ lives and to put in place sustainable solutions-to compensate for losses, address vulnerabilities and rebuild lives and livelihoods and to increase the resiliency of community. The impacts caused by involuntary resettlement due to 2004 tsunami, by appraising the level of satisfaction of resettlers after 10 years of the disaster were studied. In adition, existing practices, policies and planning were reviewed to highlight issues considered in planning, implementation and practices of environmental and social elements of each selected scheme. In Sri Lanka there are 485 tsunami resettlement sites in 13 districts. Study was conducted in Southern province. Questionnaire surveys were carried out at 30 selected sites; sites were selected using pre- determined criteria. Per site 10 random recipients selected from different parts of the site were interviewed. Cerneas’ theoretical model for involuntary resettlement that highlights the intrinsic risk that cause impoverishment through displacement, as well as the ways to mitigate these risks to make vulnerable populations to resilience was used for analysis.

Beneficiary participation for the planning with the satisfactory level of 1.13 and quality of the building, satisfactory level of 1.51 were identified as crucial factors for the satisfaction of resettlers. In addition, waste water management within the site, fire and other safety facilities, interior design, dwelling size, inconvenience to livelihood are identified as most critical factors that led to dissatisfaction of beneficiaries and which led to abandonment of houses.

Keywords: Involuntary resettlement, Level of satisfaction, Tsunami

(193)

Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Assessment of Flood Risk on the Major Downstream Areas of Gombe Metropolis, Nigeria

Idris S.1* and Dharmasiri L.M.2

1Department of Geography, Federal University Kashere, Gombe State, Nigeria 2Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

The world‘s population is rapidly becoming more urbanized as the world seen a swift urban population increase. Gombe Metropolis is among the urban areas of Nigeria affected by the consequence of frequent seasonal floods leading to an unpropitious effect on the metropolitan communities. These urbanization dynamics has caused a rapid urban growth through the transformation of many different land uses into the built-up environment. As a result, flood risk in the metropolis has been rising in recent years and efforts by the people and government to mitigate the flood risk have not been fully successful. Thus, this paper attempts to examine the nature of flood risk on the major downstream areas of Gombe metropolis. Fundamentally, this study applied Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing as a tool for integration of spatiotemporal data for modeling and comparison of urban development scenarios and its consequential effect in creating flood risk on the downstream areas of Gombe Metropolis. Thus, GIS and Remote Sensing have been applied to detect land use/land cover changes, by looking at the trend in Land use/Land Cover Change from 2003 to 2014 in the Gombe Metropolis. Accordingly, the study identified Land use/Land cover types in different residential areas of the metropolis with more emphasis on the building density in each area. Finally, Gombe Metropolis Flood Risk Zones were detected and developed into Gombe Metropolis Flood Risk Map. The paper was able to reveal a significant growth of built-up environment and the occupation of floodplains in the downstream areas as the main factors for flood risk in Gombe Metropolis. However, the flood risk index established that the residential areas found on the very high to high flood risk zones include Barunde, Government Residential Areas/Gabuka, Pantami, Dawaki, and Tudun Wada. It was further revealed that the residential areas in the moderate flood risk zone are, Jankai, Jekadafari, Herwagana, Bolari/Madaki and MUAK.

Keywords: Geographic Information System, Flood risk, Gombe Metropolis, Remote sensing

(P-01)

Culture of Efficient Marine Microalgae, Their Biochemical Composition and its Antibacterial Activity against Human Pathogens

Pitchai S.*, Ramar D. and Kumaravel R.

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected] Abstract

Marine microalgae have been used for a long time as food for humans such as Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis and Nannochloropsis bacillaris and for animals in aquaculture. The biomass of these microalgae and the compounds they produce have been shown to possess several biological applications with numerous health benefits. The three marine microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis and Nannochloropsis bacillaris) were collected from Vellar estuary, South east coast of India. These three microalgae were cultivated in respective media (BG11, Conway, and Zarrouk) and estimated their biochemical composition (Protein content, Carbohydrate (CHO) analysis, Total lipids, Chlorophyll, Carotenoids and antibacterial activity. Simultaneously, these cultures were cultivated in flask containing 500 ml of respective media at lab condition for a period of one month and their growth, pH, biomass, CO2 fixation and carbon content were determined. Based on the growth rate, the pH of three microalgae in media was observed at lab condition. During maximum growth and biomass, the pH was found to be ranged between 9 and 11 for Spirulina platensis; 7 and 9 for Chlorella vulgaris; 8 and 9 for Nannochloropsis bacillaris. The Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris reached maximum growth rate and produced maximum biomass. Further, Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis attained maximum biomass in media at lab condition, also fixed highest level of carbon dioxide in media but they did not produce maximum biomass, though the growth of Nannochloropsis bacillaris were found high in media at lab condition. Among the three microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis produced highest biochemical (Protein estimation) compounds. Hence, Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis were selected as efficient microalgae for antibacterial activity against human pathogen. This study revealed that certain green algae and blue green microalgae having high growth, pH, CO2 fixation, carbon content and biochemical composition paves the way for pharmaceutical activity. Antibacterial activity against human pathogen (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Vibrio cholera, Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli) was evaluated.The crude and fractionated extraction of Chlorella and Spirulina were dissolved in different solvents like ethanol, methanol, chloroform and diethyl ether. The extracts were applied to 6 mm dry sterile disc in aliquots of 30 µL of solvent, allowed to dry at room temperature and placed on agar plates seeded with microorganisms. The bacteria were maintained on nutrient agar plates and incubated at 37˚ C for 24 hrs. Zones of growth inhibition were measured after incubation from all the extracts and tested twice at a concentration of 30 mg disc-1 was evaluated for Chlorella and Spirulina with their potential health benefits.

Keywords: Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis, Nannochloropsis bacillaris, CO2 fixation, Biochemical composition, Pharmaceutical activity

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 137 Poster Session

(P-02)

Spatial Variability Studies of Selected Soil Properties for Suitable Agricultural Land Management in Samanankulam Area

Kulendran D.* and Loganathan P.

Department of Bio-Science, Vavuniya Campus, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka * [email protected] Abstract Soil management systems play an important role in sustainable agriculture and environmental quality. Management practices have greater effect on the direction and degree of changes in soil properties. The objective of the study was to assess the spatial variability of some selected soil chemical properties within the rice field area of 2.22 km2 situated in Samanankulam area, Vavuniya DS Division, Sri Lanka. A total of 30 georeferenced soil samples were collected using random sampling method. Selected soil samples were collected at 0-30 cm depth after harvesting, at an interval of 300-400 m. CEC, EC, pH, Available Nitrogen (N), Available Phosphorus (P) and Available Potassium (K) were analyzed using Ammonium extract method, 1:2.5 Suspended method, 1:5 Suspended method, Kjeldal method, olsen method, and flame photometric method respectively. Geostatistical analyses were applied to examine the within- field spatial variability using kriged maps. Kriged maps for each property were prepared using Geostatistical software (ArcGIS 10.2 version). Ordinary kriging was employed using spherical semivariogram model. The produced spatial kriged maps showed that Samanankulam area has high CEC, non-saline EC, Neutral pH, optimum Nitrogen level (90%), low phosphorus and potassium level. Low variabilty was observed in EC, pH, Available Nitrogen, Available Phosphorus, Available Potassium and CEC showed the medium variability in the rice field. This study recommended the need for a site specific approach in managing agricultural land particularly with regard to Phosphorus and Potassium nutrient management for farmers. Keywords: Spatial variation, Soil chemical properties, Kriging, Rice field

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 138 Poster Session

(P-03)

A Proportional Study of Environmental Vigilance amongst School Students in Gampaha District and Monaragala District

