Environmental Impact Assessment for Sewerage System for Adh. Mahibadhoo

Regional Development Project-Phase II Environmental Infrastructure and Management

ADB Loan No. 2170-MLD-SF

Environmental Impact Assessment for Sewerage System for ADh. Mahibadhoo

Proposed by: Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment

Prepared by: Mariyam Saleem Thomas Le Berre Chiara Franco

Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 10 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 24 1.1 Purpose of the Report ...... 24 1.2 Nature and Significance of the Project...... 25 1.3 Project Background...... 27 1.4 Project Stage...... 28 1.5 Extent of the EIA Study...... 29 1.6 Outline of the Report ...... 29 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT...... 30 2.1 Type of Project...... 30 2.2 Need for the Project...... 30 2.3 Location...... 30 2.4 Magnitude of Operation...... 31 2.5 Schedule for Approval and Implementation...... 32 2.6 Description of the Element of the Project ...... 33 2.6.1 The gravity collection system ...... 33 2.6.1.1 Main sewers ...... 33 2.6.1.2 Household connection ...... 34 2.6.1.3 Public manholes ...... 35 2.6.2 The pumped system...... 35 2.6.3 The treatment plant...... 39 2.6.4 The sea outfall...... 40 3. PROJECT SETTINGS ...... 43 4. DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENT...... 44 4.1 Physical environment ...... 44 4.1.1 Meteorology...... 44 4.1.1.1 Climate ...... 44 4.1.1.2 Rainfall ...... 44 4.1.1.3 Temperature ...... 45 4.1.1.4 Wind pattern ...... 46 4.1.2 Geomorphologic features...... 47 4.1.3 Freshwater-Groundwater...... 48 4.1.3.1 Formation of the freshwater lens ...... 48 4.1.3.2 Carrying capacity of freshwater lens ...... 49 4.1.4 Currents...... 50 4.1.4.1 Tidal currents ...... 50 4.1.4.2 Wave driven current ...... 50 2

4.1.4.3 Wind driven currents ...... 51 4.1.4.4 Proposed outfall area ...... 51 4.1.5 Air pollution...... 53 4. 1.6 Noise pollution ...... 53 4. 1.7 Geology and seismology...... 53 4.2 Ecological Resources...... 56 4.2.1 Fisheries ...... 56 4.2.2 Benthic substrate...... 56 4.2.3 Wildlife ...... 60 4.2.4 Forests...... 61 4.2.5 Rare and endangered species...... 62 4.2.6 Protected area ...... 63 4.2.7 Coastal resources ...... 63 4.3 Socio-economic survey and willingness to pay ...... 64 4.3.1 Mahibadhoo socio-economic setting...... 64 4.3.2 Water supply, sanitation and health related issues...... 66 4.3.3 Population perception on RDPII...... 67 4.3.4 Willingness to pay...... 68 4.4 Water quality ...... 68 4.4.1 Seawater ...... 68 4.4.2 Groundwater...... 70 5. METHODOLOGY ...... 72 5.1 Environmental assessment...... 72 5.1.1 Photo transects ...... 72 5.1.2 Climate data...... 72 5.1.3 Water quality...... 73 5.1.4 Vegetation survey ...... 73 5.2 Socio-economic survey...... 74 5.3 Impact identification methodology ...... 74 5.3.1 Impacts during construction ...... 74 5.3.2 Impacts during operations...... 75 5.3.3 Impacts ratings...... 75 6. PUBLIC CONSULTATION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE...... 77 6.1 Stakeholders scoping meeting ...... 77 6.2 Local stakeholders meeting ...... 77 7. ANTICIPATED ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES...... 79 7.1 Impacts and Mitigation Related to Scheme Location ...... 79 7.1.1 On-site ecology and natural features...... 79 3

7.1.1.1 Locations of gravity sewers and pumped mains ...... 79 7.1.1.2 Locations of pumping stations ...... 79 7.1.1.3 Location of Sewage Treatment Plan ...... 79 7.1.1.4 Location of the outfall ...... 79 7.1.2 Residential Areas ...... 80 7.1.2.1 Disturbance to home gardens when connecting households to the gravity Networks ...... 80 7.1.2.2 Odours from pumping stations ...... 80 7.1.2.3 Odours from treatment plant and sludge drying beds ...... 80 7.1.2.4 Access to properties during gravity sewer construction ...... 80 7.1.3 Loss / damage to livelihood ...... 81 7.1.3.1 Damage to business premises, or loss of livelihood such as damage to household garden plots by disturbance to top soil, agricultural land, uprooting of coconut trees ...... 81 7.1.3.2 Disturbance resulting from re-adjustments of the sewer network ...... 81 7.1.4 Effect on Trees worth Preserving ...... 81 7.1.5 Impact to the Aquatic Environment ...... 81 7.1.5.1 Contamination by effluent discharge to the shallow fresh water lens ...... 81 7.1.5.2 Salination of the fresh water lens ...... 82 7.1.5.3 Impact on the marine environment due to discharge of effluent to sea ...... 83 7.1.5.4 Damage to outfall by waves and current action causing pipeline failure and pollution ...... 83 7.1.5.5 Reverse-flow in outfall pipes during high tides ...... 83 7.2 Possible Accidents/System Failures ...... 84 7.2.1 Collection System Risks...... 84 7.2.2 Treatment Plant Failures...... 84 7.2.2.1 External power failure ...... 84 7.2.2.2 Failure of the tertiary treatment process ...... 84 7.2.2.3 Boat damage to outfall pipe ...... 84 7.2.3 Failures in system operation and maintenance ...... 84 7.3 Alternative Scheme Design...... 85 7.3.1 Information gathering ...... 85 7.3.1.1 Insufficient primary environmental data ...... 85 7.3.2 Design of sewers ...... 85 7.3.2.1 Excavation below groundwater level ...... 85 7.3.2.2 Contamination of groundwater by leaking wastewater ...... 86 7.3.2.3 Damage to the sewer network from deformation and rupture by possible live loads acting on the ground surface, or by subsequent excavations carried out by others ...... 86

7.3.2.4 Overflow of sewage leading to flooding and risks to environment and public health ...... 86 7.3.2.5 Discharge of industrial wastes to sewers ...... 86 7.3.3 Design of pumping stations ...... 86 7.3.3.1 Waste arising from the use of disposable formwork ...... 86 7.3.3.2 Constraints on availability of public space for sewage pump stations and standby Generators ...... 87 7.3.3.3 Impacts due to the number, location and size of pumping stations ...... 87 7.3.3.4 Minimisation of excavation dewatering ...... 87 7.3.4 Design for effluent treatment ...... 87 7.3.4.1 Contamination of coastal marine and deterioration of bathing water quality, reef ecology and marine life ...... 87 7.4 Construction Phase ...... 88 7.4.1 Working areas ...... 88 7.4.1.1 Noise and dust emissions during sewer trench and pumping station excavation ...... 88 7.4.1.2 Fuel spillage and leakage from construction plant ...... 88 7.4.1.3 Pollution due to dumping of used oils, hydraulic fluids and service parts ...... 88 7.4.1.4 Pollution of groundwater from contractor’s site offices...... 89 7.4.1.5 Pollution of groundwater from remote construction areas ...... 89 7.4.1.6 Pollution from solid waste disposal ...... 89 7.4.1.7 Social unrest due to import of construction workers ...... 89 7.4.1.8 Accommodation for non-Mahibadhoo resident workers ...... 89 7.4.1.9 Road blocking during construction of sewerage and facilities ...... 89 7.4.1.10 Trench excavations and public safety ...... 90 7.4.2 Disturbance to garden plots and vegetation ...... 90 7.4.2.1 Disturbance or loss of ‘top soil’ inside the household garden plots and damage to island vegetation due to excavation and construction works ...... 90 7.4.3 Disposal of excess excavated spoil...... 90 7.4.4 Damage to underground services...... 91 7.4.4.1 Disruption of underground services during trenching ...... 91 7.4.4.2 Damage to services laid shallow within the pressure zone of moving loads on wheeled and tracked vehicles ...... 91 7.4.5 Dewatering...... 91 7.4.5.1 Disturbance of well water supply during dewatering of sewer trenches and pump station sites ...... 91 7.4.5.2 Disposal of dewatering water ...... 92 7.4.6 Temporary water supply...... 92 7.4.7 Marine outfall...... 92 7.4.8 Decommissioning of septic tanks...... 92 5

7.4.8.1 Disposal of septic tank contents ...... 92 7.4.8.2 Contamination of groundwater from septic tanks after decommissioning ...... 93 7.5 Operation of System...... 93 7.5.1 Wastewater discharge to the marine environment ...... 93 7.5.2 Noise and odour...... 94 7.5.2.1 Noise and odour from pumping stations ...... 94 7.5.2.2 Noise and odour from treatment plant ...... 94 7.5.3 Blockages ...... 94 7.5.4 Damage to gravity system ...... 94 7.6 Sludge Disposal ...... 95 7.7 Effluent quality...... 96 7.8 Health and safety of operators: Illness and injury to system operators ...... 96 7.9 Impact on the household disposable incomes from operation and maintenance charges ...... 96 8. ALTERNATIVES ...... 97 8.1 Alternatives to the Project...... 97 8.1.1 The do-nothing scenario...... 97 8.2 Alternative Project Locations...... 97 8.2.1 Sewer network alternative ...... 97 8.2.2 Sewerage treatment plant alternative ...... 98 9. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN ...... 100 9.1 Potential Impacts and mitigation measures...... 100 10. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING...... 104 10.1 Reporting...... 107 11. CONCLUSION...... 108 11.1 Benefits of the project ...... 108 11.2 Adverse effects ...... 108 11.3 Loss of natural resources ...... 109 11.4 Project Environmental Monitoring...... 109 12. REFERENCES ...... 110 13. DECLARATION OF THE CONSULTANTS ...... 111 APPENDIX A...... 112 Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA for the proposed sewerage system at ADh. Mahibadhoo...... 113 APPENDIX B...... 116 Environmental Impact Assessment Team...... 117 APPENDIX C...... 133 Water quality analysis: Source RDPII Geo-hydrology report 2007...... 134

Resistivity profile ADh. Mahibadhoo (Source Geo-Hydrological Report RDP II, 2007)...... 137 Results water quality analysis (2009) ...... 138 Topographic map of ADh. Mahibadhoo (Source PMU) ...... 140 Socioeconomic survey-Questionnaire ...... 141 Dataset socio-economic survey (Source PIU office ADh. Mahibadhoo)...... 147 Local stakeholders consultation (Source PMU) ...... 154 List of participants scoping meeting...... 159 List of participants to the community meeting...... 159

List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Location of the pumped mains, pump stations and STP in ADh. Mahibadhoo ... 26 Figure 2.1. Location of Mahibadhoo within the Alifu Dhaalu Atoll ...... 31 Figure 2.2 Schedule of construction activities ...... 32 Figure 2.3 Layout of Mahibadhoo sewerage zones ...... 34 Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of house connection to the main sewerage system ... 35 Figure 2.5 Longitudinal section of the pumping station ...... 37 Figure 2.6. Transversal section of the pumping station...... 38 Figure 2.7 Schematic layout of the wastewater treatment process...... 39 Figure 2.8 Topographic profile of the seabed along the proposed sea outfall location ...... 42 Figure 4.1. Monthly rainfall averages 1994 to 2003 at the different airports...... 45 Figure 4.2 Average wind speed in knots and direction...... 46 Figure 4.3 Artificial rubble bank in the western side of the island ...... 47 Figure 4.4 Natural rubble bank in the eastern side of the island...... 48 Figure 4.5 Conceptual groundwater structure for coral atoll island (after Falkland) ...... 49 Figure 4. 6 a - (left) Schematic layout of the plume movement along the west and east side of the northern harbour entrance; b – (right) boundaries and extension of the plume...... 52 Figure 4.7 Garbage burned in the near shore at the north side of the island...... 53 Figure 4.8. Location of Mahibadhoo within the Predicted Seismic Hazard Zones ...... 55 Fig 4.9 Locations of the photographic transects within Mahibadhoo reef ...... 56 Figure 4.10 Benthic percentage cover of all the surveyed sites including live corals, abiotic substrate and coralline algae...... 58 Figure 4.11 Benthic percentage cover at Mahibadhoo reef...... 59 Figure 4.12 Garbage dumped on the north near shore of the island ...... 64 Figure 4.13 Income distribution among the fifty households surveyed...... 65 Figure 4.14 Sources of income for the villagers...... 65 Figure 4.15 Households monthly expenses in Rufiyaa ...... 66 Figure 4.16 Householders water quality perception. Well water refers as groundwater...... 67 Figure 4.17. Ground and seawater sample sites within Mahibadhoo...... 68 Figure 4.18 Results of water quality analysis conducted in 2007 (RDPII Geo-hydrology report)...... 71 Fig 8.1 Layout of the alternative location for the treatment plant and the treatment plant pump...... 98

