UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ The Role of Malta in Prehistoric Mediterranean Exchange Networks A thesis submitted to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Classics of the College of Arts and Sciences 2007 by Natalie Abell B.A., Indiana University, 2003 Committee: Jack L. Davis, Chair Gisela Walberg ABSTRACT The Maltese archipelago, made up of five small islands, is located almost exactly in the middle of the Mediterranean. From the Phoenician period to the modern day, Malta, because of its central location and excellent harbors, has been integral to pan-Mediterranean exchange, communication, and military endeavors. However, the earliest long-distance Mediterranean trade networks between east and west barely reached these islands. This thesis investigates long- term trends in prehistoric Maltese exchange networks in order to illuminate how and why the Maltese did not participate more actively in early exchange networks. It also explores the nature of Bronze Age exchange networks between the eastern and central Mediterranean from the often overlooked perspective of the periphery. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I offer many thanks to Jack Davis for his guidance and input throughout my thesis-writing experience, and to Gisela Walberg for her comments and encouragement. I am indebted to Reuben Grima, Katya Stroud, and the staff of Heritage Malta and the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta, who welcomed me without hesitation, and who went above and beyond the call of duty to assist me. Many thanks are also due to Anthony Pace and Anthony Bonanno for sharing their research and thoughts with me. I am grateful to the Department of Classics, whose generous financial support enabled me to complete this project, and to the English Speaking Union of Cincinnati, whose summer travel fellowship allowed me to visit Malta for the first time. The assistance of the staff of the Classics Library has also been invaluable in helping me to complete this research. For their unwavering support, I thank my parents, my siblings, and Scott. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements ii List of Figures iv Preface vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Malta in a Mediterranean Context: Early Views 4 Chapter 2. Chronology 29 Chapter 3. Evidence for Maltese Exchange Networks 63 Chapter 4. The Central Mediterranean and the Aegean 92 Chapter 5. The Role of Malta in Prehistoric Mediterranean Exchange Networks: A Reconsideration 116 Figures 134 Bibliography 182 iii LIST OF FIGURES 1. The Mediterranean. 2. Major prehistoric sites of Malta. 3. Plan of Trump’s excavations at Barija (Trump 1961, 257, figure 4). 4. Plan of Neolithic temple at Bor in-Nadur (Trump 2002, 140). 5. Plan of Bronze Age remains at Bor in-Nadur (Trump 2002, 288). 6. Plan of gantija (Trump 2002, 171). 7. Plan of aar Qim (Trump 2002, 143). 8. Porthole doorway to southwestern apse at aar Qim. 9. Female figures from aar Qim (Pace 2004b, 124-5). 10. Plan of al Saflieni Hypogeum by Nicola Vassallo in 1907, immediately after excavation by Father Emmanuel Magri (Pace 2004c, 6). 11. The “Sleeping Lady” from the al Saflieni Hypogeum. Length, 11.7 cm (Trump 2002, 100). 12. Carved facade within the al Saflieni Hypogeum (Trump 2002, 131). 13. Plan of Mnajdra (Trump 2002, 149). 14. Temple Period remains and the Red Skorba Shrine at Skorba (Trump 2002, 157). 15. Plan of Ta’ arat (Trump 2002, 154). 16. Plan of Ta’ ammut (Evans 1956b, 86, figure 1). 17. Plan of Tarxien (Trump 2002, 121). 18. Southeastern apse of Tarxien South, showing replica of animal relief in front and replica of colossal female figure at the back (Pace 2004b, 54). 19. Altar with hollow, hidden by a stone plug carved in spiral relief (Trump 2002, 123). 20. Location of Bronze Age cremation cemetery at Tarxien (Trump 2002, 287). 21. Plan of excavated area at Tas-Sil (Bonanno and Frendo 2000, 72, figure 2). iv 22. Plan of Xag ra Circle (Stoddart et. al. 1993, 8, figure 3). 23. Plan of tombs at ebbu (Baldacchino and Evans 1954, 3, 5, figures 2 and 3). 24. “Statue-menhir” from ebbu tomb 5, three views (Baldacchino and Evans 1954, plate III). 25. Houel’s engraving of aar Qim (Grima 2004, 15). 26. Brochtorff’s representation of Xag ra Circle (Grima 2004, 93). 27. Plans of Kordin I (left) and II (right) by Caruana (Caruana 1896b, 29, 31). 28. Snake pillar from gantija (Trump 2002, 115). 29. Drawing by Charles Zammit of the stratigraphy of Tarxien on the basis of Themistocles Zammit’s excavation notes (Trump 2004, 233). 30. Plan of Kordin III (Trump 2002, 136). 31. Maltese chronological schemes, before radiocarbon dates were available (Caruana 1882; 1886; 1896b; Evans 1953; 1959; Zammit 1930; 1995). 32. Capo Graziano phase vessels (Bernabò Brea and Cavalier 1980, plate CXXIV, numbers 3-4, plate CXXXI, number 1). 