Pathiratne S.1* and Amarathunga P.A.B.H.2

1ESOFT Metro Campus, Sri Lanka 2Department of Business Management, Wayamba University, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract It is our foremost obligation to conserve our environmental resources. The ultimate goal of environmental edification whether it is formal or non-formal is to engender cognizance among the denizens of a country. Ecumenical concern regarding the progressively worsening state of the environment has accentuated the desideratum for environmental inculcation. The desideratum of the hour is to make people sensitive towards nature through a vigorous programme of environmental edification. Consequently, there is a great need to forfend and preserve our environment. The role of students would go a long way in achieving such desired goals. In order to more expeditious their vigilance towards environment it is obligatory to ken what levels of cognizance they possess in these areas, and as such there are constrained number of researchers who have taken up research in the verbalized field specially non in Sri Lankan Context and hence the study. The study investigated school students' environmental vigilance in Monaragala District and Gampaha District. Nine hundred and ninety-one students were culled through the stratified desultory sampling technique from 103 schools of Uwa Province (Monaragala District) and Western Province (Gampaha District). Respondents consisted of 476 boys and 515 girls. They were assessed utilizing the Environment Vigilance Faculty Measure (EAAM) (Jha P.K, 1998). In this study it was found that there is a consequential difference in the caliber of students' environmental vigilance between two Districts. The study found that the number of Monaragala District students with average level of environmental vigilance (44.00%) is more than their counterparts in Gampaha District (14.9%). Further, it is descried that number of Gampaha District students with high caliber of environmental cognizance (85.10%) is more than Monaragala District students (56.00%). Male and Female students in this study have the same level of environmental vigilance and gender is not a factor, which affects their environmental cognizance. Male students in Gampaha District have more cognizance about conservation of soil, forest, air, conservation of human health, conservation of wild life and animal welfare of their environment than other students. In Conclusion Edifiers can play a consequential role in inculcating their students about environment which is possible only when the edifiers themselves have the obligatory level of environmental Vigilance, for this purport, the administration should introduce and enrich environmental inculcation programmers in both in and pre service teacher training programmers. Sundry co-curricular activities in schools may be inspirited to avail in developing student's environmental Vigilance. Keywords: Environment, Gampaha, Monaragala, School students, Vigilance

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 139 Poster Session

(P-04)

An Investigation of Electronic Waste Management Awareness Amongst Sri Lankan Undergraduates

Amarathunga P.A.B.H.1* and Pathiratne S.2

1Department of Business Management, Wayamba University, Sri Lanka 2ESOFT Metro Campus, Sri Lanka, * [email protected]

Abstract Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the hastily emergent quandaries of the world. Electronic appliances when become inoperable, come in the classification of Electronic waste. This incipient kind of waste is posing an earnest challenge in dumping and reprocessing in both developed and developing states. Electronic wastes are considered perilous, as certain components of some electronic products comprise ingredients that are hazardous, depending on their condition and concentration. The hazardous fragments of these materials constitute a threat to human health and environment. Electronic waste comprises toxic substances like Lead, Mercury, Cadmium and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) that have an adversative effect on human healthiness and the environment if not handled felicitously. Discarded electronic equipment and batteries if incongruously disposed can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater. Often these hazards arise due to inopportune recycling and disposal process utilized. Consequently, it is needed that people should have cognizance of Electronic waste management. In Sri Lanka several researchers have done studies in this subject, but non considering undergraduates. Objectives of research are to ascertain the cognizance regarding esse of Electronic waste, hazard of Electronic waste and Electronic waste management in undergraduates of ICT and Management streams. Survey method of research was utilized for this study and a sample of 200 students including students of ICT and Management streams was culled from different universities through Simple Arbitrary Sampling technique. The Electronic waste Management Vigilance Inventory (EWMAI) (Bala, S. and Goel, S, 2012) was acclimated to check the vigilance of the undergraduates. Findings denote that there is no consequential difference in the awareness regarding existence of Electronic waste in undergraduates of ICT and Management streams. There is consequential difference in the awareness regarding peril of Electronic waste in undergraduates of ICT stream with their Management counterparts. There is no paramount difference in the awareness regarding Electronic waste management in undergraduates of ICT and Management streams. All the undergraduates are nescient of felicitous electronic waste management.On the substratum of the results of the research it is pellucid that the current cognizance regarding the existence and perils of electronic waste are prodigiously low and exigent measures are required to address this issue. Researchers suggests that congruous Electronic waste management component should be included in the respective undergraduate curriculums and The building of consumer cognizance through public cognizance campaigns is a crucial point that can attribute to an incipient responsible kind of consumerism

Keywords: Awareness, Electronic waste, Environment, Management, Undergraduates

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 140 Poster Session

(P-05)

Ectomycorrhizal Inoculation Increases Plant Growth and Nutrient Contents of Pinus ayacahuite Ehrenberg ex Schltdl.

Arteaga-León C.1*, Pérez-Moreno J.2, Espinosa-Victoria D.3, Almaraz-Suárez J.J.2, Silva-Rojas H.V.4 and Delgado-Alvarado A.5

1Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico 2Microbiologia, Edafología, Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico 3Edafología, Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico 4Producción de Semillas, Campus Montecillo, Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico 5Campus Puebla, Mexico *[email protected]

Abstract

The international trade of natural Christmas trees generates billions of US dollars annually. Additionally, this activity has a positive social, economic and environmental impact particularly in developing countries which usually have high deforestation rates, like Mexico, through the activation of local jobs, and the contribution to carbon sequestration, aquifer recharge and reduction of soil erosion. The production of such trees in Mexico is a growing industry, amounting approximately 900,000 trees each year, predominantly of the native species Pinus ayacahuite Ehrenb. ex Schltdl. To survive, this species requires the establishment of a mutualistic symbiosis in its roots known as ectomycorrhiza, which increases nutrient mobilization from the soil to the plants. Despite its ecological, physiological and economic importance, no studies have been performed to date regarding the ectomycorrhizal inoculation effects on the growth and nutrient contents of P. ayacahuite. Because edibility is currently one of the criteria internationally used for selection of ectomycorrhizal fungi, in this work, the effect of ectomycorrhizal inoculation on the growth and nutritional content of the Mexican Christmas tree P. ayacahuite was evaluated using two edible mushrooms widely commercialized in Central Mexico (Helvella lacunosa and Hebeloma mesophaeum). Additionally, native soil from a P. ayacahuite stand was used as a comparative source of ectomycorrhizal inoculum. After two years, the ectomycorrhizal inoculation produced a beneficial effect in tree growth in terms of total dry weight and total contents of N, P, Mg and Fe. The mycorrhization percentage of the inoculated plants ranged from 41% to 59%, depending on the inoculum source. To our knowledge, this is one of the first reports on Fe mobilization in gymnosperms by ectomycorrhizal fungi. These findings demonstrate the significant biotechnological potential of inoculation with the edible ectomycorrhizal fungi H. lacunosa and H. mesophaeum for the production of P. ayacahuite plants in nurseries.

Keywords: Carbon capture, Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, Pine plantations, Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, Forest biotechnology

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 141 Poster Session

(P-06)

Contribution from Domestically Grown Forest Plants and Their Parts to the National Economy; Present Trends and Future Possibilities

Kiriella P.M.*

South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Plant Domestication refers to an evolutionary process that occurs when humans cultivate wild plants, also modifying them genetically. Over the time people have made several changes to the characteristics of plants such as wheat, corn and etc. to make them more suitable forhuman use. Sri Lanka also domesticated many Forest Plants during the past. However there have been recent cases where certain plants have been over exploited from Natural Forests for Illegal Exportation. There is a great potential that such economically important plants grown as plantation crops and be subjected to value addition before exporting. Prime objective of the study was to identify howthe exportation of domestically grown Forest Plants and their parts contribute for the improvement of the National Economy and its the present trends and future possibilities. The additional objectives were to analyze the present Illegal Forest Plant Exportation and impacts of value addition. The methodology which was used in this study included data collection through both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and interviews (expert opinion surveys). Secondary data was obtained from different Government Institutions such as Department of Forest, Sri Lanka Custom Authority and etc. Statistical Packages such as SPSS and Minitab was used and techniques such as correlation analysis, regression analysis and etc. were applied to obtain results. The results reviled that the there is a strong relationship betweenthe Total export value of Forest Product and Total value of Agricultural Exports as the Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.985. Sri Lanka’s Forestry Sector Exportation is still heavily dependent on the Agricultural Exports and if the export value of Forest Product is improved with Value Addition, it could lead to an accelerated increment in the National Income of the country. According to the results of the Expert Opinion Survey it revealed that the current rules and regulations of Exportation of Forest plants need to be revised. Domestication of Forest Plantsand their parts is a better solution to minimize the forest harvesting. Case Studies reviled that the support from the Government for Value addition is minimal and the Illegal Exportation has been improved during the past two decades mostly in Sandalwood, Wallapatta, Ebony and Kothalahimbatu to India, Japan, China and USA. Keywords: Domestically grown forest plants, Forest plant exportation, Illegal forest plant exportation, National income, Value addition

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 142 Poster Session

(P-07)

Impacts of Climate Change on Fishers and Link Between Their Responses and Well-being