List of Tables

Table1.1: Geographic information for Mahibadhoo Island...... 27 Table 4.1. Average rainfall from airports from 1994 to 2003 ...... 44 Table 4.2 Fish observed during the survey...... 60 Table 4.3 Overview of the trees and plants at the SPSs and STP sites...... 62 Table 4.4: Status of Endangered Bird Species in the Maldives ...... 62 Table 4.5: Protected Marine Areas in the Maldives...... 63 Table 4.6 Results of the water quality tests carried out on the seawater samples collected from Mahibadhoo...... 69 Table 4.7 Results of the water quality test conducted on ground water samples at the National Health Laboratory, Male’...... 70 Table 5.1 Reef photo-transects geo-coordinates...... 72 Table 5.2 Water quality samples geo-coordinates...... 73 Table 5.3 Vegetation surveys geo-coordinates...... 74 Table 7.1 Values to calculate groundwater lens recharge...... 82 Table 9.1 Pre construction phase impact...... 101 Table 9.2 Impacts during construction...... 101 Table 9.3 Impacts during operation...... 102 Table 10.1. Environmental Monitoring Plan for Mahibadhoo...... 106 Table 11.1. Summary of impacts and mitigation measures ...... 108

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. The purpose of the report is to describe the potential impacts and benefits arising from the construction and operation of a wastewater collection system, treatment plant and effluent disposal scheme on the island of Mahibadhoo in Alifu Dhaalu Atoll, Maldives. It also provides alternatives to the proposed project, a description of the environment in which the project will be carried out, mitigation measures and the environmental management plan. 2. The Mahibadhoo project is a sewerage and sewage treatment project, which will provide the whole island community with a sewage collection network and wastewater treatment plant in order to insure the sustainability of the freshwater resources on the island. 3. The design for the first and second phase of the project will provide a sewer network and treatment works, which will cater for a population of 2897 persons expected as the result of the development of the island as a regional centre. 4. The project for the design of the sewerage system has been carried out under the Regional Development Project – Phase II sponsored by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) Loan N° 2170-MLD-SF, which has the objective of supporting the sustainable economic growth of the Maldives by improving communities’ quality of life. 5. The main objective of the RDP is to provide infrastructure services to the outer islands of Maldives and improve communities’ quality of life . 6. The RDP includes a project management unit (PMU) under the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment in Male’ and project implementation units (PIUs) on the project focus islands. 7. The GOM has pledged to secure funding for the installation of the sewerage system designed by a competent engineering firm, provided that the design meets the design criteria set by the Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority (MWSA) . 8. The construction of the sewerage system will be implemented by the Government of the Maldives through the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment (MHTE), the project proponent. 9. The treatment plant will be installed in two phases. Design for phase I is based on a population projection of 2352 persons. During this phase, a totally new treatment plant will be installed. Phase II allows for treatment plant expansion by a supplementary

10 WTP unit which will enable the system to supply the service for a population of 2897 persons in 2037. 10. Under the environmental regulations of MHTE, sewerage projects involving treatment and outfall pipes are categorized in Schedule D of activities requiring EIA studies. 11. The structure of this report follows the guidelines set out in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation published in the year 2007 and in particular, Schedule E, Contents of an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study. 12. The projected population growth of Mahibadhoo will place an increased demand on the limited groundwater resources of the Island. The increased demand for usable water will lead to a reduction in the per capita quantity of suitable groundwater available for laundry, personal washing and toilet flushing. 13. The sewer system for an island population of 2897 persons will have an approximate length of 6 km. Each of the 3 pumping stations will occupy and area 4.6m x 3.6m with the treatment plant occupying an area of approximately 132 m 3. The area remaining allows for expansion of the plant by a second unit, allowing for an increase in treatment capacity from 305 m3/d in the initial phase to 375 m 3/d afterwards. 14. Following the obtainment of necessary approvals for the project, it is anticipated that the tender process could be completed within a three months period. The total duration of the contract for the construction of the gravity sewer network, pumped sewer main, treatment plant and outfall is anticipated to be approximately 12 months. The construction of the gravity sewer system, the pumped system, and the treatment works and outfall will be carried out in parallel. 15. Mahibadhoo is located about 73km from Male’ and lies on the south-eastern side of Alifu Dhaalu atoll. The atoll consists of a broad bank with a discontinuous fringing reef and numerous patch reefs and faros within the atoll. Inside the atoll, water depth is around 40m. To the west and east of the Maldives ocean depth falls to more than 2,000m and the east-west channels are also relatively deep at over 200m. 16. Mahibadhoo is approximately 0.83 km long and 0.25 km wide; covering an area of 17.7 ha. 17. The island consists of unconsolidated shell and coral sand and debris. The coral rock is the upper stratum of over 2,000m of various marine limestones, which overlies volcanic bedrock.

11 18. The tropical climate is dominated by two monsoon periods, the south-west monsoon (May to October) and the north east monsoon (December to April). The wind directions and precipitations are more erratic during these two periods locally referred to as the Iruvai Halha (October – November) and the Hulhangu Halha (March-April). 19. Rainfall presents a clear division of the year into a dry season (December to April) and a wet season (May to November). Whereas in the north the most abundant rains occur in July, the southern atolls show more of a peak in precipitation when the monsoons change. 20. Daily temperatures vary little throughout the year with a mean annual temperature of 28ºC. The most important impact related to temperature change is the extensive coral bleaching which occurred in 1998. 21. Wind data shows a clear pattern of wind direction relating to the two monsoons period. Average daily wind speeds during the SW monsoon are superior to that of the NE monsoon. 22. The eastern reef shows a natural rubble bank, created by the larger waves from the southeast, which acts as coastline protection for the eastern side of the island exposed principally to oceanic swell. The eastern side of the island is mostly affected by swell waves whereas the rest of the island is mostly prone to wind waves. 23. Freshwater on the island occurs almost entirely as groundwater within the aquifer that overlies the coral rock, and forms a freshwater ‘lens’ floating on the seawater beneath. Rainwater harvesting and storage is also widely practiced. 24. Recently a desalination plant of 30m 3/d has become functional to produce quality water for the community. 25. Tidal range is small, spring and neap tide ranges being less than 1.2 m and greater than 0.2 m respectively. The tidally driven currents dominate the deeper part of the slope, and in particular the area where the outfall will be located. 26. Surface currents in the region are driven by the seasonal monsoons. From December to March the currents are generally westward in response to the NE monsoon while from May to October they are easterly and south easterly in response to the SW monsoon. There is no specific registration of currents available for the area. 27. A particular current pattern has been observed at the designated outfall area and in front of the harbour. The present outfall pipe is located precisely in the area where the westward and eastward currents are mixing. A suspended sediment turbid zone has

12 been observed to create a large plume in front and at both sides of the STP reclaimed area. The streamlines patterns are locally very unpredictable. 28. There are few motor vehicles on the island and the largest single source of exhaust emission is likely to be the power generation plant. 29. The main sources of noise are the harbour areas, due to boat traffic, and also the southern harbour due to harbour construction. The powerhouse is located well away from the housing plots and noise pollution is limited. 30. Five SHZ based on PGA were identified in Maldives. Mahibadhoo is located in Zone 1, therefore the risk of damage to the sewer network or the treatment plant as a direct consequence of seismic activity is limited. 31. The coral reef environment and its well-being are of international concern. Within the Maldives as a whole the marine biodiversity shows a high level of species richness and is considered to be one of the world’s richest ecosystems. As a result, it is a major attraction for most of the tourists visiting the Maldives. 32. The reef area on the north side of the island, into which the effluent from the STP will be discharged, is a high energy environment with low live coral cover. 33. There are no forests as such on Mahibadhoo however on the periphery of the island there are significant areas of vegetation especially at the north and east side. On the north side of the island a large portion of the vegetation that was planted to consolidate a strip of reclaimed land, are timber trees. 34. The diversity of the terrestrial fauna is relatively poor and the only mammals observed on the island were the Indian Flying Fox ( Pteropus giganteus ), the palm squirrel (Rattus novegicus ) and some cats. 35. There are no endangered animal species on the island. 36. The population of the island is young with almost 42% under the age of 18 years. And less than 6% over the age of 65 years. 37. Average family size in Mahibadhoo is between nine and ten 38. Estimates of population growth rate vary. Recent census data gives an annual growth rate of 1.6% up to 2037and 1.4% after 2015 as per the Ministry of Planning and National Development. 39. The island has 322 plots used for living. The total house plots, including plots whose boundary is not marked amount to 328. A number of 26 new plots have become available.

13 40. There are no paved roads on Mahibadhoo, and therefore the laying of the pipe will not be difficult. In areas, in particular near the harbour, the streets are not at right angles, and some care will have to be employed when laying the pipes. 41. Mahibadhoo is the regional capital and as a consequence has a modern hospital to meet the day to day medical needs of the atoll community. 42. The island is well served educationally having primary and secondary education facilities for the island population and higher education for the communities on the other island of the atoll group. 43. The main activities contributing to the island economy are fishing, carpentry, engine repair, building construction, boat building, handicraft, shipping and tourism related work. Other employment centres include schools, health services, government departments, government guest houses and the National Security Service. 44. Income is derived from fishing, boat construction and repair, provision of accommodation for students from other atoll islands and internal trading. Businesses on the island include 50 private shops, boat yards, timber and metal workshop, restaurants etc (source: PIU, Mahibadhoo, IDC). 45. At the moment wastewaters are disposed in septic tanks and into the seawater by individually owned sewerage systems. 46. The continuation of the current forms of water supply and sanitation will be accompanied by a progressive deterioration of the quality of the groundwater and aquifer depletion in the groundwater resources. As the volume of the freshwater lens declines due to increased abstraction, the saline interface will rise and the water in the household wells will become more saline. Consequently, salinity and groundwater quality will become unacceptable for laundry and personal washing and bathing. 47. A conventional gravity flow with pumped interceptors was considered for use on Mahibadhoo. 48. The conventional gravity/pumped system will consist of a totally below ground well with an adjacent cabinet control. 49. Both black and grey wastewaters will be treated at the treatment unit located at the north side of the island. The total sewage inflow will undergo a preliminary treatment by screening and grit removal, and will receive secondary and tertiary treatment before being discharged beyond the reef edge through an outfall pipeline.