33. Tarxien Cemetery (above left, Evans 1959, plates 88-90), Moarda (above right, Bernabò Brea 1966, plates 26 and 27), and Castelluccio phase wares (below, Bernabò Brea 1966b, plates 29- 29, 38-40). 34. Bor in-Nadur phase vessels and Ba rija phase vessels (Trump 2004, 267). 35. Two tilted figurine heads from al Saflieni Hypogeum, actual size (Evans 1959, 141, figure 21). 36. Prehistoric Maltese cultural phases, with suggested absolute dates. 37. G ar Dalam phase pottery shapes (Trump 1966, 21, figure 18) and typical fragments (Trump 2004, 252). 38. Examples of Stentinello phase pottery (Bernabò Brea 1966, 41, figure 4, plates 6-9). 39. Animal protomes from Sicily (left, Bernabò Brea 1966, plate 10) and Malta (right). 40. Grey Skorba phase shapes (Trump 1966, 27, figure 23) and fragments (Trump 2004, 252). 41. Red Skorba phase shapes (Trump 1966, 30, figure 27) and vessels (Trump 2004, 253). v 42. ebbu phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 33) and vessels (Trump 2004, 255). 43. Marr phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 34) and vessels (Trump 2004, 256). 44. gantija phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 35) and vessels (Trump 2004, 257). 45. Saflieni phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 36) and vessels (Trump 2004, 259). 46. Tarxien phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 37) and vessels (Trump 2004, 260-1). 47. Tarxien Cemetery phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 39) and vessels (Trump 2004, 266). 48. Plan of Cairn I at Wied Moqbol (Evans 1956b, 87, figure 2). 49. Bor in-Nadur phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 40). 50. Barija phase shapes (Evans 1971, figure 41). 51. Radiocarbon data for Maltese prehistory. 52. Comparative general chronology of Malta, Sicily and the Aeolian islands (Leighton 1996; 1999), and the Aegean (Cullen 2001). 53. Imported Trefontane sherds (Trump 2004, 246). 54. Bossed bone plaque from Malta (Pace 2004b, 71). 55. “Thermi ware” pedestal bowl from Tarxien (Pace 2004b, 212). 56. Stone bead, Tarxien ware sherd, and stone pendant with symbol (Evans 1959, plate 84). 57. Plan of Otranto area dolmens. A: Quattromacine; B: Scusi; C: Gurgulante; D: Placa (Whitehouse 1967, 353). 58. Mycenaean sherd from Bor in-Nadur (Trump 2002, 212). 59. Fortification wall at Bor in-Nadur. The smaller stones are a result of modern restoration. 60. The central Mediterranean. vi PREFACE GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY1 The Maltese archipelago consists of five islands. Two of the islands have been inhabited since the Neolithic – Malta and Gozo. Malta, the larger of the two islands, gives its name to the entire archipelago, and is separated from Gozo by a stretch of water approximately five km wide. Malta is located approximately 90 km south of Sicily, approximately 290 km east of Tunisia, and approximately 350 km north of Libya (Figure 1). The total landmass of the islands is about 316 km2 (Figure 2). The islands of Malta are rather hilly, but do not contain any true mountains. The islands tilt from the southeast, where the altitude is scarcely one meter above sea level, to the northwest. The highest point on Malta is the Rabat plateau, which reaches 253 meters above sea level, while the highest point on Gozo, on the Ta’ Dbiei plateau, is approximately 200 meters above sea level. Both islands contain several harbors, although much of the coast is rocky. The islands are made up of five major geologic layers, which all appear to have been formed in the Miocene. The bottom layer is lower coralline limestone which formed through coral deposits. Above this is globigerina limestone, which is deposited under a layer of blue clay. The blue clay is under a layer of greensand, which is under a layer of upper coralline limestone. The thickness and exposure of these layers varies across the islands. Because much of the island is made of limestone, there are many natural caves, most of which are small. Both upper coralline limestone and globigerina limestone have been exploited as building material since the Neolithic. 1 Ashby et. al. 1913; Borg 2004; Evans 1971, 1-3; Grima 2004; Trump 2000. vii PRONOUNCIATION GUIDE Sites in this text will be referenced by their Maltese names. Some of the Maltese consonants are unfamiliar to English-speakers, so I include here a brief pronunciation guide. Syllables which have been marked in boldface type in the examples are stressed. -j- = ‘y,’ like ‘yes’ or ‘aye.’ For example, Mnajdra = ‘muhn-aye-druh.’ -- = ‘tch,’ like ‘church’ or ‘porch.’ For example, Ta awla = ‘tah tchow-lah.’ -g- = hard ‘g,’ like ‘guff’ or ‘gravy.’ -- = soft ‘zh,’ like ‘giant’ or ‘jot.’ For example, gantija = ‘zhi-gan-tee-yuh.’ -g- = unpronounced.