Wijerathna J.A.D.M.I.* and De Silva W.N

Department of Agriultural Economics & Extension, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Fisheries ecosystems and fishing-based livelihoods are subject to a range of climate related variability like extreme weather events, changes in the precipitation pattern and storms, sea level rise and increasing coastal erosion. Small scale fishers are more sensitive and their well- being is affected. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the impacts of climate change on small scale fishers and their well-being. This was carried out in Rekawa east and west G.N divisions of the Hambantota district and sample of 75 OFRP craft owners were selected by random sampling technique. Primary data collection was done by using structured questionnaire and data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools. According to the results fishers are heavily affected by changes in the precipitation patterns, changes in storm and cyclone patterns, and increasing erosion of the coastal line. Fishermen have experienced low catches; reduce the number of fish species and decreasing. However, fishermen have taken several measures such as increase the fishing effort, use another fishing strategy (prawn fishing, use bottom-set nets), and increase the fish prices, high tendency to borrow loans or request the government support. Results observe that responses vary according to the effect of the impact. Changes in the precipitation pattern are quite predictable to fishermen but the impact is high. Fishermen are totally unaware about the sea level rise and the salt water intrusion into the inland water resources. They give priority for the material well-being while they prefer to have a good income, ownership of crafts/fishing equipment and ownership of houses. In order to maintain well-being they prone to borrow loans or ask for the government support because their fishing equipment are costly. Fishermen should have more opportunities for income diversity, information sharing, environmental awareness, formal and informal networks within the fishing community and access to technology in order to better adaptation for the climate change impacts. Keywords: Climate change, Fishers, Well-being

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 143 Poster Session

(P-08)

Habitat Preference of Gunther's Rough-Sided Snake (Aspidura guentheri) in Horagolla National Park, Sri Lanka

Jeewandara J.J.L.* and Mahaulpatha W.A.D.

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Habitat preference of endemic Guenther`s rough sided snake (Aspidura guentheri) in Sandy Soil Forest Habitat (SSFH), Muddy Soil Forest Habitat (MSFH), Stream Adjacent Forest Habitat (SAFH) & Grasslands (G) in Horagolla National Park was studied from January 2015 to December 2015. The head scalation and general habitus easily distinguish the small A. guentheri from all other Aspidura sp. in Sri Lanka. This relict burrowing species is extremely sub-fossorial. Patch sampling and quadrat sampling methods were used for the survey. Ten, 5m ×5m quadrats were marked across each of the selected habitat types and the snakes were observed within the marked quadrats. A. guentheri census was carried out in three consecutive days per month throughout the year and all snakes observed were hand captured, measured and categorized as adults, sub-adults and juveniles. During the survey, 71 individuals were recorded. Habitats selected by snakes in the four areas were significantly different in the national park, all individuals occupied areas with SSFH (85.66±4.33% of the total) and MSFH (14.33±3.2%). There was no individuals recorded in SAFH and Grassland. At the microhabitat level, snakes’ probability of occurrence was positively correlated with percentage canopy cover, relative humidity and leaf litter moisture content. Significantly higher relative humidity level existed in SSFH when compared to the other habitat types [ANOVA, F=5.65, P<0.05]. SSFH has the preferred humidity for A. guentheri during all seasons. Relatively high substrate moisture contents were recorded in second inter monsoon season in SSFH (n=16, 80.00±9.20%). There was a significant difference in canopy cover among forest habitats and grassland. Grassland had the minimum canopy cover and SSFH had the maximum canopy cover in all four seasons (ANOVA, p<0.05). The high amount of leaf litter and minimum solar radiation at this site may have created a suitable environment towards the preferability of A. guentheri population. So, the marked preference for above habitats, and the response to particular microhabitat features, emphasizes the importance of a mosaic of habitats for the conservation of this snake population. Keywords: Aspidura guentheri, Relict, Sub-fossorial, Relative humidity, Leaf litter moisture content, Conservation, Sri Lanka

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 144 Poster Session

(P-09)

Facing Challenges of the Environment in Sustaining Shrimp Farming Industry in Sri Lanka

Jayasinghe J.M.P.K. and Gamage D.G.N.D.*

Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka is increasingly facing environmental challenges where considerable numbers of those are initiated by the industry itself, affecting the sustainability of the industry. Shrimp farming provides employment opportunities to over 40,000 individuals and has become a leading nontraditional foreign exchange earner with annual production of 4000Mt. Major lagoon system in the North Western province (NWP) and Eastern province (EP) serve as main sources for water as well as receiving bodies for effluents. The present study focuses on the main environmental challenges that affect the sustainability of shrimp farming industry in Sri Lanka and how to mitigate and minimize the impact of those challenges. Review of existing information/ forecasts, series of interviews with key stakeholders, farmer societies and experts provided the base for the study. One of the main environmental challenges identified is the pollution of brackish water systems where essential water quality parameters for shrimp culture are beyond acceptable norms. Concentration of toxic metabolic end products (ammonia; 0.1-0.3 mg/L, sulfide; 0.1-0.2 mg/L, nitrite; 0.21-1.5 mg/L), high concentrations of nutrients (phosphates and nitrates), low pH levels (<4) in water and low dissolved oxygen levels (<5 ppm) in the lagoon are the major contributory factors for frequent disease outbreaks in farming systems. Reduction in 60% of mangroves, salt marshes, sensitive mud flats and formation of sand bars at sea outfalls of the lagoon systems and siltation of lagoons have been identified as the reason for reduction in environment capacity for sustaining shrimp farming industry. Construction of farms in acid sulphate soils has resulted in acidification of waters, sediments and elevated levels of iron (150-200 ppm), manganese (15-50 ppm) and aluminum (1.8-2.5 ppm) in shrimp culture environment resulting low production, slow growth, poor survival and frequent diseases in shrimp farms. Available information and forecasts indicate shifts in physical, chemical and biological environment and ecological characteristics in brackish water environment due to climate change include alterations in flushing regime, more freshwater inputs to the farming areas, changes in water chemistry, inundation of farms and extreme climatic events. Concomitant losses to the shrimp farming industry are critical in the context of global climate change. Introduction of recirculation systems to minimize water exchange, location of farms only in supra-tidal areas to avoid acidification, clearing of sand bars at river outfalls to facilitate the tidal flushing and adoption of good management practices are acceptable strategies identified during farmer/ key stake holder/expert consultations to improve the sustainability of the industry. Keywords: Shrimp farming, Environmental challenges, Sustainability, Climate change

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 145 Poster Session

(P-10)

Preveleance of Phlebotomus argentipes (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Gampaha District Sri Lanka

Dilrukshi J.A.T. and De Silva B.G.D.N.K.*

Department of Zoology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected] Abstract Leishmaniasis is an emerging vector borne disease in Sri Lanka and is transmitted by the sand fly vector. Phlebotomus argentipes is considered as the causative vector for Leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka. Sand flies were collected using a Cattle Baited Net Trap from Mirigama in Gampaha district, which is categorized under semi urban areas. Morphometric measurements such as the lengths of the eye, head, antennal flagellomeres, Sensilla chaeticum, the wing length, wing vein branching of Phlebotomus spp. were measured individually to identify the species. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to analyze the morphometric measurements of sand flies belong to genus Phlebotomus that were collected from Mirigama. According to the PCA analysis, Phlebotomus argentipes, Phlebotomus annandalei, Phlebotomus glaucus and the studied sand fly population which belonged to genus Phlebotomus from Mirigama, were separated from each other with eigen value of PC1 by 2.023 and PC2 by 1.8410. Comparatively, highly distinct clusters were obtained for P. annandalei and P. glaucus, whereas less distinct cluster was obtained for P. argentipes from combination of morphometric characteristics as loaded in PC1 and PC2 of studied sand fly population which belonged to genus Phlebotomus from Mirigama. According to PCA analysis, sand flies in Phlebotomus spp. from Mirigama in the current study belonged to the Phlebotomus argentipes. Furthermore, according to the morphometric measurements, the studied sand fly population belonged to Phlebotomus argentipes morphospecies A which is currently known as Phlebotomus argentipes var. glaucus. The ITS2 sequence of Phlebotomus argentipes var. glaucus in the studied population was 98% identical to the ITS2 sequence of Phlebotomus argentipes sibling sp. isolated from Sri Lanka that have been previously deposited in the NCBI GenBank (KF416362.1). This is the very first study that Phlebotomus argentipes var. glaucus was recorded from Gampaha district in Western Province. Based on the study, though leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka is restricted to rural areas, there is a potential to spread the disease to semi urban areas. Keywords: Leishmaniasis, Sand fly, Gampaha

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 146 Poster Session

(P-11)

Is Conservation of Valeriana mooni (Lanka Thewarala) Important?