14 50. The whole sewerage system will be constructed throughout the island with the purpose of collecting the black and grey wastewater from every property on Mahibadhoo. There is no alternative for the location of the sewer network. 51. An area of reclaimed land to the west the northern harbour has been proposed for the location of the sewage treatment plant. 52. By virtue of its nature, it is inevitable that the project will be constructed within the residential and commercial areas of the island. The locations of system components pump stations and STP site have been determined by those areas of land gazetted for public use. Within these constraints, the project has been designed to minimize impact on the overall efficiency of operation. An alternative location for the STP is proposed. 53. The locations of the gravity sewers and pumped mains will have no impacts on areas of significant ecological value or the cutting of trees. The trees could be used for landscaping around the station for added aesthetics. 54. None of the locations of the pumping stations are within or adjacent to areas of significant ecological habitat, consequently no impacts on on-site ecology will occur. No mitigation is required. 55. The STP site is located on an area of no unique ecological value occupied by impoverished xerophytic herb, shrubs and first storey palm trees. Mitigation includes the creation of a buffer landscape strip around the STP site. 56. The outfall is located in relatively high energy hydrodynamic conditions which will provide a good degree of dilution and dispersion. The outfall will be of sufficient length and depth as to provide sufficient dilution. The outfall will be laid directly on the seabed and anchored to the substrate using concrete blocks. 57. The locations of the pumping stations were pre-determined by the availability of land earmarked for infrastructure use. Vent stacks will expel the foul gas generated in the sewer network. 58. The site for the STP is at the north side of the island adjacent to the harbour and located quite far from residential areas. The plant has been designed in such a way that processes giving rise to odours will be in enclosed structures fitted with air extraction. Sludge will be from aerobic processes and therefore pre-stabilised and will not give rise to odours when drying. 59. The contractor’s work area for the gravity sewer works will be required to occupy no more than an area extending from a boundary wall to approximately 0.5m from the road centre line towards the opposite boundary. This will leave, typically, a passage

15 width of 1.5m for access. The maximum length of an excavated trench between adjacent manholes at any one time will be around 60m. The contractor will be required to provide temporary bridges across any open trench. 60. During design, effort has been made to locate gravity and pumped sewers in a way to minimize disturbance to home gardens and private plots. Damage incurred during construction will be reinstated as a part of the contract. Access to commercial properties will be maintained throughout the construction period to enable continuation of business. 61. The design provides a sewer carrying capacity, which takes into account the proposed island development plan up to the year 2037 and consequently will not require upsizing in the future. 62. The sewerage layout and location of the treatment facilities have been designed to avoid the need to cut down large trees. As mitigation for loss of trees, compensation planting will take place in the landscape buffer zone within the STP site. 63. At the time, effluent from septic tanks is contaminating the freshwater lens. The sewer system will intercept all black and grey water and stop the contamination. Effluent from the STP will be discharged through the outfall beyond the reef edge. 64. The reef in the area of the outfall has around 25% live coral cover. It has been very disturbed in the recent past, due to harbour construction and land reclamation. The hydrodynamic patterns have been altered and eddies make the current flow very unpredictable. It is therefore proposed to elongate the pipe beyond this zone or choose an alternative location. 65. The high dilution of the suspended solids in effluent is unlikely to give rise to a significant increase in the near shore turbidity. The effluent outfall will be extended beyond the reef edge. The effluent will therefore be discharged in the channel to the atoll lagoon, which is submitted to important currents. This will ensure that nutrients, in particular nitrogen, are diluted and advected rapidly. 66. Where the outfall crosses the reef top the pipe will be laid and anchored on the seabed. The outlet pipe will be anchored to the reef edge to prevent movement of the pipe bend at that point. 67. The pumping main system has been designed in such a way that the failure of any one pump has no effect on the functioning of any other part of the pumped system. The risk of a pump failing is small. However, each pumping station will have a stand-by pump

16 installed to maintain the flow in the event that the duty pumps fails. Pumps will be replaced after 15 years to suit future flow. 68. Emergency power generators will supply energy at each pump station in the case of power failure. The diesel generator set will be provided by the contractor for the power standby and will be used in the event of an electrical failure at a pump station. 69. The proposed pumping mains will operate at low pressure and consequently the risk of material failure is extremely small. 70. In the event of the failure of all of the main and backup systems, the pump stations will have an emergency gravity discharge to the sea, which will prevent flooding in the vicinity of the pumping station. 71. The contractor will be required to provide an Operation and Maintenance Manual for the pump stations which will detail the action to be taken in the event of different failure scenarios. Furthermore, it is suggested to operate routinely the emergency systems to ensure that they are functional when the occasion demands. 72. During any failure of the tertiary treatment process the flow will be diverted to the marine outfall. This will result in the discharge of effluent treated to at least to a secondary effluent quality. 73. The construction contractor will be required to train local staff (PIUs) in the operation and maintenance of the sewer system and sewage treatment plant. At the end of the contract period the contractor will hand over the system with a fully trained staff to MHTE. Included in the system will be comprehensive operation and maintenance manuals and spares for pumps in accordance with the recommendations of the pump manufacturer. Ongoing training of the staff and training of new recruits will ensure that the system is maintained and operated by competent and suitably qualified staff. 74. Because of the shallowness of the groundwater surface there is a need for excavation below the ground water level for sewers and pumping stations. This will require dewatering which may cause loss of water in household wells. Mitigation for temporary drying of the house plot wells will be implemented through the provision of water bowsers and portable water storage tanks for the period during which dewatering is taking place. 75. Pipe material specification has been chosen to provide sufficient material strength for anticipated surface loadings by construction traffic. 76. All pump stations have been designed to have a standby pump, pump by-passes, internal storage for up to 30 minutes peak flow and standby generators (DG set for

17 power standby) . Each pump station will have an ultrasonic sensor with float switches for pump start/stop automatic control. The electrical control equipment, which will indicate the status of each pump station, will be contained within a control panel. 77. There are presently no polluting industries on Mahibadhoo, Any future industries will be required to comply with the regulations and standards regarding the discharge of wastewater to public sewer. Current businesses generating liquid waste, such as engine repair workshops will be provided with guidance regarding the use of the sewer system. 78. The use of timber formwork for the pump stations has been minimised by the use of in- situ cast reinforced concrete rings for the construction of the inlet sump. Valve chambers and other structures should be cast using standard size steel panels in combination. 79. Suitable land, not allocated for residential of commercial development, has already been identified and made available for the project. The footprint of each pumps station, 4.6m x 3. 6m will be contained within the allocated land. 80. The depth of the sumps necessary at the pump stations (2.5m) will involve working below the upper level of the water table. The design of the pump stations is such that dewater of the excavation will be required. 81. The wastewater before being discharged to sea will undergo screening and removal of solids greater than 3mm and also grit removal. The screening will remove visible sewage solids such as plastic cotton bud sticks, sanitary towels and tampons, plastic panty liners and condoms. Dilution and dispersion of toilet paper fibres dissolved contaminants and bacteria will be achieved by discharging the effluent beyond the reef crest and at a depth, which will ensure at least three orders of magnitude of dilution within a 100m of the outfall location.

82. The secondary treatment proposed would be expected to reduce BOD 5 up to 95% maximum, COD up to 90% maximum, and generate effluents with a value of 300mg/l of suspended solid and 10 5-10 7/100ml Faecal coliforms. Salinity would vary during the year according to changes in groundwater salinity, but would probably remain within WHO Maximum Acceptable Limits. 83. The main responsibilities for mitigation at the construction stage rest with the Contractor, who is required to price his work to include the mitigation measures. The site supervisor and the employer’s engineer will have the responsibility for monitoring the implementation of mitigation actions by the contractor.

18 84. Noise levels within the individual housing lots will be reduced significantly by the high solid walls which surround each lot. Specific noise mitigation in the form of wooden panel noise barriers will be erected near Mosque areas. 85. The contractor may propose to cease work during the daily prayer periods should he consider that to be more appropriate to his working practice. 86. The contractor will be required to excavate any ground contaminated by spillage of fuel or leaked oil/hydraulic fluids and arrange for disposal at the waste disposal site on the island which has been designated for waste disposal. 87. The contractor will be required to establish a plant maintenance area within his main work site at the STP site which will be roofed. At this location, fuel for plant will be stored in bundled areas. The contractor will be required to carried out all maintenance on a concrete surface and to provide absorbent kits for clean up of fuel, oil and hydraulic fluid spillages. All used kits will have to be disposed of in Thilafushi, in absence of a proper disposal facility near the island. 88. The contractor will be required to store used oil and hydraulic fluids and service spares and at suitable times arrange for disposal at the waste disposal site on the island 89. The contractor will be required to maintain a site office on the STP site. These offices will be supplied with toilet and washing facilities, which will be provided with a temporary septic tank of sufficient capacity for the number of staff on the STP site and for foul waste generated at construction areas remote from the main site. The effluent from the septic tank will drain into a suitable constructed soakaway. 90. The contractor will be required to provide portable toilet units at each active remote construction site. Wastewater from these sites will be stored in holding tanks and not chemically treated. At the end of each working day the holding tanks will be taken to the main site where the wastewater will be transferred to the central septic tank unit. 91. The contractor will be responsible for the disposal of all non-bulk solid waste such as that generated from the site facilities, materials packaging, discarded formwork. End of day burning of waste will be prohibited. 92. The successful construction of the treatment plant and in particular the sewer network requires supervision from experienced staff. It is expected that the contractor will employ most of the qualified engineers and experienced supervisory staff from overseas. Manual labour could be recruited from Mahibadhoo or other islands in the atoll with preference being given to suitable staff from Mahibadhoo if available.

19 93. The contractor will be required to provide temporary living accommodation for those workers who are non-resident on Mahibadhoo. It is unlikely that there will be sufficient rooming for all project workers who are non-Mahibadhoo residents. The accommodation will be at a temporary location agreed with the Island Authorities at the time of the construction work. The accommodation will include sleeping, bathing and messing facilities and will thereby minimise contact between the workers and general population and the risk of transmission of diseases between the two groups. 94. The contractor’s work area for the gravity sewer works will be required to occupy no more than an area extending from a boundary wall to approximately 0.5m from the road centre line towards the opposite boundary. Since the minimum road with is 3m this will leave, as a minimum, a passage width of 1m for longitudinal access. The maximum length of a working area at any one time will be restricted to 60m, the distance between two adjacent manholes. The contractor will be required to provide a temporary bridge across any open trench for each property access that is within the 60m length. The maximum period of time during which the works area will be adjacent to a property access will be four days. The small excavator required for the works will have to fit in this allocated space. 95. The contractor will be required to enclose all open trench works within a safety barrier to prevent people falling into open trenches. Each of the contractor’s areas in which there are open trenches will be patrolled by a night-watchman in the event that the safety barrier is deliberately crossed. 96. All main sewers will be constructed within existing, un-paved, transport corridors and consequently no ‘top-soil’ will be encountered. At those pump stations where ‘top-soil’ is encountered the contractor will be required to separate and retain the ‘top-soil’ and use it to reinstate the site at the completion of the works. Within each plot the contractor will install an inspection chamber which he will connect to the main sewer outside the plot. The contractor will be required to set aside any garden ‘top soil’ and replace it on completion of the connection. 97. The heaviest plant likely to be used during sewer construction is the excavator. The pressure on the ground exercised by the small models used in such projects does not usually exceed one tenth of the soil bearing capacity. Use of this or similar size excavator is therefore unlikely to case damage to underground services. 98. The excavation depth of gravity sewer trenches in the vicinity of the pumping stations will be below the level of the water table has been minimised as far as possible to

20 minimise the length to be dewatered. The contractor will be required to provide bowsers of water or portable water storage tanks to supply water for each household whose well is affected by the dewatering sufficient to meet their daily needs for non- potable water. 99. The estimated radius of the zone of drawdown around each of the three pumping stations is 20m. Bowsers will be located in key position within the 20m radius draw down area with sufficient suitable quality water to provide 100l/c/d for residential and 15l/c/d for non residential properties for the duration of the dewatering period. Supplied water will be provided to affected households for bathing, laundry and toilet flushing which is of no worse quality than the present well water. 100. There will be short-term environmental disturbance of the sea floor while laying the pipeline across the sub-tidal zone. Special care needed to control the effects of any high turbidity when laying the concrete anchor blocks. If pipe-pulling techniques are used for laying the outfall the minimum anchoring and changing of anchoring should be practiced. Construction plans should display the required marine marker lights and signals to prevent accidental collision. 101. The discharge of untreated sewage to the marine environment has given rise to significant environmental impacts where the combination of the pollution load and the dispersive characteristics of the environment have caused assimilative capacity of the environment to be exceeded. 102. The impact of each pollutant is summarised below. • The rate of dilution of the plume and the trajectory of the rising plume are sufficient to ensure that the salinity at the level of seabed is not affected and consequently there will be no adverse impact on the benthic community. • Faecal colifom concentration should not exceed generally applied standards under normal operating conditions. No beach or bathing areas are close to the outfall • Total inorganic nitrogen is the limiting macro-nutrient in the marine environment. Elevated concentrations may provide sufficient nutrient enrichment as to cause eutrophication in the form of increased phytoplankton growth. In the case of Mahibadhoo, the zone around the outfall is submitted to large currents and dilution of this tertiary treated effluent will maintain the concentrations to very acceptable levels. 103. Pumps are located in chambers below the ground and noise impact will not be significant.

21 104. The site for the STP is at the north side of the island adjacent to the harbour and consequently located quite far away from residential areas. Processes giving rise to odours will be in enclosed building fitted with air extraction. The sludge, which is to be dried, will be from aerobic processes and therefore pre-stabilised and not give rise to odours when drying. 105. Total blockages of the sewer network are rare. Partial restrictions in flow can be caused by flows in the sewer being lower than the natural cleansing velocities or by the flushing of inappropriate items. Items commonly flushed include plastic stem cotton buds, condoms, sanitary towels, disposable nappies. Normal toilet paper, in particular soft tissue, rapidly breaks down into separate fibres when wet and subject to turbulence in the sewer system. 106. Regular maintenance of the gravity system by flushing will prevent the build up settled solids during the build up to peak design population. Use of groundwater will be minimised by using treated effluent for systematic flushing of the system. 107. In order to reduce the risk of partial blockage by householders flushing inappropriate items into the sewer system, information leaflets will be distributed to householders to inform them of how to use a sewer system. 108. Connections to the gravity system laid in the road by non-authorised persons could cause damage to the structure of the system. All occupied housing, commercial and institutional lots occupied at the time of the construction of the gravity system will be provided with inspection/connection boxes inside the property boundary. Connections to the system by the householder will be to the connection box which will present minimal risk to the main system. 109. The Operation and Maintenance manual for the system will include an Occupational Safety Plan for workforce. The Plan will cover, inter alia, health checks and vaccinations, first aid, safety equipment and clothing and confined space working. During the first year of operation, the contractor will be required to provide such Occupational Safety raining as is necessary. 110. A socio-economic survey was carried out in November 2008 at the project feasibility stage to assess potable water and domestic waste collection and disposal. 111. Suggested pre-construction phase mitigation measures include financial compensation to registered owners of coconut palms as well as planting a buffer strip around the STP. Furthermore, the pump stations and STP will be located on municipal land to avoid using land designated for residential or commercial use.

22 112. Mitigation measures that will be employed during the construction phase include implementation of noise barriers near the mosques, distribution of temporary water supply to counter the depression of water level in wells and disposal of construction waste at Thilafushi. 113. During the operational phase mitigation measures include operation of standby pumps and power supplies in case of failure of system components, public awareness of correct use of sewer systems, pre-screening of wastewater before discharge to avoid discharge of visible sewage solids to the sea. 114. A key part of the environmental management plan is a monitoring programme, which quantifies and establishes the pre-implementation conditions and determines the long term benefits as a result of the implementation of the project. Short term monitoring of the contractors activities assesses the effectiveness of his mitigation activities. 115. A period of pre-implementation monitoring will quantitatively define the groundwater quality, marine water quality and ecosystem health in the vicinity of the marine outfall and the health of the community in terms of sewage borne illnesses. 116. The monitoring programme will continue following implementation of the project measuring the same determinants at the same locations and same frequency. This will enable the ‘before and after’ conditions to be quantified and compared statistically. 117. Consultation with the island community and with Government Departments has been carried out throughout the detailed design stage of the project and also during the feasibility study. 118. As part of the feasibility study, a social survey was also carried out. This sought the views of the community in terms of prioritisation for improvements to the island and background information on water uses was collected.

23 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose of the Report

The purpose of this report is to describe the potential impacts and benefits arising from the construction and operation of a wastewater collection system, treatment plant and effluent disposal scheme on the island of Mahibadhoo in Alifu Dhaalu Atoll, Maldives. A detailed environmental management and monitoring plan based on the identified impacts describes the procedures to be implemented to minimise the impact on the natural and social environment and how the residual effects of the project on the environment should be monitored.

The design of the sewerage system has been carried out under the Regional Development Project – Phase II sponsored by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) Loan N° 2170-MLD-SF, which has the objective of supporti ng the sustainable economic growth of the Maldives by improving communities’ quality of life. The construction of the sewerage system will be implemented by the Government of the Maldives through the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment (MHTE), the project proponent.

The structure of this report follows the guidelines set out in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation published in the year 2007 and in particular, Schedule E Contents of an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study. In addition to the main body of the report there are in Appendices: i. Appendix A: Terms of reference for the study ii Appendix B: Curriculum vitae of the consultants iiI. Appendix C: Tables, socio-economic survey questionnaire, information gathered from Government units (PMU, PIU), water quality analysis

1.2 Nature and Significance of the Project

The Project consists of the construction of a gravity system to collect wastewater throughout the island of Mahibadhoo, which will be connected to each household. The gravity system will drain into a pumped main system. The pumped main system will consist of an array of pressurised mains, which will convey the wastewater to a sewage treatment plant (STP) where the inflowing sewage will be screened to 25mm and grit will be removed. The screened flow will be subject to further, secondary and tertiary treatment and will be discharged beyond the reef edge through a submerged outfall pipe.

The total length of the gravity system on the present island is about 6 km excluding house connections and the pumped main system 724 m. Two of the three pumped mains will be located respectively to the north-west and north side of the island while the third one will be in the eastern part of the inhabited village. The first phase of the STP will have the capacity to handle 305m3/d of wastewater produced by a projected population of 2352 persons (year 2022) and will be located within an area of 132.08 m 2. During the second phase another STP unit will be added and capacity has been calculated as 375m3/d of wastewater for a population of 2897 persons (year 2037). The first phase modules will be constructed immediately. The locations of the pumped mains, the pump stations and the STP within the island are shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. Location of the pumped mains, pump stations and STP in ADh. Mahibadhoo

ADh. Mahibadhoo is the capital of Alifu Dhaalu Atoll, located in the western central part of Maldives. The geographic information relating to the island issued by the MHTE is shown in Table 1.1.

Table1.1: Geographic information for Mahibadhoo Island Area 17.7 hectares Length 825 m Width 250 m Distance from Male’ 73 km Longitude 72° 58' 35" E Latitude 03° 45' 15" N

The projected growth of ADh. Mahibadhoo will place an increased demand on the limited groundwater resources of the Island. The increased demand for usable water will lead to a reduction in the per capita quantity of suitable groundwater available for laundry, personal washing and toilet flushing. A desalination plant able to produce about 30m 3/d quality water for the community has been constructed recently. At present, Mahibadhoo wastewaters are discharged in septic tanks or into the seawater through individually owned sewage system. The reduction in the size of individual house plots will reduce the separation distance between septic tanks and nearby wells and thereby increase the risk of greater contamination of the shallow wells by septic tank effluent. The development plan for the sewerage system is shown in figure 1.1.

1.3 Project Background

The Regional Development Project (RDP) was designed within the framework of the Government’s 6 th National Development Plan and focused on poverty reduction, community development and improvements in water supply, sanitation services, solid waste management and land management. The main point of the RDP is to provide infrastructure services to the outer islands of Maldives and improve communities’ quality of life (Asia Development Bank, RRP: MLD 33218; 2005). The RDP included a project management unit (PMU) under the Ministry of Housing, Transports and Environment and project implementation units (PIUs) were set up on the project focus islands. A national project steering committee was established to guide policy decisions and operational issues.

The island of Mahibadhoo was included in the RDP and development is entering its second phase (MHTE, Concept Design for Sewerage System for L. Mahibadhoo, April 2008). One of the themes of the RDP-Phase II is the development of a sewerage system in ADh.Mahibadhoo to increase the standards of living on the island, environmental sustainability and economic growth (Asia Development Bank, RRP: MLD 33218; 2005). The GOM has pledged to secure funding for the installation of the sewerage system designed by a competent engineering firm, provided that the design meets the design criteria set by the Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority (MWSA) .

The project, based on the close collaboration and work of MHTE and MWSA will help the Government to deliver basic infrastructure services to the outer islands and will consolidate systems to recover costs and provide waste and sanitation management services. The Project has a strong community-based approach to implementation and will provide tangible support to optimize participation of the private sector by establishing cooperatives for operation and maintenance (Asia Development Bank, RRP: MLD 33218; 2005)

1.4 Project Stage

The Project is the construction of the sewerage system from the connection chamber in the individual housing plots through the island wide sewerage system, a secondary and tertiary treatment plant for the sewage flow which following fine screening and grit removal will be disposed through a sea outfall flow beyond the reef edge. Conceptual design of the sewerage system and its units has been previously carried out and a base map was prepared after a topographic survey. The treatment plant will be installed in two phases: Phase I: is covered by the present EIA and is based on a projected growth population of 2352 persons in the next 15 years. The sewerage treatment plant system will be developed as a totally new unit during this first phase. The total average of wastewater flow that will be caught by the treatment plant during the first phase is 305 m 3/d. Phase I and Phase II: during this phase the sewerage treatment plant will be expanded using a supplementary unit, this will enable the system to handle a flow of 70 m 3/d from an additional population of 545 persons.

1.5 Extent of the EIA Study The report contains the following key sections: i. Description of the project ii. Description of the physical, ecological, social and cultural resources of the island. iii. Environmental impacts and mitigation measures iv. Alternatives to the proposed project considered v. Public consultation and information disclosure vi. Environmental management and monitoring plan

1.6 Outline of the Report The Mahibadhoo sewerage system will provide the whole island community with a sewage collection network and wastewater treatment plant consistent with the long-term sustainability of the freshwater lens on the island. A completely new wastewater treatment plant, based on EAASP to treat the domestic wastewater will be constructed on the island. The design for the first phase of the Project will provide a sewer network and treatment works for a population of 2352 persons. The main sewers laid under the project will have the capacity for the flow of a population of 2897 persons associated with the development of the island as a regional centre and is designed to supply its services for 30 years. Under the environmental regulations of MHTE, sewerage projects involving treatment and marine outfall pipes are categorized in Schedule D of activities requiring EIA studies.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

2.1 Type of Project The Mahibadhoo project is a sewerage and sewage treatment project which will provide the island community with a sewage collection network and wastewater treatment plant consistent with the long-term sustainability of the freshwater lens on the island. The design for the first phase of the Project will provide a sewer network and treatment works for a population of 2352 persons. The main sewer laid under the project will have capacity for the flow from a population up to 2800 persons associated with the development of the island as a regional centre. The EIA was carried out to comply with the Government of Maldives Environmental Impact Regulations, 2007. Schedule D of the regulations identifies sewerage projects as a development proposal requiring an EIA.

2.2 Need for the Project The projected growth of ADh. Mahibadhoo will place an increased demand on the limited groundwater resources of the Island. The increased demand for usable water will lead to a reduction in the per capita quantity of suitable groundwater available for laundry, personal washing and toilet flushing. The reduction in the size of individual house plots will reduce the separation distance between septic tanks and nearby wells and thereby increase the risk of greater contamination of the shallow wells by septic tank effluent and waterborne diseases. As a consequence of these predicted impacts the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment (MHTE), and the RDP Implementing Agency, have identified the construction of a sewerage network for the collection, treatment and disposal of black and grey water to be a key factor in enabling the development of the island.

2.3 Location ADh. Mahibadhoo is located 73 km from Male’ and lies on the eastern side of Alifu Dhaalu atoll of which it is the capital. The island is approximately 0.83 km long and 0.25 km wide; covering an area of 17.7 ha. The location of the island within the Alifu Dhaalu atoll is shown in the figure below (fig 2.1).

Figure 2.1. Location of Mahibadhoo within the Alifu Dhaalu Atoll (03° 45' 15" N, 72° 58' 35" E)

2.4 Magnitude of Operation In terms of geographical size the sewer system for an island population of 2352 persons will have a length of approximately 6 km. Each of the three pumping stations will occupy an area 4.6m x 3.6m and the treatment plant an area of approximately 132 m2. For a population of 2352 persons the land required for the treatment plant will be less than 0.2 m2 per capita. The remaining land allows for expansion of the plant to a population of 2897 persons during the second phase of the project and a planted buffer strip along two sides of the site. The locations of the pump stations, the pumping main and the treatment works have been shown previously in figure 1.1. In terms of volume of wastewater pumped to the STP

31 the volume calculated will be 305 m3/d during the first phase (year 2022) and 375 m3/d during the second phase (year 2037).