Jayaratne R.K.1*, Hettiarachchi P.L.2 and Abeysekera A.M.3

1Bandaranaike Memorial Ayurvedic Research Institute, Maharagama, Sri Lanka 2Department of Biological Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka 3Department of Chemistry, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

Jatamansa is an important herb used in Ayurveda. According to Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, rhizome of Nardostachys grandiflora (Caprifoliaceae) is the official part recommended for Jatamansa. This species does not exist in Sri Lanka and import is also banned. In an island wide market survey carried out by the authors revealed that the material sold as Jatamansa in crude drug market of Sri Lanka is substituted by a similar looking other material ranging from 66% to even 100% in some districts. Therefore finding a suitable local substitute is essential. Valeriana mooni , belonging to the same family which is critically endangered and globally threatened, was studied to investigate its suitability as a substitute for Nardostachys grandiflora. Comparative morphological studies, organoleptic studies, preliminary phytochemical evaluation, TLC and GCMS analysis of both plant species were carried out. Morphologically and anatomically N. grandiflora and V. mooni could be easily distinguished from each other. Preliminary phytochemical analysis indicated a similarity in the constituents of both plants, the presence of alkaloids and hydrolysable tannins in all tested samples while condensed tannins, saponins and reducing sugars were not detected in both. TLC and GCMS analysis showed that, extracts of both species contained similar chemical compounds. Further, it was found that both species are rich in sesquiterpenes. The pharmacologically important principal sesquiterpene, Jatamansone, was found even in higher amount in V. mooni (25.6%) than in N. grandiflora (8.9%). This indicates that it is worthwhile carrying out further studies to explore the possibility of substituting N. grandiflora with V.mooni. Being globally threatened, V. mooni is an untouched medicinal Plant. If V. mooni could be used as a substitute for N. grandiflora , it would not only save the money annually used by the government to import Jatamansa from India but also would minimize the unwanted bad effects which might be present in manufactured drugs due to unintentional use of wrong raw material. Findings of this study support the possible medicinal usage of this plant which in turn will ensure that it will be propagated, cultivated and conserved as a natural resource. Keywords: Nardostachys grandiflora, Valeriana mooni, Jatamansa, Jatamansone

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 147 Poster Session

(P-12)

Preliminary Survey and Conservation Status of Orchids in World Heritage Site of Central Highland, Sri Lanka

Ariyarathne W.A.M.P.1, Yakandawala D.1*, Samuel M.R.2, Schneeweiss H.2 and Wijesundara S.3

1Department of Botany, Postgraduate Institute of Science,University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Faculty Center Botany, University of Vienna, Austria 3National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana, Sri Lanka * [email protected]

Abstract Orchidaceae is one of the largest Angiosperm families in the world. There are 27,135 species in 880 genera dispersed worldwide and Sri Lanka harbors 184 species occupying in 78 genera. Among these are 50 endemic species and a endemic genus. The Central highland of Sri Lanka (CHSL), a World heritage site, is a collection of sites in the hill country which includes Knuckles conservation forest (KCF), Peak wilderness protected area (PWPA) and Horton Plains national park (HPNP). These sites were visited focusing on the recorded flowering seasons and routes. Locations and habitats were documented including Global Position System data (GPS). Herbariums were collected. Identifications were done using the herbarium specimens and literature. Among the sites in CHSL, 19 species including 5 endemics in 17 genera were recorded in KCF, while 14 species with 7 endemics in 10 genera were recorded in PWPA and 13 species with 2 endemics in 11 genera were recorded in HPNP. The CHSL shelters 41 (22.3%) species with 12 (24%) endemics in 29 (37.2%) genera. Among these species, 61% are listed under various conservation categories in The National Red List; 4.9% as critically endangered, 19.5% as endangered and 36.6% as vulnerable. Further, 21.9% are nearly threatened, 12.2% are under least concerned and 2.4% fall into data deficient category. The conservation of these species requires continuous and accurate field based taxonomic surveys. It is vital to protect the biodiversity rich regions in central highlands as this World heritage site refuges, crucial and threatened members of nature. Keywords: Orchids, Sri Lanka, Central highland, Knuckles, Peak wilderness, Horton Plains

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 148 Poster Session

(P-13)

Morphometric Analysis of Deduru Oya River Basin Using Geographic Information System

Samarakoon S.M.L.D.1*, Mahendrapaala A.H.J.S.2 and Dayawansa N.D.K.3

1Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Medirigiriya, Sri Lanka 3Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Mathematically quantification of morphometric characters of a river basin is known as basin morphometry and it is helpful in identifying the effect of geology, climate, vegetation, and topography in an area under consideration.. The study was conducted to analyse those characters of Deduru Oya river basin. Study area is located in the Central Province and North Western Province of Sri Lanka covering 2846.5 km2 of land extent. A large extent of the river basin lies in IL3 Agro Ecological Zone that receives more than 889 mm of annual average rainfall. Morphometric analysis for Deduru Oya river basin was conducted using topographic maps of Sri Lanka in 1:50000 scale. The maps were geo-referenced and the drainage map of the area was created using Arc-GIS 10.2.2 software. The watershed was delineated using the drainage maps. Morphometric parameters such as linear, areal and relief aspects were used in analyzing the characters of the watershed. Stream ordering was done using the Strahler stream order method and Deduru Oya river is a 4th order stream according to the analysis. Length of streams in each order is decreasing with increasing stream order following the Hortons’ law. The stream length is at a medium range that reveals gentle slope of the area with relatively flatter gradient. According to the findings, the drainage pattern of Deduru Oya river basin is dendritic, which is a common drainage pattern that can be found in river basins in Sri Lanka. It is observed that the drainage basin is having a flat to rolling basin structure considering the Bifurcation ratio which is in the range of 2-3. River basin is strongly elongate in shape and the geologic material is highly permeable which lead to lower the discharge of runoff because of the circularity ratio of the basin is a smaller value that equals 0.33. Foam factor value which is 0.34 confirms the elongation shape of the basin further and reveals that basin will have a flatter peak of flow for longer duration. The study reveals that the Deduru Oya river basin is having an elongated, flatter river basin where the flood flows can be managed easily compare to circular basins. Keywords: Deduru Oya, River morphometric characteristics, GIS, Topographic maps, Watershed delineation

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 149 Poster Session

(P-14)

Relationship between Water Parameters and Invertebrate Species Richness: A Comparative Study in Organic and Inorganic Paddy Field Ecosystems in Awlegama, Kurunegala, Sri Lanka

Koralegedara K.G.I.D.1*, Diyawadana D.M.N.1, Mowjood M.I.M.2 and Karunarathna A.K.2

1Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Disturbances that are occurred in agricultural system have significant effects towards the diversity of its environment. With the agricultural intensification the use of chemical inputs for paddy cultivation has increased in past few years in Sri Lanka. Ultimately it was affected to health of its biotic and abiotic environment. Therefore the intention of this study was to find the relationship between water quality parameters and invertebrate species richness in two paddy field ecosystems, one was organically managed (OF) and other one was inorganically managed (IF) which is located in Awlegama, Kurunegala, Sri Lanka. Indeed, data were collected in maha season 2015/2016 in relation to invertebrate species richness and water quality parameters including pH, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Salinity and Ammonia for both farming systems. Water sampling was done in two weeks interval from randomly selected five locations in two farming fields. Different standard sampling techniques were used to sampling of invertebrates. All the water quality parameters were significantly differ (P<0.05) in two farming systems. Nevertheless species richness in invertebrates was significantly (P<0.05) high in OF system. The result of multiple regression model showed that except TDS all other water quality parameters shows positive correlation with species richness except gastropod and crustacea in OF. During the period of study only species that are belong to insecta and reptilian was able to find from IF system. Multiple regression model shows positive correlation of species richness in both taxonomic groups with all water quality parameters in IF system. Therefore species that are belongs to those two taxonomic groups can be used as predictors for water quality status. Therefore it is very important to maintain water quality in paddy field environment in an acceptable level, thus the richness of beneficial species can be increased, reducing the dependency of inorganic inputs. Keywords: Invertebrates, Inorganic, Organic, Species richness, Water quality

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 150 Poster Session

(P-15)

Development of Degradable Polymer Composite Using Cellulose Based Materials

Chathuranga W.K.K.K., Shashiranga M.I. and Samarasekara A.M.P.B.*

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Petrochemical-based polymer technology has created a lot of benefits to society. One of these benefits is the use of plastics in packaging applications. The most important factors determining rapid growth in the use of plastics in packaging industries are convenience, safety, low price and good aesthetic qualities. However, petrochemical-based polymers are produced from petroleum based and after the usage discarded into the environment, ending up as ungradable waste. Increasing ungradable wastes are significantly disturbing and damaging the environment. One solution for this is incineration. Incineration of these wastes produces large amounts of carbon dioxide that will contribute to global warming. For these reasons, through the world today, the development of biodegradable materials with controlled properties has been a subject of great interest. Most of the biodegradable polymers are based on natural polymers. Cellulose is one of natural polymers found in nature. Objective of this research is to develop a biodegradable composite material using cellulose and hemicellulose from sugarcane waste with yeast as a degradation enhancing enzyme. In this research, cellulose and hemicellulose was extracted from sugarcane waste. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy was used to characterized the extracted materials. Low density polyethylene was mixed with 4% wt. cellulose–hemicellulose and yeast in a laboratory scale internal mixer by varying yeast concentration 0.5% wt. to 2% wt. Test samples were prepared by hydraulic press. Soil burial, tensile and water absorption tests were conducted to evaluate the degradability of the product. According to the experimental results, 2% wt. yeast containing sample showed the maximum degradation (1.1% weight loss) after 8 weeks in soil. Additionally, tensile strength and percentage elongation reduced to 90% and 50% respectively after soil burial test. These are the clear evidence for the degradation of the product. This product can be used as a packaging material to minimize the waste disposal problem in future.