2.5 Schedule for Approval and Implementation Following the obtainment of the necessary approval to proceed with the construction phase, it is anticipated that the tender process could be completed within a three months period. The total duration of the contract for the construction of the gravity sewer network, main pumped sewer, treatment plant and outfall is anticipated to be approximately 12 months. The construction of the gravity sewer system, the pumped system, the treatment works and outfall will be carried out in parallel so as to enable commissioning of the complete system. The stages involved in the construction contract, their sequencing and respective durations are shown in the figure below (fig. 2.2).

Nov-08 Dec-08 Jan-08 Feb-09 Mar-09 Apr-09 May-09 Jun-09 Jul-09 Aug-09 Sep-09 Oct-09 Nov-09 Dec-09 Jan-10 Feb-10 Mar-10 Apr-10 Approval for ADB and WSA Tendering Contract award Appointment of contractor Mobilization, start construct Construction

Figure 2.2 Schedule of construction activities

Commissioning of the STP will be carried out by the construction contractor within the 12-month construction period. Under the terms of the Design and Build Contract, the contractor will arrange for training of PIU staff, at an appropriate location, in the operation and maintenance of the total system. The training will be designed to provide suitably qualified and motivated local staff to a level at which they will be able to maintain and operate the system and respond and rectify system failures.

32 2.6 Description of the Element of the Project There are four elements within the overall project: 1. The gravity collection system 2. The pumped system 3. The treatment plant 4. The sea outfall

2.6.1 The gravity collection system

2.6.1.1 Main sewers The preferred option for Mahibadhoo is a conventional sewerage system, comprising sewer mains collecting both black and grey water from households by gravity flow and discharging to the nearest pump station from where the sewage will be pumped to the sewage treatment plant. This system has been implemented in Male’ and other islands and is acceptable to Mahibadhoo. The existing island will be divided into three sewerage zones each provided with a sewerage pumping station (SPS) serving a population of less than half of the final design population. Each zone has been defined in such a way that the maximum depth of a gravity sewer arriving at a pumping station from anywhere in the zone does not exceed 1.5m. The pumping stations have been located so that the gradient of the natural ground falls towards the pumping station. This allows the main sewage pumping to cover a total length of 724m with a maximum length of 362m from SPS3 to STP. As far as possible, the pumping stations are located thus to enable collection of the maximum possible quantity of sewage from the three zones. The layout of proposed Sewerage Zones is shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Layout of Mahibadhoo sewerage zones : zone 1, zone 2, zone 3

Prefabricated manholes with inspection chambers will be provided and installed by the project contractor at major junctions.

2.6.1.2 Household connection Each household will drain into the common network located at a maximum depth of 1.5 m through a household inspection chamber below the ground level. These household inspection chambers will be located within the plot at a distance of no more than 1m from the compound wall thereby minimising the encroachment into the plot.

A simple leaflet describing the correct use of the sewerage system in terms of materials that should be flushed etc. will be prepared. This will be distributed to all households who then make the connection themselves or employ a local ‘plumber’ to do the job. The responsibility of the household connection to the system will rest with the plot owner. From the concept design it was suggested to provide uPVC pipes with a diameter of 110 mm for house connection (fig 2.4) and a diameter of 160 mm for the main gravity sewer (fig 2.5). Sewer pipelines from the houses will be connected with a slope gradient of 1:50 to the PVC inspection chambers that will direct the flow to the main sewer line by an angled connection. A typical house connection is shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of house connection to the main sewerage system

2.6.1.3 Public manholes Prefabricated manholes will be located within the road and will consist of HDPE circular corrugated shaft, a ribbed PVC chamber of 315mm diameter, a precast concrete frame and a steel cover located at the ground level. This design has three advantages: i. Ease of construction; ii. Protection against infiltration and leakage iii. Good corrosion resistance in a potentially septic, saline environment A PE or uPVC vent shaft of suitable height will be provided by household vents as well as vents in the pumping station to expel the foul gas generated.

2.6.2 The pumped system The pumping stations will lift the flow from the deep sewer to then convey it to the STP through the sewage pumping main. The route of these mains will be throughout the island, where there is sufficient road width to accommodate the mains. The pumping main is designed for 30 years as a single stage installation. The minimum diameter recommended for the pumping mains is 160mm and pipelines will be laid at a maximum depth of 1.5m from ground level. The pumping main is designed for a maximum flow velocity of 2.5 m/s and a minimum flow velocity of 0.80 m/s.

35 A total of three pumping station (SPS) able to catch the wastewater of the three sewerage zones will be used in Mahibadhoo. A further pumping station, TEPS will be associated with the treatment plant; it will lift the treated effluent to direct them to the sea outfall. Each pumping station will be provide with a sump of a capacity of 0.65m 3, a minimum diameter of 1.5m and inlet uPVC pipes of 160mm diameter. The sump will be located below the ground level at a maximum depth of 2.5m with an adjacent weather and vandal proof cabinet housing the pump control. The internal concrete surface of the sump will be protected using an epoxy resin glass fibre, while externally polythene and bitumen or rubber emulsion will be used to protect the concrete surface. Each station will be equipped with two submersible sewage pumps; one will act as a standby in the event of the duty pump failure. The project contractor will supply each pumping station with a diesel generator set for power standby, two pumps, pump by- passes, corrosion resistance guide rails, chains and delivery flanges so that the pumps can be easily withdrawn for routine maintenance. Pump capacity will be of 20m 3/h and the wastewater will be discharged through the delivery main to the sewage pumping main which will terminate to the inlet chamber of the WWTP. The pump will be sized to be able to pump the maximum when required; it will be explosion proof and replaced every 15 years to suit future flow. A valve chamber will be located adjacent to each pumping station outlet. The chamber will be 1.5m x 1.2m in plan. The figures (fig. 2.5 and 2.6) below show the longitudinal and transversal sections of the proposed pumping station.

36 Motor control panel 1.00x1.20x0.50m

Valve chamber

Ground level

To STP 250

Inlet pipe PVC Ø160mm OD

Pump start

Pump stop

Guide rail (if required)

Submersible non-clog pump

Figure 2.5 Longitudinal section of the pumping station

37 SECTION A-A

PVC pressure pipe to STP Inlet pipe PVC Ø160mm OD

Bitumen emulsion and 500 micron polythene sheet protection to external concrete surfaces 300x300x200mm deep sump Coupling

Glass fibre surface protection to all internal concrete surfaces

Figure 2.6. Transversal section of the pumping station

38 2.6.3 The treatment plant The basic concept of the treatment plant is to provide preliminary treatment to the daily sewage inflow followed by tertiary treatment before the treated flow reaches the sea. A usable site area on the north side of the island will accommodate the treatment plant, ultimately serving approximately 2897 population. The layout of the STP site is shown in figure 1.1. The treatment process comprised: i. Pre-treatment unit consisting in an inlet chamber, screen chamber and grit channel ii. Secondary treatment unit consisting in an aeration tank, secondary clarifier, sludge drying bed iii. Tertiary treatment consisting in a vertical pressure filter

high surface area fixed-fill media

Figure 2.7 Schematic layout of the wastewater treatment process

Sewerage treatment process will be based on extended aeration activated sludge process (fig. 2.7). The wastewaters collected into the treatment plant from the main sewerage system, will be firstly pumped to an oil and grease separator and a bar screen chamber (pre-treatment) and then will be moved to the collection chamber from which it will be pumped to the diffused aeration tank. The diffused aeration tank consists of a fine bubble membrane diffuser designed to produce a flow of fine air bubbles at the desired rate. This air bubbles system provides the necessary oxygen to ensure aerobic microbial

39 growth and attachment to the surface of the media. The aerobic micro-organisms are able to stabilize sewage converting organic matter into new bacterial cells. Part of these cells (activated sludge) is recycled back into the system and part is removed by secondary sedimentation. The sludge drying bed is used to dewater part of the sludge, it will consist in a 300mm thickness feed and the dry solids generated after dewatering will be 30% of the total sludge. It is recommended a 4 weeks cycle on the 300mm thick feed to enable the sludge to undergo effective drying. Tertiary treatment is necessary to achieve the required quality of effluent before being discharge into the seawater. A vertical pressure filter operating 12 hours a day consisting of sand and gravel will generate the required effluent quality. The flow leaving the settling tank, would be pumped to the treated sewage pump and then discharged by the sea outfall beyond the reef edge. The parameters used to evaluate effluent quality are consistent with those used by WHO such as BOD 5, COD, TSS and faecal coliform. The EAASP have several advantages for islands where land is limited as Mahibadhoo. The process does not require primary treatment, produce high quality effluents, has a low capital cost, require low maintenance and due to its compact design land requirement is limited. The treatment plant sanitation and maintenance will be provided for at least one year by the contractor that during this period will train PIU staff and supply the equipments for sewer cleaning. Protocol for the system operation and maintenance will be developed based on MHTE’s policies.

2.6.4 The sea outfall The discharge of treated wastewater into the near shore zone may give rise to adverse effects on coastal ecosystems or may pose a public health hazard to beach users and swimmers. The use of a long sea outfall to carry the wastewater away from the near shore enables the wastewater to be discharged into deeper water where dilution in the form of vertical and horizontal mixing reduces rapidly the concentration of contaminants and pathogens. This dilution is important, especially when the treatment plant fails and the sewerage is discharged directly into the environment. The correct design and positioning of the outfall will enable optimum dilution to occur. The dilution occurs in two linked processes which can however be considered separately. The first process is initial dilution, which takes place in the immediate vicinity of the outfall and is a function of the design of the outfall. The second process is advection

40 and dispersion and its effectiveness is a function of the location of the outfall in the receiving environment. The TEPS valve chamber pipe is directly connected with a HDPE pipe to discharge the treated effluents at least 10m below the MSL. The outfall consists of two parts: i. The headwork and outfall pipe which convey the effluent to the point in the marine environment where it is to be discharged. ii. The diffuser section which releases the effluent into the environment. At its simplest, it will be a T pen ended pipe. During the sea outfall construction, the use of floating pontoons will help in limiting costs and facilitating the contractor in setting the outfall pipelines. At the moment information on vessels or other equipment use are not available, these may potentially increase construction cost. Small differences in pipe size do not have a major cost impact. Consequently rather than design the outfall for the year 2022 population, the outfall has been sized to convey the total peak sewage flow in the year 2037. Should the population eventually reach up to 2897 persons in the longer term, additional low-lift pumps would be required to pass the flow through the outfall pipe. On this design basis, a 160mm diameter high density polyethylene pipe will be required. The HDPE pipe will be laid to the natural seabed profile with approximately a 5% gradient until the reef slope, which is approximately 45 % at the considered location. The outfall pipe will be held in place by a series of anchor concrete blocks having a 200mm hole or stainless steel or PVC straps, which will embed the outfall pipe. A sea level control weir chamber will be fixed at the seashore bank. A detailed survey of the proposed outfall route has been carried out to enable a suitable location with respect to depth and distance from the shore.

A specific seabed survey was carried out in November 2008, to determine the profile of the seabed along the proposed outfall line . The profile is shown in Figure 2.8. A plume, based on the total treated wastewater from a up to 2000 persons population, released below 10m from the MSL out of the reef edge, with a velocity of 0.74m/s in a 0.3m/s current will undergo a 700-fold dilution . Currents in the area could be as high as 1 m/s.

Figure 2.8 Topographic profile of the seabed along the proposed sea outfall location

42 3. PROJECT SETTINGS

Apart from the Environmental Protection and Preservation Act of Maldives (Law No. 4/93) providing for an impact assessment study to be submitted to the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment (MHTE), there are no specific regulations implemented for sewage treatment at island level. However, a draft regulation on sanitation has been developed which has not yet been endorsed nor implemented. The most important aspects of this regulation have been taken as the design specifications, which have been given by the Male Water Sanitation Authority (MWSA), the regulatory body. In particular, standards of BOD below 20mg/l and total suspended solids, as well as daily volume of sewage to be treated per head have been given by MWSA. (In the concept design report WHO standards: 20-60mg/l, TSS 150 mg/l, COD 120 mg/l).

The cutting down of trees is controlled under two regulations: 1 Regulation on the cutting and uprooting of palms and trees and exporting them from one island to another . This regulation was made under the Maldivian EPPA (4/93). Under Article 5 (a) of this regulation, it is mandatory to carry out an EIA prior to any development or redevelopment work that involves cutting, uprooting of palms and trees and exporting them from one island to another. The beachfront vegetation ( heylhi ) of the island is conserved through the 15 m vegetation buffer rule stated under Article 3 (a) of this regulation. Article 8 (a) requires permission be obtained from the MHTE, if more than 10 coconut palms that are of a size of 15 ft from the base of the palm to the tip of the palm frond are cut, uprooted or relocated to another island. The regulation also ensures the replacement of the vegetation that is lost by imposing the planting of two palms/trees for every palm/tree that is cut or uprooted (Article 2 (d)). Logging on inhabited islands must be done under supervision of the Islands Chief or an official appointed by the Island Chief (Article 8 (c)).

2 The Act relating to Coconut Palms and Trees of Inhabited Islands (Law No. 21/98) . The conservation of terrestrial flora and living resources of inhabited islands are governed by this act.

43 4. DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENT

4.1 Physical environment

4.1.1 Meteorology

4.1.1.1 Climate The Maldivian climate is dominated by the monsoon regime. This is caused by the air mass temperature difference and the associated pressure gradients between the Tibetan plateau and the Indian Ocean (Fein and Stephens 1987). During the month of July and August, the Tibetan plateau is warmer than the ocean, while it is colder during the northern hemisphere winter. In some literature, the transition periods between the two established monsoons are referred to as seasons in their own right. The wind direction and precipitation are more erratic during these two periods locally referred to as the Iruvai Halha (October – November) and the Hulhangu Halha (March-April).

4.1.1.2 Rainfall The rainiest monsoon is the longer southwest monsoon, while the northeast is mostly dry. This is explained by the fetch over the sea from both directions. The average monthly rainfall is given in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 below. The airport closest to the island of Mahibadhoo is Hulhule.

Table 4.1. Average rainfall from airports from 1994 to 2003 Hanimadhoo Hulhule Kadhdhoo Kaadedhoo Gan Jan 60 129 183 150 205 Feb 33 55 71 71 55 Mar 19 38 109 60 120 Apr 66 153 186 178 191 May 213 205 254 257 191 Jun 232 172 123 197 178 Jul 246 191 159 175 164 Aug 208 161 186 186 208 Sep 180 227 241 243 227 Oct 197 221 306 243 223 Nov 175 213 232 238 224 Dec 96 216 241 254 252 Yearly 1725 1982 2291 2253 2238 Source: Department of Meteorology

Figure 4.1. Monthly rainfall averages 1994 to 2003 at the different airports

With an average of 1725 mm of rain per year, the northern part of the Maldives experiences less amount of rain compared to the central and southern parts. The averages are 1982 in Hulhule, and between 2200 and 2300 mm for the three southern airports. The records from Hanimadhoo show that the number of rainy days (days with more than 0.3 mm of rainfall) is also comparatively lower than in the central and southern atolls. With 134 days of rain in average, this compares favourably to the 154 days recorded in Hulhule, the 158 days from Kadhdhoo and the 164 days in Addu Gan. The northern islands are more subjected to long periods of drought during the northeast monsoon, with more than 5 months in a row from December to April experiencing on average rainfall inferior to 100 mm per month. Whereas in the north the most abundant rains occur in July, the southern atolls show more of a peak in precipitation when the monsoons change.

4.1.1.3 Temperature Daily temperatures vary little throughout the year with a mean annual temperature of 28ºC. The most important impact related to temperature change is the extensive coral bleaching which occurred in 1998. Another event occurred previously in 1987. In both cases, the Department of Meteorology recorded a monthly average over 32.5 ºC for a single month in 1987 and for three months in 1998 respectively, resulting in a significant loss of coral cover.

45 4.1.1.4 Wind pattern

Wind data shows a clear pattern of wind direction relating to the seasons two monsoon periods, the south-west monsoon (May to October) and the north-east monsoon (December to April). Figure 4.2 shows wind pattern from year 2003 to 2008 and the direction in which the wind is blowing.

Figure 4.2 Average wind speed in knots and direction

During the NE monsoon the east side of the island is exposed to strong winds and high waves, while during the SW monsoon it is the west side of the island that is exposed to strong winds and high waves. Because the western part of Mahibadhoo lay inside the atoll the influence of the wind generated from the south-west monsoon tend to be less strong than that of the NE monsoon.

46 4.1.2 Geomorphologic features Like many of the other atolls Alifu Dhaalu atoll consists of a broad bank with a discontinuous fringing reef and numerous patch reefs and faros within the atoll. Inside the atoll, water depth is in the region of 30 to 40 m. To the west and east of the Maldives ocean depth falls to more than 2,000m and the east-west channels are also relatively deep at about 1,000m. Mahibadhoo is located on the eastern side of the Alifu Dhaalu Atoll. The reef on the northern and southern part of the island is characterized by a prominent slope, on the western side a number of vilus on the reef flat, which is not very extensive. Some of these natural depressions have been converted into harbours, and some channel dug to allow access. The most important excavation resulted in the creation of a rubble bank as a separate island (fig. 4.3).

Figure 4.3 Artificial rubble bank in the western side of the island

The eastern reef shows a natural rubble bank, created by the larger waves from the southeast, which acts as coastline protection for the eastern side of the island exposed principally to oceanic swell waves (fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Natural rubble bank in the eastern side of the island

4.1.3 Freshwater-Groundwater

4.1.3.1 Formation of the freshwater lens

Freshwater on the island occurs almost entirely as groundwater within the aquifer that overlies the coral rock, and forms a freshwater ‘lens’ floating on the seawater beneath. The quantity of fresh water, which can be retained on the island, is a result of the dynamic balance between the rate of rainfall and the rate of discharge from the ‘lens’ into the sea. Typically, the bulk of rainfall is lost either rapidly as evaporation or less rapidly as evapo-transpiration from vegetation (fig.4.5). The balance of rainfall and evapo-transpiration infiltrates into the permeable coral- sandy soils and accumulates as fresh groundwater. The fresh water floats on the saline groundwater infiltrating the island laterally from the sea at depth. Because of the differences in density, a freshwater lens develops, which tends to be thickest in the centre of the island, where groundwater levels are highest. The typical ratio between the height of freshwater above mean sea level compared to the depth of freshwater below mean sea level is of the order of 1:20. Groundwater levels above MSL on small islands may be 0.10 to 0.50m above sea level. This would support a freshwater lens with a thickness of 2-10 m. When measuring the dimensions of the lens the boundary is generally considered to be defined by conductivity of 2,500 microS/cm. To

48 place the conductivity values in context, a conductivity of around 50,000 microS/cm represents seawater, 2,500 microS/cm is the limit for non-potable domestic use and 1,500 the upper limit for potable use.

Figure 4.5 Conceptual groundwater structure for coral atoll island (after Falkland)

4.1.3.2 Carrying capacity of freshwater lens

The freshwater lens capacity is highly dependent on the shape of the island as well as the composition of the substrate. The rainfall also varies throughout the Maldives making a sizeable difference in the natural recharge. In general, aquifers are particularly vulnerable to pollution from the surface and pollutants can be transferred rapidly to the water table. This is because:

i. The strata have a high vertical permeability, ii. Depth to groundwater is usually less than 1.0m, iii. Soil, if present, is very thin so the protection afforded by a microbiologically active soil zone is small or absent; iv. The unsaturated zone is too thin to provide protection for groundwater as many of the aquifer-groundwater processes normally encountered are not effective on short distances.

49 v. The frequent intense rainfall of very low salinity water, mobilizes pollutants downwards, and carries them rapidly to the shallow water table.

In addition, the freshwater floats on top of the salt water therefore the high vertical permeability also makes the freshwater lens susceptible to the effects of ‘upconing’ of the saline interface. This is particularly likely when groundwater is used at a high rate, as when pumping, when saline water tends to be drawn upwards into the base of the well in such a way that water can suddenly become highly saline. The likelihood of this occurring are greatest when the saline interface is shallow and even low rate domestic use can induce an increase in salinity. A geo-hydrology study conducted in 2007 as part of the RDP II indicated that the fresh ground water lens thickened towards the middle of the island and the football ground. The results showed that that the thickness of fresh ground water lens increased towards the northern end of the football ground to more than 5m (resistivity greater than about 10 ohm-m). The transition zone thickens inland but near the coast it was sharp, changing from seawater to potable ground water in less than one meter (Appendix C).

4.1.4 Currents

4.1.4.1 Tidal currents Tidal range is small, spring and neap tide ranges being less than 1.2 m and greater than 0.2 m respectively. The tidally driven currents dominate the deeper part of the slope, and in particular the area where the outfall will be located. They run from east to west during the flood and from west to east during the ebb, on the southern and northern side of the island.

4.1.4.2 Wave driven current On the reef top, the currents are dominated by the gradient setup by wave crashing on the edge of the reef as well as the bathymetry. The waves spill over the reef crests and create a setup in the lagoon, which drives a current to the least exposed side of the island, where the water is evacuated. The creation of channels through the reef crest alters the patterns significantly by creating favoured escape routes for the excess water. The eastern side of the island is mostly affected by swell waves whereas the rest of the island is mostly subject to wind waves.

50 4.1.4.3 Wind driven currents On the surface of the sea around the island, water movement will be dominated by wind action. Surface currents in the region are driven by the seasonal monsoons. From December to March the currents are generally westward in response to the NE monsoon while from May to October they are easterly and south easterly in response to the SW monsoon. Current speeds are generally in the range 1-1.5 kt (0.5 – 0.8 m/s)4. There is no specific registration of currents available for the area.

4.1.4.4 Proposed outfall area The designated outfall area (see reef profile fig. 2.8), located in the north side of the island, was defined by a not prominent reef crest ending in the inner reef slope and the fore reef. A particular current pattern has been observed at this location. Changes in current direction have been observed at the designated outfall area and in front of the harbour. On the west side of the harbour the current was predominantly eastward the day of visit under a northwest wind. There was a suspended sediment turbid zone in front and at both sides of the STP reclaimed area. Once the harbour channel crossed, turbidity decreases quickly and the current came from the east under the action of the tide. The present outfall area is precisely that area where the westward and eastward currents are mixing. The transit of waves through the concrete blocks used as protection for the harbour tend to create a wave setup and generate an internal current which have been observed to be direct out through the harbour channel. Due to the shallow depth and the sandy bottom of the harbour, the internal current create a sediment plume which has been detected moving on both side of the harbour entrance (figure 4.6a). In addition due to wind action from the northwest, sediment was resuspended near the reclaimed area creating an even larger plume. Figure 4.6b shows the boundaries and extension of the plume. A high degree of turbulence was observed and the streamlines patterns are locally very unpredictable.

Figure 4. 6 a - (left) Schematic layout of the plume movement along the west and east side of the northern harbour entrance; b – (right) boundaries and extension of the plume.

52 4.1.5 Air pollution There are few motor vehicles on the island and the largest single source of exhaust emission is likely to be the power generation plant. On the other hand, the burning of the garbage in the wild dumps on the shore is a much more concerning problem.(fig 4.7)

Figure 4.7 Garbage burned in the near shore at the north side of the island

4. 1.6 Noise pollution The main sources of noise are the harbour areas, due to boat traffic, but also for the southern harbour due to harbour construction. The powerhouse is located well away from the housing plots and noise pollution is limited.