Keywords: Cellulose, Sugarcane, Yeast, Biodegradable, Polymers

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 151 Poster Session

(P-16)

Variation of Dissolved Oxygen, Temperature and pH with Respect to Depth along a Cross Section of the Padaviya Reservoir, Sri lanka

Siriwardhana C.1, Cooray P.L.A.T.2* and Liyanage S.S.L.W.1

Abstract

Water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, and pH are some of the most important physicochemical parameters in aquatic systems that significantly influence the overall quality of water. Only a limited number of studies have been carried out to study the changes of above mentioned parameters with respect to depth (depth profiles) of reservoirs in Sri Lanka. The depth profiles of DO, temperature and pH in the Padaviya Reservoir in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka were studied 26th March 2016. The profiles were investigated at five different sampling sites along a cross section which started from 8°48'57.63"N, 80°45'38.79"E and ended in 8°47'52.41"N, 80°46'21.75"E. Field portable DO and pH probes equipped with a 20 m cable were used for data collection. The probes were deployed to the water body and data was collected at two feet depth intervals from the surface. The vertical DO profile indicated that the amount of oxygen in water decrease with increasing depth of the water column. Similar observations were also made for temperature and pH profiles. DO profiles showed high oxygen concentrations from surface of the reservoir to a depth of approximately 16 feet and then, decreased rapidly from approximately 4 mg L-1 to 0.5 mg L-1 in less than a foot. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis suggested that there is a parallel relation between depth and DO. Temperature and pH data also indicated a similar distribution; however, the changes were not extreme as for DO. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) showed that there is significant difference between the temperature and DO (P<0.05) and also with pH and DO (P<0.05). All these data indicated that the surface of the reservoir is rich in oxygen and the benthic zone is anoxic. The DO and temperature patterns suggest that the Padaviya Reservoir is stratified. Lake stratifications have been observed and extensively studied in other countries; however, the stratified lakes are usually hundreds of meters deep. In this research, lake stratification was observed in a very shallow reservoir which is only 10 meters deep. The observations made along the studied cross section are presented in the following figure. The research is still in progress to understand the dissolved oxygen distributions in the Padaviya and other reservoirs in Sri Lanka. Keywords: Dissolved oxygen, pH, Temperature, Padaviya reservoir

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 152 Poster Session

(P-17)

Climate Change Induced Adaptation Strategies by Paddy Farmers in Anuradhapura District

Thirumarpan K.*, Herath H.M.L. and Thiruchelvam T.

Department of Agricultural Economics, Eastern University of Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Climate change is a global challenge and a serious threat requiring urgent response from all sectors. Since the agricultural sector in Sri Lanka is most vulnerable to climate change, a thorough understanding of adaptive measures is important for formulating effective policy decisions. This study provides an overview of the status of climate change and adaptation in the paddy sector in Anuradhapura District. Proportionate sampling was done in five high vulnerability D. S. divisions to climate change and total of 100 paddy farmers were interviewed. Thirty five samples were collected from Thambuththegama D. S Division, 30 samples from Mihinthale D. S Division and 10 samples from Nuwaragampalatha East and Nuwaragampalatha Central D.S. Divisions. Fifteen samples were collected from Thalawa D.S Division. Secondary data was collected from Department of Meteorology, Sri Lanka. Descriptive statistics, frequency distribution and t-tests were done. Farmers were asked to assess different adaptation strategies by using the four-point rating scale and based on that an adaptation index was estimated. Results revealed that 36% of the farmers had the education up to tertiary level. 72% of respondents had heard about the term “climate change”. 54% of respondents perceived rainfall being abnormally increasing these years than before and 53% perceived that temperature has been fluctuating. Results of the meteorological data revealed that an increasing trend in annual rainfall from 2004-2014 in Anuradhapura district and maximum temperature was increasing and the minimum temperature was decreasing. 87% of respondents believed that the negative effects of climate change motivated them to change their farming practices. Planting improved rice varieties such as new paddy that offer farmers higher yields instead of the traditional breeds, shifting to shorter cycle crop varieties which can take short periods of time like three months from planting to harvesting; shifting to drought tolerant crops and varieties; Use of supplementary reservoir for water storage; and insuring farm against risk were some of the adaptation strategies used by farmers. The relative importance of adaptation strategies to climate change was calculated and it was found that by insuring farm against risk was ranked first followed by use of supplementary reservoir for water storage as the second-ranked adaptation strategy. T test results showed a significant difference (p<0.01) in the total amount paddy production among those who had chosen to use traditional and cultural knowledge and those who didn’t choose. It is recommended that government must ensure that a climate change sensitive program is established in paddy cultivation that can be effective in future climate change scenarios. Keywords: Adaptation, Adaptation Strategy index, Climate change

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 153 Poster Session

(P-18)

Herbicide Control of Potential Invasive Aquatic Plant: Ludwigia sedioides

Debarawatta R.D.N.*, Yakandawala K. and Attanayake D.P.S.T.G.

Department of Horticulture and Land Scape Gardening, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Ludwigia sedioides is a naturalized alien ornamental aquatic plant in Sri Lanka. Though this plant has not been identified as an invasive plant elsewhere in the world, due to its rapid spread and aggressive nature. It has been identified as a potential invasive alien plant in Sri Lanka. According to previous studies, even a 1 cm fragment is capable of regenerating into a new plant. Therefore, mechanical control can accelerate further spread. Hence the present study was conducted to determine the efficacy of herbicides to control L. sedioides. Top cuttings of 6 cm in length were grown in containers which were arranged in completely randomized design with 5 replicates. Each replicate consisted with 20 plants. Two months after planting, viz., MCPA 60 600 g/ L (45–56 ml/10 L of water, 20–23 ml/10 L of water), Glyphosate 360 g/L (100-125 ml/10 L of water, 50-64 ml/10L of water) , Solid Pretilachlor 300 g/L (70 ml/16 L of water, 35 ml/16 L of water) and Bispyribac-sodium 100 g/ L SC (7.5-10 ml/10 L of water, 3.25-5 ml/10 L of water) were sprayed at lower and higher (recommended) concentrations of each herbicides and tap water was applied as the control. Ninety days after application, mortality was recorded. Data were analyzed by Minitab 16 package. The highest mortality of 97% and 82% respectively were recorded in MCPA 60 with higher and lower concentrations. The mortality was not significantly different (P<0.05) between higher and lower concentration. However, the mortality rate with MCPA 60 at the higher concentration was significantly high compared with other treatments. Hence, MCPA 60 recommended concentration (50 ml/10 L) could be used to manage L. sedioides. As regrowth was recorded in at least one replicate, multiple applications are recommended. At present, L. sedioides is mostly restricted to isolated marshy patches in the wet zone and there is no potential risk of downstream contamination due to herbicide application. Therefore, herbicides could be recommended to control the further spread over mechanical removal which could lead to fragmentation and regeneration. Keywords: Aquatic plant, Herbicide control, Ludwigia sedioides, Potential invasive alien

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 154 Poster Session

(P-19)

Notes on New Records of Some Threatened Angiosperms of Sri Lanka

Rajatewa P.M.*

Environmental Consultancies, Education and Rehabilitation Organization, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract

According to The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka, 44% of Sri Lanka’s native angiosperms are nationally threatened (belongs to Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable categories). For this calculation 184 species were totally excluded due to none existence. Among the totally excluded species, there are 5 Extinct species, 2 species Extinct in the wild and 177 Critically Endangered (possibly extinct) species. However, after publishing the National Red List 2012, some of the extinct and possibly extinct plant species (approximately 35 species) have been re-recorded by several plant scientists but only a few of them were cited in the literature. This paper describes re-record of two possibly extinct plant species (Combratum acuminatum and Boehmeria rugosissima) and new records of two critically endangered plant species (Ailanthes thrypsa and Geranium nepalense), one endangered species (Vatica paludosa) and four Data Deficient species (Sterisopermum suaveolens, Caesalpinia sappan, Solanum erianthum and Solanum mauritianum) with specimen evidence for two species and photographic evidence for all the species found accidentally during studies on flora and/or excursion surveys. When considering the possibility of re-recording the so-called extinct and possibly extinct plant species, the abundance calculations of nationally threatened angiosperms are not correct. Thus it is suggested to include both extinct and possible extinct species also in the aforesaid abundance calculations. Further, as the present evaluation system of threatened category of indigenous flora is not at a satisfactory level and the real situation is not revealed, building a considerably large national workforce with plant lovers who can extend their support through world wide web is also suggested. Keywords: Sri Lanka, Extinct species, Critically Endangered , Combratum acuminatum, Boehmeria rugosissima

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 155 Poster Session

(P-20)

An Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology of Mannar Island of Sri Lanka: An Overview

Katupotha K.N.J.1* and Singhakumara B.M.P.2

1Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka 2Department of Forestry & Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Mannar Island is a Late Pleistocene and Holocene coral island covering the Miocene limestone beneath, which has evolved together with the island chain named as the Rawana Bridge (Adams Bridge) or Mannar Island, located between Sri Lanka and India. It extends between 08058’35”N - 09006’04”N latitudes and between 79039’19”E - 79055’40”E longitude. The ‘Rawana Bridge’ emerges at the neap tide level and submerges at the high tide level. The curved shape and outward appearance of the island are a result of wind direction of the southwest and northeast monsoons and other climatic factors in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. This Island, which is about 126 km2 in extent was selected for the detailed study of coastal geomorphology. Field investigations for the identification of coastal geomorphological features in Mannar Island were conducted in four Stages: from 6th to 7th January, 2012 as Stage I, from 30th April to 1st of May 2012 as Stage II, from 15th to 16th September 2015 (Stage lll, on both sides, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay in March 2016 as Stage 1V). In addition to field investigations, topographical sheets to the scale of 1:50,000 and 1:10,000 were used (and also Google Earth path and line ruler). Readings taken in situ, for the latitude and the longitude using GPS (GARMIN Etrex) were compared with Google readings for greater accuracy. Landforms such as beaches, beach ridges, well-developed sand dunes, mud flats including ebb and flood mud flats, marshes, mangrove swamps, raised terraces, water creeks and sand spit are the salient features in the island. Those landforms could be clearly traced by integrating the landform formation, its distribution and evolution sequences with the monsoon wind patterns and sea level fluctuations that occurred since the Holocene Epoch. Most of these have been exploited by men or utilized for cultivation, building construction and for other purposes. Therefore, there is an urgent need to preserve and manage the remaining landforms for posterity. Keywords: Coastal geomorphology, Intact features, Holocene Epoch, Reserve and manage, Posterity

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 156 Poster Session

P-21

Avifaunal Diversity of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya: Concept of Botanic Gardens for the Conservation of Avifauna

Galappaththi H.G.S.S.* and Wijesundara C.S.

Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya (07°16' 2.2800"N, 080°35' 43.3680"E, 482-516 m above sea level) is located in the central hills of Sri Lanka. It spans over an area of 59.5 ha, and is located close to Gannoruwa Forest Reserve and within the municipal limits of the Kandy city. The total area comprises of various vegetation types of which almost all are modified or newly cultivated. The number of plant species under cultivation is over 4000. The land also includes freshwater bodies such as lakes, ponds and riverine habitats. These habitats support a large variety of birds. However, previously no systematic studies have been carried out on the diversity of avifauna within the botanic gardens. Hence, the objective of the present study was to measure the avifaunal diversity in the Royal Botanic Gardens. This study was conducted for six weeks from December 2015-January 2016. Data were collected using line transects and point counts. Sampling was done during the daytime with the peak observation hours between 0700-0900 h and 1500-1600 h which represent times during which birds are most active. Despite the small area and the anthropogenic impacts, the present study recorded 56 bird species belonging to 34 families. Out of this, four species (7.14%) were endemic species, whereas 14 (25%) were endemic subspecies. Furthermore, four (7.14%) were restricted range species. The study site had a Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’) of 3.45, which represents a comparatively higher diversity. The bird community comprises of frugivores, insectivores, seed eaters, piscivores, nectarivores, carnivores and omnivores. This indicates a high diversity in food habits associated with various plant communities in the garden. Therefore with the availability of food sources and habitats, the botanic gardens can sustain a rich community of avifauna, and hence this justifies the conservational value of this important site. Keywords: Avifauna, Botanic gardens, Diversity, Anthropogenic impacts, Conservation

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 157 Poster Session

(P-22)

Diversity and abundance of invasive plant species in Samanala Wewa Reservoir area in Belihuloya, Sri Lanka

Saputhanthri S.* and Keeragala G.

Department of Natural Resources, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Samanala Wewa is a large tank that is primarily used for Hydrolic power generation. It is located in the Udawalawe basin, it was built at the confluence of the Walawe River and the Belihuloya a location 400 m about mean sea level. It is producing 405 GWh of energy annually. It is notable for a large leak on its right bank and water from the leak now produce two thirds of the water issued by the reservoir for agriculture in downstream area. Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) are Non-native Plant species which have been colonized natural areas and dominate the vegetation composition of colonized areas. Impact of IAPS caused to reduce the plant diversity in this area. The aim of this study was to conduct a preliminary investigations to identify IAPS and there abundance in the study area. Field data collection techniques (identification of Dicotyledons: leaves arrangement/ type/ shape/ margin/ color/ venation and texture of leaves) were used for the identification of the IAPS. Prior to sampling, a ground survey was conducted in order to identify different habitats, grassland, dry mixed evergreen forest and Forest plantation within the surrounding area of the reservoir. Ten sampling sites (each 40×40 m) were selected. Coordinates of each site was marked using Global Positioning Systems. Eleven invasive plant species were recorded from the survey and most of them were observed in dry mixed evergreen forests in the reservoir land area. The recorded species and their abundance were as follows. Lantana camara (17%), Sphagneticola trilobata (7%), Tithonia macrophylla (12%), Megathyrsus maximus (12%), Mikinia micrantha (9%), Miconia calvescens (9%), Mimosa pigra (21 %), Epipremnum aureum (5%), Ageratina riparia (4%), Hypochoeris radicta (2%), and Chromolaena odorata (2%).This would be the first step to control the spreading of IAPS in this area and to make the public and researchers aware about IAPS and their harmful effect on Samanala Wewa reservoir and it’s useful to protect the irrigation system of Udawalawe basin. Keywords: Samanala Wewa, Invasive plants, Habitats, Abundance

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 158 Poster Session

(P-23)

Conservation Strategies of Medicinal Mangroves

Prabhu S.A., Dinesh P. and Ramanathan T.*

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, India *[email protected]

Abstract Mangroves are woody and salt tolerant plants grow between tropical and sub-tropical region (land and sea). Mangroves provide a unique ecosystem for variety of aquatic animals including oyster, fish, algae, barnacles, sponges, bryozoans and other aquatic organisms. Recently number of microbes was recorded from the coastal zones. Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. Decomposed materials of mangrove may add nutrients to the bottom feeders for maintaining the food web. Mangroves have tremendous commercial as well as medicinal application especially in folk medicine. Biomedical, toxicological and pharmacologically important secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids have been recorded from mangroves. In recent days, mangroves disappearing rapidly from our environment for number of purposes including building construction, furniture, fuel etc. Mangrove conservation is needed for biodiversity maintenance, scientific research and education, fisheries support and coastal protection..

Keywords: Mangroves, Biodiversity, Medicine

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 159 Poster Session

(P-24)

Determination of Descriptors for a Group of Amine and Amide Compounds in order to Estimate Their Distribution Levels in Natural Environmental Systems

Ariyasena T.C.1* and Poole C.F.2

1Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka 2Wayne State University, Detroit, United States of America *[email protected]

Abstract Determination of concentration levels of organic chemicals in various environmental compartments is considered an important procedure by many government and industrial organizations. Evaluation of chemical levels in environmental systems plays a major role in environmental risk assessment procedures. Every year, nitrogen-containing organic chemicals are released to the environment in large quantities. Therefore, the determination of their concentration levels in environmental systems is vital as most of the nitrogen containing chemicals is toxic to both terrestrial and aquatic life. Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) listings contain more than 12,000 discrete organic chemicals including nitrogen compounds, which lack effect or exposure assessment data. The lack of data is caused by the limitation of human, technical, and economical resources needed to access the natural environmental systems. The impact of this problem is severe in developing countries such as Sri Lanka, due to the limited economical resources. The use of quantitative structure property relationships (QSPR) to estimate environmental and physicochemical endpoint values is identified as a solution to this problem. Abraham’s Solvation parameter model given below is used to evaluate the solute properties of a group of amine and amide compounds in environmental systems. Solvation parameter model for the transfer of compounds between two condensed phases is: log SP = c + eE + sS + aA + bB + vV.

In the above equation, SP is a free energy related solute property, and c is a system constant independent of the solute property. Lower case letters are the system constants, which describe complementary interactions of the system with the solute. The upper case letters are the solute descriptors which describe the complementary interactions of the solute with the system. The descriptor values for 2,4-dinitro aniline were assigned such that the obtained values possess the minimum standard deviation. In order to assign the descriptor values, the retention factors were measured in several gas chromatography and liquid chromatography stationary phases including HP 5, SPB Octyl, RTX-440, RX 5 Sil MS, RTX OPP, Sunfire C18 etc., which have different polarities. The relevant experiments were carried out at various temperatures ranging from 60-240 ° C. Partition coefficients were determined in various liquid-liquid partition systems. Then the descriptor values were assigned using Solver algorithm in Excel. The assigned descriptor values possess minimum error. In the future, similar procedure will be developed to determine the descriptor values for another group of amine and amide compounds under consideration. The assigned descriptor values will be applied to determine the partition levels of selected nitrogen containing organic chemicals in natural environmental systems.

Keywords: Abraham’s Solvation parameter model, Descriptor value, Gas chromatography, Liquid chromatography

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 160 Poster Session

(P-25)

Diversity and Present Conservation Status of Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) of a Privately Owned Hotel Forest at Yahalathenna Kandy, Sri Lanka

Perera P.M.*and Somarathne T.T.P. Hotel Tree of Life, Kandy, Sri Lanka *[email protected]

Abstract Dragonflies and Damselflies are predatory flying insects of the order Odonata. The order Odonata is further divided into two suborders namely Zygoptera (damselflies) and Anisoptera (dragonflies). They are ecologically valued as predators, due to control populations of insects’ pest. As known, there are about 5700 discovered species of dragonflies present in the world, while 120 species (12 families) are recorded in Sri Lanka. From the known species, 48 species (40%) are endemic to the country. The study of dragonfly diversity was undertaken from October 2014 to June 2016 within 65 acre Hotel forest premises. Situated in Barigama (7°31’83.69”N 80°57’74.22”E) in Kandy district, Central Province Sri Lanka, the Hotel has a 63 acre secondary hill country forest with a significant flora and fauna diversity that is incomparable to any hotel in Sri Lanka. Observation visits were carried out by visual encounter survey method during the sampling period (0800h to 1600h) as a part of overall biodiversity assessment in the Hotel. Many of the sightings were on dedicated nature walk visits done with guest to observe biodiversity in the Hotel. Recordings of random species were also documented then and there, with images taken at sight. The observations done were assisted by habitat diversification in the Hotel including wetland area, the forestland, shrub jungle, artificial pond sites, rock boulder area and along the stream that runs parallel to the boundary of Hotel. 21 species from 14 genera belong to 8 families were found during the study period. 8 species from the recorded list are endemic. Out of the total, 9 species (42.8 %) are listed in the Threatened category according to National red List of Sri Lanka 2012. Critically Endangered Bine's Shadowdamsel (Drepanosticta bine), Endangered Globe Skimmer (Pantala flavescens) Sri Lankan Green’s Gem (Libellago greeni) Pale-faced Forestskimmer (Cratilla lineata calverti) Sri lankan Yerbury's Elf (Tetrathemis yerburii) and Vulnerable Fiery Emperor (Anax immaculifrons) Sri Lankan Adam’s Gem (Libellago adami) Spine-tufted Skimmer (Orthetrum chrysis) Black-tipped Demoiselle (Vestalis apicalis nigrescens) were recorded in the Hotel. The final outcome of the one and half year (ongoing) program was launched as a part of the wetland day 2016 in the Hotel Biodiversity poster series. The species richness was assumed to be due to the habitat diversification in the area which is strictly protected by the Hotel. Difference in terrain, moisture, water quality, low disturbance, shade and also due to artificial aquatic habitats that was created by the Hotel. This led to guest attraction; which made the way to promote another least known species to the tourist. The outcome of the assessment had favorable comments from the management, for hotel promotion and also from the guests as an innovative outreach to highlight Sri Lankan biodiversity. Keywords: Odonata, Critically Endangered, Bine’s Shadowdamsel, Drepanosticta bine, Wetland day, Hotel Tree of Life, Threatened, Sri Lankan biodiversity, Endemic

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 161 Author Index

Author Page number Abeysingha N.S. 98 Abeysinghe D.C. 63, 134 Abeysinghe L.S. 60, 62 Abeysinghe U.M. 135 Abeywickrama L.M. 43 Afaf B.D.H. 38 Amarasekera H.S. 75 Amarasinghe D.A.S. 88 Amarasinghe K.G.A.P.K. 134 Amarasiri M.C.K. 103 Anantharaman P. 118, 119 Anil A.C. 31 Ariyarathne W.A.M.P. 148 Ariyasena T.C. 160 Ariyawansha K.T. 44 ArjuneV. 108 Arulananthan K. 16 Asanthi H.B. 24 Atapattu N.S.B.M. 43 Athapattu B.C.L. 49, 51, 110, 112 Attanayake D.P.S.T.G. 154 Attanayake R.N. 72 Bandara J.M.S.J. 83 Bandara K.R.V. 66,68 Bandara N.J.G.J. 53, 55, 56, 57 Bandara W.A.R.T.W. 89, 91 Bandara W.B.M.A.C. 44 Bandara W.M.P. 116 Botejue W.M.S. 15 Chandrasekara W.U. 4, 5 Chandrasiri G.N. 128 Chandrasiri P.H.S.P. 21 Chathuranga W.K.K.K. 151 Chinthaka S.D.M. 86, 87, 114 Clothier B.E. 100 Cooray M.G. 30 Cooray P.L.A.T. 107, 113, 152 Dadigamuwa P.N. 53 Dahanayaka D.D.G.L. 16 Dahanayake T. 121 Damunupola J.W. 65 Dananjanie G.P.G.Y. 10 Danushika U.A.A.G. 57 Daraniyagala S.R.A.S. 72 Dawa D. 108 Dayananda P.D. 133

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 162 Author Index

Author Page number Dayarathna G.C.R. 112 Dayawansa N.D.K. 149 De Alwis S.M.D.A.U. 19 De Croos M.D.S.T. 70 De Silva B.G.D.N.K. 101, 133, 146 De Silva H. 133 De Silva P.K.C. 112 De Silva P.M.C.S. 20 De Silva S.M.S. 5 Debarawatta R.D.N. 154 Deraniyagala S.P. 113 Dhanushika P.T.N. 85 Dharmadasa R.M. 63 Dharmarathne W.D.S.C. 21 Dharmaratne P.G.R. 97 Dharmasena M.C.M. 30 Dharmasiri L.M. 136 Dias A.A.P. 71 Dilani P.V.D. 105 Dilanjani H.U.K. 64 Dilhari G.K.A.L. 35 Dinesh P. 73, 159 Dissanayake D.C.T. 26 Diyawadana D.M.N. 150 Diyes G.C.P. 28 Dunuwila P. 81 Ediriweera R.T. 107 Egodage D.P. 88 Ekanayake E.M.M.S. 46 Ekanayake N.D. 19 Fernando A.L. 133 Fernando G.M.T.S. 129 Fernando H.S.D. 133 Fernando I.A.A.M. 116 Fernando K.M.E.P. 71 Fernando T.H.P.S. 67, 74 Gabadage D.E. 15 Galappaththi H.G.S.S. 157 Gamage S. 50 Gamage D.G.N.D. 145 Godakumbura P. 103 Goto N. 36, 81 Gunathilake A.M.K.H. 4 Gunawardana W.W.D.A. 43 Gunawardena M.P. 33 Gunawardena U.A.D.P. 126, 127, 128