4. 1.7 Geology and seismology The atolls of the Maldives are high points on the mid-point of the 3,000km long north-south Laccadive-Chagos submarine ridge, which extends north to south across the bed of the Indian Ocean. The main submarine mountain chain is of Tertiary (Early Eocene to Plio-Pleistocene) volcanic rock rising from the seabed, related geochemically to the Deccan basalts of India. Beneath North Male’ atoll (where exploratory drilling for oil was done in 1976) volcanic ‘bedrock’ was encountered at 2,100m depth beneath a succession that was predominantly limestone. The recent and uppermost coral deposits, and the

53 superficial deposits which overlie the limestone bedrock, are thought to show signs of erosional benches due to slightly higher Holocene sea levels and evidence of recent declining sea level fluctuations. The coral rock represents the latest modern phase of limestone deposition. The reef-derived and wholly calcareous sands and gravel deposits, which form the atoll islands, are the most recent superficial deposits and comprise the main aquifer. These deposits comprise the storage medium for almost all of the fresh water resources of the Republic, although in many cases the underlying coral rocks may also form minor aquifers. The aquifers encountered in all regions will be essentially similar, varying only in thicknesses. There may also be variation in the extent to which the contiguous coral rock is also able to store and transmit fresh water, and the extent of thin beds of beach rock. Anderson has interpreted the submarine topography of Maldivian atolls as indicating sea level 130m deeper than present sea level during the last glacial maximum. If this is the case, then the occurrence of deep solution fissuring in the coral strata underlying the alluvial aquifer can be predicted as a result of sub-aerial erosion during this period. The unconsolidated superficial sand and gravel aquifer comprises stratified sand and gravel of shell and coral debris, ranging from fine sand size to coarse conglomerate. Within and beneath the succession are more cemented intervals (such as beach rock) which have been produced possibly as a result of temporary emergence or times of stable groundwater level. The aquifer across the Republic is relatively uniform so the properties determined on any island are essentially applicable to all others, although thicknesses may vary and there may be detailed variations in grain size. The consolidated coral rock underlying the sands may also form part of the aquifer and its significance varies from place to place. The closest zone of significant seismic activity is the Carlsberg Ridge which is a mid-ocean ridge, located in the Arabian Sea between India and northern Africa and lies approximately 800km to the west of the Maldives. The ridge lies at the divergent boundary between Indian and African plates and is a slow spreading ridge. Near the epicentre, the Indian plate is moving away from the African plate at the rate of 33 millimetres per year in a north-easterly direction. The active ridge has associated transform faults, where plates slide horizontally past each other giving the plate boundary a zigzag pattern. Ridges are marked by a belt of shallow and low magnitude earthquakes caused by the release of tensional stress in the uplifted ridge. However, large earthquakes of the magnitude of 7.5 - 8 are associated with

54 horizontal movement of plates along the transform faults. In November 1983, an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 occurred along a transform fault zone. As part of the UNDP study, a risk analysis was carried out using the historic data to identify Seismic Hazard Zones for the Maldives based on predictions of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA), the maximum value of ground motion acceleration. Based on the PGA values calculated for a return period of 475 years the Maldives were divided into five Seismic Hazard Zones as shown in figure 4.8. Mahibadhoo lies in Zone 1, hazard and the risk of damage to the sewer network of the treatment plant of a direct consequence of seismic activity is therefore low.

Figure 4.8. Location of Mahibadhoo within the Predicted Seismic Hazard Zones

55 4.2 Ecological Resources

4.2.1 Fisheries Data available on the ADh. Government website shows that in Mahibadhoo there were 68 fishing vessels operating in 2007. Fishing vessels on the island were represented by 45 mechanised masdhoani followed by 20 bokkura and 3 sailing dhonis . Statistic data from the MOFAMR shows that in 2006 the total fish catch in south Ari atoll (Alifu Dhaalu) was 7,849.42 MT (metric tons) mostly represented by tuna fishery with skipjack tuna and dogtooth tuna the most fished. Other fish caught for local consumption were reef fish and blue fin jack. Data on lobster and sea-cucumber fisheries were not available, however due to the proximity of resorts it is possible that lobster are regularly fished and sold to the tourism industry.

4.2.2 Benthic substrate A snorkel survey was conducted at the area proposed for the outfall in November 2008. Photographic transects were carried out at 12 sites around the island to assess the benthic cover and development relative to water depth. Using a 25 point grid, all pictures of each series including 7 pictures, were analyzed to provide accurate statistical values of the benthic coverage. A total of 175 data points along each quadrat were evaluated for quantitative and qualitative indicators. Figure 4.9 shows the sites of the survey within Mahibadhoo reef.

Fig 4.9 Locations of the photographic transects within Mahibadhoo reef

56 Photographic transects were taken at different depths to obtain a general representation of the status of the Mahibadhoo reef. The following abiotic and biotic categories were examined during photographs analysis: live corals, dead corals, sand, rubble, pavement, silt, coralline and turf algae, macroalgae and others (i.e. ascidians, soft corals, sponges etc.). The dead coral category includes those substrates regarded as dead corals usually overgrown by algae or organisms and recently dead corals which have a characteristic white skeleton. During the survey few recently dead corals were recorded. Due to the particularity of the Maldivian reefs, the majority of the substrate on which live corals have been observed to grow was calcium carbonate (dead coral pavement). Live coral cover at the designated outfall area (3°45'32.3"N, 72°58'10.5"E) was low, with percentage cover fluctuating between 20 and 25% (figure 4.10). This would be considered average or even good in the northern part of the Maldives, but is relatively low compared to other sites around ADh. Atoll. Tabulate and digitate Acroporidae, Pocilloporidae and massive Porites were the most represented families at the site. This site appeared to be mostly composed of dead corals and rubble, however was supporting a highly diverse fauna; indeed, numerous fish belonging to several families were observed, some of these were fisheries target species such as tuna, jobfish and blue fin jack as shown in table 4.2. At the north side of the island the highest percentage of benthic substrate was dead coral, the live corals observed along the reef were mostly represented by Pocilloporidae, Acroporidae, Poritidae and Faviidae families. The lowest live coral cover was recorded at the eastern side of Mahibadhoo reef. Close to the rubble bank (3°45’23.2” N, 72°58’27.5” E), the percentage of dead corals was slightly higher than those recorded for rubble. The south side of the island was mostly dominated by dead corals, followed by live corals and coralline algae. At the south-west side many live tabular, branching and digitate Acropora have been observed.

Figure 4.10 Benthic percentage cover of all the surveyed sites including live corals, abiotic substrate and coralline algae

The north-western reef flat area was characterized by high live coral cover, representative coral genera were Acropora (tabulate, branching and digitate), Porites and Pocillopora; low percentage of dead corals, rubble, pavement or sand were recorded at this site. Many coral recruits and young colonies of Acropora were also observed throughout the reef flat. The shallowest part of the reef flat was mostly characterized by species adapted to tidal range and high solar irradiance. A similar trend was observed at the north west part of the vilu (site 11; 3°45'30.27"N, 72°57'55.27"E) characterized by a platform of Porites rus . From the north western reef flat moving to east, high percentage of coral colonies have been recorded along the slight slope facing the vilu . Other corals genus observed during the surveys were Platygyra , Meandrina , Fungia and Tubastrea . Black coral colonies (Antipatharia spp) have been observed at the north-west side of the island, the species belonging to this group are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The overall benthic categories percentage cover observed at all examined sites at Mahibadhoo reef are shown in the figure 4.11 below.

Figure 4.11 Benthic percentage cover at Mahibadhoo reef. The category others include ascidian, soft corals, sponges and zoanthids

As shown in figure 4.11 Mahibadhoo reef is mostly characterized by dead corals and other abiotic substrates. However due to the presence of many young coral colonies and recruits, the reef appears to recover from the 1998 bleaching. The anthropogenic threats that a high density inhabited island can pose, do not seem to jeopardize this process. It is difficult to weigh these different factors quantitatively. The fish community was highly diverse throughout the reef. Schools of blue fusiliers, triggerfish, bat fish and parrot fish were observed at many locations, for example between the harbour concrete blocks protection and the reef slope. On the reef crest, most of the fish species were either cryptic species such as blennies or transient species such as surgeon fishes, which move inshore at high tide. A number of wrasses were observed throughout Mahibadhoo reef, as well as butterflyfish, small groupers, sweet lips, unicornfish, blue triggerfish and different species of parrot fish; some of the observed species are listed in table 4.2. Among the invertebrates, four species of sea cucumber, two anemone species (Actinodendron arboretum, Cryptodendrum adhaesium ) and few cushion sea stars ( Culcita schmedeliana ) and sea urchins were observed. Few small patches of Caulerpa racemosa

59 were recorded on the western reef flat, other macroalgae observed during the survey were Halimeda sp. and the pom pom algae Tydemonia expeditionis. Furthermore, a black tip shark, and two turtles (hawksbill and green) were seen during the survey.

Table 4.2 Fish observed during the survey Species Common name Acanthurus triostegus Convict surgeonfish Labroides dimidiatus Blue-streak cleaner wrasse Pterois radiata White-lined lionfish Caranx melampygus Blue fin jack Lutjanus kasmira Blue-stripped snapper Forcipiger longirostrus Very long nose butterflyfish Platax orbicularis Rounded batfish Aprion virescens Green jobfish Dascyllus aruanus Humbug damsel Chromis atripectoralis Blue-green puller Acanthurus leucosternon Powder blue surgeonfish Zanclus cornutus Moorish idol Diodon liturosus Blotched porcupinefish Odonus niger Blue triggerfish Ctenochaetus striatus Fine lened bristletooth Scarus strongylocephalus Sheepedhead parrotfish Chaetodon meyeri Meyer's butterflyfish Trachinotus baillonii Black spotted Pompano Balistoides conspicillum Clown triggerfish Plectorhinchus orientalis Oriental sweetlips Caesio lunaris Moon fusilier Chaetodon vagabundus Vagabond butterflyfish Gnathodentex aurolineatus Gold spot emperor

4.2.3 Wildlife Diversity within the terrestrial ecosystems is restricted by the small size of the land areas, the high porosity, the shallow soil depth and the relatively high soil salinity, therefore vegetation is commonly characterized by salt tolerant species. In Maldives of a total of 583 species of plant, 260 are native or naturalised species usually used for traditional medicinal purposes. Species commonly found on the vegetated islands include mangrove, breadfruit, banyan , pandanus, heliotrope, caltrop, hibiscus, tropical vines and coconut palms. During the terrestrial survey in Mahibadhoo no mangroves were observed. The diversity of the terrestrial fauna is relatively poor, the only native mammals recorded in Maldives are two subspecies of fruit bat, the Indian Flying Fox ( Pteropus

60 giganteus ) and Small Flying Fox ( Pteropus hypommelanus ). However, the later one is rare in the country and is considered an endangered species. The Indian flying fox was observed during daytime flying between the larger trees on the southern side of the island and also around trees of the south-western part. This species is classified by IUCN as Low Risk. The rat, ( Rattus novegicus ), known locally as Palm Squirrel or Maldivian Hamster, is also present, probably having been introduced from visiting ships. The range of reptile genera is small being mainly small lizards and geckos ( Hemidactylus spp.). The avian fauna of the Maldives is less well known, but 190 recorded bird species have been identified most of which are migrants, seasonal visitors, vagrants or introduced species. Less than 10% of these species are resident. The most common land birds are crows, white-breasted water hen and Indian mynah. Common visiting migrants include waders such as plovers, snipe, curlew and sandpiper. Occasional visiting migrants include harriers, and falcons. Terns, gulls and noddies are common offshore species. Sixty-nine species of birds are now protected under Environmental Law (Law No 4/93). The only protected species observed during the survey was Casmerodius albus (great egret).

4.2.4 Forests There are no forests as such on Mahibadhoo however, an aerial view of the island shows that it has significant areas of vegetation in the north part and along the exposed eastern ‘ridge’. On the north side of the island a large portion of the vegetation was planted to consolidate a strip of reclaimed land. The selected area for the treatment plant and SPS2 settlement was characterized by small trees and bushes or ground growing plant such as Ipomoea ( Ipomoea purpurea ). The ground and first storey trees recorded were almost only coconut palms, some nika , ipil ipil , dhiggaa , midhili , hiru’ndhu and boashi . Adjacent to the site selected for SPS1 big coconut palms (third storey) and two third storey funas ( Calophyllum inophyllum ) were observed. At SPS3 site one second storey coconut three was recorded adjacent to a private property wall. From the information gathered from the design concept to the sewerage system, none of the third or second storey trees will be affected by the construction phase. However, it is suggested to require the contractor to relocate the trees that may need to be removed to other areas of island. Table 4.3 below illustrates the local, common and scientific names of the observed plants and trees at the SPS and STP sites.