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 163 Author Index

Author Page number Guruge P.S.R. 123 Halwatura R.U. 95 Hammer S. 98 Hansika J.G.C. 70 Henkanaththegedara S.M. 15 Herath H.M.L. 153 Herath W.N. 130 Hernandez-Santiago F. 6 Hettiarachchi D.S. 69 Hettiarachchi P.L. 22, 147 Hewawasam H.U.C.P. 83 Hiradate S. 100 Hyde K.D. 11 Idris S. 136 Idroos F.S. 90 Illesinghe S.D. 126 Iskandar M. 38 Jain N. 37 Jayakody A.N. 50 Jayalakshmi S. 92, 93 Jayalath H.T.S. 88 Jayaneththi J.P.H.U. 61, 98 Jayapraba.J. 8 Jayaratne C.T. 124 Jayaratne R.K 147 Jayasinghe A. 24 Jayasinghe R.A. 54, 94 Jayasinghe J.M.P.K. 145 Jayasinghearachchi H.S. 85 Jayasinghe-Mudalige U.K. 123 Jayasiri H.B. 16, 27 Jayasundara J.M.S.B. 132 Jayasundara R.M. 18 Jayasundera A.C.A. 65 Jayasuriya K.M.G.G. 17 Jayathilake T.A.H.D.G. 20 Jayathunga G.L. 110 Jayawardana D.T. 58, 117 Jayawardhane S.G.R. 99 Jayaweera C.D. 84 Jayaweera M.W. 56 Jayaweera P.M. 42 Jinadasa S.U.P. 26 Kalaiselvi V. 93 Kandapola C.S. 78 Kanthika W.A.L. 30

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 164 Author Index

Author Page number Karawita K.V.D.H.R. 34 Kariyawasam I.U. 13, 25 Karunarathna D.M.S.S. 15 KarunarathnaA.K. 49, 150 KarunarathnaA.V.A. 11 Karunarathne U.T. 48 Karunaratne M.M.S.C. 86, 87 Kasthuri M.M.T.D. 132 Katupotha K.N.J. 156 Kawamoto K. 100 Keeragala G. 158 Khadharsha K. 7 Khan S.A. 7 Kodithuwakku K.H.A.D.D.M. 10 Komatsu T. 100 Koralegedara K.G.I.D. 150 Kosgollegedara E.J. 98 Kosvinna K.T. 109 Kumara H.I.G.C. 10 Kumara M. 60 Kumarathunga U. 122 Kumaravel R. 136 Kuroki H. 100 Kuruppuarachchi K.A.J.M. 30, 130 Lakshmi J.W.P.H. 63 Lanka M.P.D. 76 Liyanage G.Y. 45 Liyanage J.A. 115 Liyanage S.S.L.W. 107, 152 Lokupitiya E. 109 Lyla P.S. 7 Madawala H.M.S.P. 17 Madawala M.B. 15 Madurapperuma B.D. 131 Madusanka R.M.T.D. 117 Madushika K.K.W.T. 133 Mahagamage M.G.Y.L. 114 Mahaulpatha W.A.D. 21, 144 Mahendrapaala A.H.J.S. 149 Mallawaarachchi M.A.G.D. 20 Manage P.M. 45, 46, 52, 90, 101, 114 Manamendra P.P. 47 Manatunge J.M.A. 135 Manawaduge C.G. 23 Mandakini L.L.U. 55 Mannapperuma N. 53, 55

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 165 Author Index

Author Page number Mapa M.H.M.N. 65 Marasinghe M.M.K.I. 31 Marks S. 84 Martínez-Reyes M. 6 Mason K. 100 Moragoda N. 104 Mowjood M.I.M. 150 Muller K. 100 Munasinghe M. 43 Murugaiyan K. 41 Muthu M.S. 8,9 Najim M.M.M. 104 Nanayakkara C.M. 48, 105 Nanayakkara L. 133 Narayanan V. 39 Navaratne C.M. 102 Nayanakantha N.M.C. 76 Nayanthika I.V.K. 58 Newsome D. 2 Nijamdeen T.W.G.F.M. 28 Niroshani S.L.N. 110 Nuryadin F.R. 38 Pabasara M.G.T. 34 Packiyanathan R. 14 Padumadasa C. 66,68 Palliyaguru N.P.L. 42 Pathirana C.D.K. 53 Pathirana S. 60 Pathiratne S. 139, 140 Peiris V.R.S. 79, 131 Peiris L.D.C. 20, 66, 68 Perera A.A.F.L.K. 134 Perera A.G.W.U. 86, 87 Perera D.H. 115 Perera G.A.A.U. 110, 112 Perera G.D.T. 29 Perera G.L.E.P. 112 Perera H.K.M. 112 Perera K.K.W. 56 Perera N. 3 Perera P.K.P. 25, 34, 121 Perera P.M. 161 Perera M.T.C. 55 Perez-Moreno J. 6 Periyasamy C. 118, 119 Pethiyagoda P.D.R.S. 32

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 166 Author Index

Author Page number Pitchai S. 39, 40, 137 Piyathilaka M.A.P.C. 101 Poole C.F. 160 Prabhu S.A. 159 Prakash S.L. 121 Prasad J.A.C. 27, 32 Prasadi H.L.A. 54, 94 Prashantha M.A.B. 103 Premasiri R. 120 Priyadarshani W.N.C. 27 Rajasuriya A. 1 Rajatewa P.M. 155 Ramanathan T. 73, 159 Ramar D. 40, 137 Ranagalage M.M. 64 Ranasinghe C.S. 134 Ranasinghe D.M.H.K. 116 Ranasinghe O.R. 91 Ranatunga R.R.M.K.P. 18, 27, 31, 32 Ranaweera T. 130 Ranjan K.R.H.M. 123 Rathnappriya R H.K. 102 Rathnayake A.U. 10 Rathnayake R.M.D. 63 Rathnayake U. 102 Rev. Wimalaratana W. 124 Rodrigo V.H.L. 81 Rohini R. 92 Rupasinghe C.P. 44 Rupasinghe S.K.L.S. 57 Samarakoon S.M.D.T. 82 Samarakoon S.M.L.D. 149 Samaranayake T.B.D.T. 111 Samarasekara A.M.P.B. 88, 151 Samarawickrama U.I. 106 Sambandam R.T. 125 Sameera P.A.K. 110 Samuel M.R. 148 Sandarekha H.M.S.S. 110 Saputhanthri S. 158 Sathya A.C.R. 8, 9 Schneeweiss H. 148 Senadheera D.K.L. 96 Senanayake D.M.N. 50 Senevirathna A.M.W.K. 76 Senevirathne W.I.N.S. 22

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 167 Author Index

Author Page number Seneviratne G. 17 Shabbir S. 120 Shashiranga M.I. 151 Silva M.K.R. 67 Silva K.D.C.C.J. 55 Simpson R. 100 Singhakumara B.M.P. 35, 156 Sirikumara K.J. 59 Sirimanna R. 130 Sirisena D.N. 105 Siriwardana H. 96 Siriwardhana C. 151 Somarathne T.T.P. 161 Sruthi S.R. 40 Subasinghe S.M.C.U.P. 69, 71, 74, 76 Subba Rao P.V. 118, 119 Subhashinie D.A.K. 131 Sumanarathna A.R. 130 Surasinghe T.D. 15 Tennakoon B.I. 67 Tennakoon S. 121 Tennekoon K.H. 101 Thalgaspitiya T.W.L.R. 51 Thiruchelvam T. 153 Thirumarpan K. 153 Udadini K.M.E. 89 Udawattha C.D. 95 Udayakantha P.M.P. 116 Udugama G.K. 127 Venukasan T. 75 Viki R.V. 9 Vithanage M. 51, 112 Vlosky R.P. 77 Wahala W.M.P.S.B. 96 Walisundara W.M.T.M. 24 Wanniarachchi S.D. 106 Wattage M.P. 124 Weerahewa H.L.D. 11 Weerakoon D. 29, 123 Weerakoon K.C. 28 Weerasinghe R. 32 Weerawardana P.A.H. 54, 94 Weliange W.S. 12 Wijayapala U.G.S. 80 Wijayathunga L. 130 Wijayawardene N.N 11

Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium 2016, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. 168 Author Index

Author Page number Wijayawardhana W.P.M.A. 49 Wijekoon W.M.C.J. 106 Wijekoon W.M.S.P. 67 Wijepala P.C. 17 Wijerathne P.W.D.S.S. 50 Wijerathna J.A.D.M.I. 143 Wijesekara W.A.M.A. 52 Wijesinghe W.S 10 Wijesundara C.S. 14, 157 Wijesundara R.L.C. 67 Wijesundara S. 148 Wijewardana Y.N.S. 100 Wijeyaratne W.M.D.N 52 Wimalasiri H.B.U.G.M. 26 Wirasinghe S.C. 83 Withanage S.V. 74 Yakandawala D.M.D. 23, 148 Yakandawala K. 154 Yapa P.N. 82, 99 Yasaratne U.L.S. 51

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