Table 4.3 Overview of the trees and plants at the SPSs and STP sites 61 Local name Common name Scientific name Site Storey

Dhivehi ruh Coconut palm Cocos Nucifera 3rd Funa Poon wood/ beauty leaf Calophyllum inophyllum 3rd Dhiggaa Sea hibiscus/Cotton wood Hibiscus tiliaceus 1 1st Ahi/ Ehi Cheese fruit Morinder citrifolia ground Midhili Country almond/ Tropical almond Terminalia catappa ground Dhiggaa Sea hibiscus/Cotton wood Hibiscus tiliaceus 1st Hirun'dhu/ Huren'dhi Tulip tree/ Portia tree/ Bendy tree Thespesia populnea 1st Kuredhi/ Keredhi Iron wood Pemphis acidula 1st Nika Banyan tree Ficus benghalensis 2/STP 1st Midhili Country almond/ Tropical almond Terminalia catappa ground Jeymu Japanese cherry tree/ Jam tree Muntingia calabura ground Dhivehi ruh Coconut palm Cocos Nucifera ground Boashi Tree heliotrope Tournefortia argentea ground Ipil ipil Ipil ipil Leucaena leucocephala ground Dhivehi ruh Coconut palm Cocos Nucifera 3 3rd

4.2.5 Rare and endangered species There are three bird species listed by Birdlife International as endangered and which have records for the Maldives. These are listed in Table 4.4 below. There are no records for any of the three listed species occurring on Mahibadhoo.

Table 4.4: Status of Endangered Bird Species in the Maldives Species Status Occurence

Lesser Kestrel Vulnerable Addu Atoll a small party, November/December 1958; others in November/December 1961; 1-3 regularly Falco naumanni October-February; five in January 1975. Gamu Atoll , October-February, undated.

IUCN 1 classifies this species a vagrant with respect to the Maldives.

White-eyed Gull Near Although no specific location records are given by Larus leucophthalmus Threatened Birdlife International, IUCN indicates that this species occurs as a vagrant in the Maldives.

Sociable Lapwing Critical A single record is given as certain. Seenu Atoll ; one Vanellus gregarius individual in September of an unspecified year. There are also two other reports: Male’, small flocks on playing fields during the north-east monsoon, undated. Addu Atoll , one individual, September 1975. IUCN classifies this species a vagrant with respect to the Maldives.

62 4.2.6 Protected area Thirty ‘Protected Marine Areas’ have been delineated, mainly in the central region resort area. These are listed in Table 4.5 below.

Table 4.5: Protected Marine Areas in the Maldives. Name of Area Atoll Year Dhekunu Thilafalhuge Miyaruvani North Male’ Atoll 1995 Dhigalihaa Horubadhoo Thila Baa Atol 1999 Eidhigali Kulhi and Koattey Area Hithadhoo, Addu Atoll 2004 Embudhoo Kanduolhi South Male’ Atoll 1995 Faruhuruvalhi beyru South Ari Atoll 1999 Filitheyo Kandu Faafu Atoll 1999 Fushi Kandu Dhaalu Atoll 1999 Fushivaru Thila Lhaviyani Atoll 1995 Gaathu Giri / Adhdhashugiri North Male’ Atoll 1995 Giravaru Kuda Haa North Male’ Atoll 1995 Gulhifalhu / Kollavaani North Male’ Atoll 1995 Guraidhoo Kanduolhi South Male’ Atoll 1995 Hithaadhoo with associated lagoon and reef Gaafu Alifu Atoll 2006 Hurasdhoo with associated lagoon and reef Alifu Dhaalu Atoll 2006 Karibeyru Thila North Ari Atoll 1999 Kuda Huraa mangrove area Male' Atoll 2006 Kudarah Thila South Ari Atoll 1995 Kureddhu Kanduolhi Lhaviyani Atoll 1999 Lanka Thila Male’ Atoll 1999 Lhazikuraadi Meemu Atoll 1999 Makunudhoo Kanduolhi North Male’ Atoll 1995 Maya Thila North Ari Atoll 1995 Miyaru Kandu Vaavu Atoll 1995 Mushimasmigili Thila North Ari Atoll 1995 Olhugiri with associated lagoon and reef Baa Atoll 2006 Orimas Thila North Ari Atoll 1995 Rasfari Faru North Male’ Atoll 1995 Thanburudhoo Thila North Male’ Atoll 1995 Vattaru Kandu Vaavu Atoll 1999 Vilingila Thila Raa Atoll 1999

All the protected areas in Ari Atoll, highlighted in the table above (Table 4.4) are at least 10 nm from Mahibadhoo.

4.2.7 Coastal resources The costal resources in the area consist of the biological resources, the physical resources of the seabed as well as the aesthetic and recreational features of the coast. During the island survey, examination of the coastal zone reveals large quantities of recently dumped domestic and construction wastes principally along the near shore indicating the waste disposal facility included in RDP II and not yet built is a dear need for the islanders (Fig. 4.12).

Figure 4.12 Garbage dumped on the north near shore of the island

The socio-economic survey outputs indicate that many households were involved in fishing activities and in many cases fishing was the primary source of incomes for these families (Fig. 4.13). Such levels of employment and activity indicate the presence of a significant marine biological resource, which is contributing to the island economy.

4.3 Socio-economic survey and willingness to pay A socio-economic survey was performed in November 2008 by PIU staff on a sample of 50 households (10% of the total households) covering the three different catchments for the sewerage system. Questionnaires (appendix C) with open and close answers were used to assess the socio-economic status of the population, and their perception and willingness to pay for the sewerage system. The data were entered in excel and the outputs are presented in this report along with the questionnaire in the appendix.

4.3.1 Mahibadhoo socio-economic setting Socio-economic conditions were analysed based on household’s monthly incomes, source of incomes, primary expenditures and house comforts. Average monthly salary was of 30000-35000 Rufiyaa for 40% of the households and between 15000 and 20000 Rufiyaa for 24 % of the families surveyed (Fig. 4.13). Data showed a mean of 9 persons per household on the total of 50 households surveyed.

Figure 4.13 Income distribution among the fifty households surveyed .

Households rely principally on fishing and commercial activities as primary source of incomes. In addition, also commercial activities, such as shops or cafés, seem to provide part of the villagers’ incomes (Fig. 4.14).

Figure 4.14 Sources of income for the villagers

Most of the expenses appeared to be associated with transport, medicines and food, followed by fuel, electricity and cloths as shown in the figure 4.15 below. Expenses

65 related to water facilities were not stated while garbage disposal expenses have low impact on the households’ monthly salaries.

Figure 4.15 Households monthly expenses in Rufiyaa

4.3.2 Water supply, sanitation and health related issues At the moment water is supplied mostly by private water tanks. Many households have two water tanks (54%), while the percentage of households with one or three water tanks is roughly the same (respectively 22 and 24%). Most of the water tanks were bought using loan or grants and the owners appeared to be totally satisfied with the water rain tanks. On the island, freshwater collected in the water tanks is used for drinking and cooking, while ground water (well water) is used for washing, bathing and flushing. All private wells of the surveyed households are equipped with pumps, which run for about 8 hours/day. The main difference between rain and well water was perceived in relation to water quality as shown in the figure 4.16. Purification of the ground water is principally obtained by boiling, however 42 households seems to prefer mineral water as drinking water. In addition, in the last year health issues related to contaminated water (water borne- diseases) did not affect 84% of the households.

Figure 4.16 Householders water quality perception. Well water refers as groundwater.

Different toilet facilities are in use on the island and 64% of the households seem to use sanitary toilets with pour flush, flushing cisterns and gifilis. At the moment toilet effluents’ are collected in septic tanks, which discharge to the sea through sewer pipes (58%), by soak pits to the island (8%) or to the compound (34%). Among the fifty households surveyed, nine believed that their toilet facilities are polluting their well water, fourteen perceived bad smell and sixteen complained about the lack of cleanliness of the system in use. The totality of the interviews stated their preference for offsite sanitation rather than septic tanks. Regarding water supply facilities, population showed preference for pumped water from desalination plant or from the ground for water supply. In the first case villagers preferred to be connected directly to the system. Eighty percent of the surveyed families were aware that desalinated water supply and relative services have to be paid.

4.3.3 Population perception on RDPII Results showed that only half of the population was aware about the Regional Development Project. However, the willingness to participate to the project was very high (100%, questions 3.4.3 and 3.4.4; appendix C). Population expectation on improving water supply and sanitation facilities due to the sewerage system was also high, reflecting the understanding of the villagers about the present water issues.

67 4.3.4 Willingness to pay The willingness to pay, for improved water supply and sanitation, was assessed by monetary ranges. Most of the villagers were disposed to pay 100 Rufiyaa for piped water supply and the same amount of money was accepted in the case of provided septic tanks and effluent treatment on the island. A similar trend was also found in the case of an entire sewage treatment and disposal of the septic tanks, the islanders always choosing the minimum proposed in the questionnaire.

4.4 Water quality

4.4.1 Seawater Seawater samples were collected at two sites along the coastline of Mahibadhoo; at the north STP site near the harbour where the proposed sea outfall will be located and at the south harbour site (Fig. 4.17).

Figure 4.17. Ground and seawater sample sites within Mahibadhoo. The numbers in the figure indicate well location, while letters are use to indicate seawater samples locations

The results of the seawater quality tests on the water samples collected at all these sites, are shown in table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Results of the water quality tests carried out on the seawater samples collected from Mahibadhoo. 68 Parameter North STP South harbour Units Test Method Sites A B - Physical appearance clear clear - Oxygen demand 896 1159 mg/l Photometry (COD) Electrical conductivity 51400 51600 µs/cm - pH 8.1 8.3 - Electrometry Nitrate 1.77 0.89 mg/l Photometry Nitrite 0.00 0.01 mg/l Photometry Ammonia 4.60 6.99 mg/l Photometry Salinity 33.9 33.9 mg/l Electrometry Suspended solids 5.00 7.00 mg/l Photometry Turbidity 2 2 NTU Photometry

The chemical analyses do not show any inconsistencies between the two sites. Nitrate is higher at the south harbour site, but still in the normal parameter range for seawater. The water was clear at all sites. The oxygen demand was considerably higher in the southern harbour. This result was probably due to the harbour expansion and constructions being carried out at the site. High suspended solid at the south harbour site confirmed the influence of the coastal construction works.

69 4.4.2 Groundwater Ground water samples were collected at 3 sites around the island (Fig. 4.15). Ground water was collected from both privates and public wells. Site 1 was at the centre of a populated area (old mosque), while site 2 and 3 were respectively located at the northwest and east sides of the island. The old mosque was in disuse as well as its septic tank, and the well water was expected to be in the normal WHO parameters.

Table 4.7 Results of the water quality test conducted on ground water samples at the National Health Laboratory, Male’ Parameter Old mosque SPS1 SPS3 Units Test Method

Sites 1 2 3 - Physical appearance clear clear clear - Photometry Oxygen demand (COD) 8 1 1 mg/l Electrical conductivity 76.6 4080 693 µs/cm - pH 7 7.3 7.4 - Electrometry Photometry Nitrate 3.09 7.97 21.69 mg/l Photometry Nitrite 0.00 0.019 0.015 mg/l Ammonia 0.12 31.6 0.032 mg/l Photometry Salinity 0 2.1 0.3 mg/l Electrometry Suspended solids 8 10 12 mg/l Photometry Photometry Turbidity 5 0 0 NTU

All the parameters were in the desirable limits for WHO guidelines at site 1 and 3 except for turbidity at site 1. Electrical conductivity at site 2, near SPS 1, was considerably high indicating infiltration of seawater. Furthermore, ammonia concentrations were extremely high (31.6 mg/l) indicating the possible presence of bacterial, sewage and animal waste pollution in the water. The WHO guidelines stated that ammonia could cause taste and odour problems at concentrations above 35 and 1.5 mg/litre, respectively, but does not give any limitation on concentrations for drinking water or bathing (WHO, 2008).

A previous study on ground water quality was conducted in 2007 as part of the RDPII geo-hydrology report. Three wells were tested for chemical parameters while six were selected for microbiological analysis (faecal coliforms). Results of the chemical analysis showed homogeneous results. Only possible seawater infiltration (EC 1968 µs/cm) in one of the three tested wells was prominent. This sample (Sharaf) also presented irregular results for chloride and nitrite (Fig. 4.18). Nitrate concentration was extremely high only in one sample (303 mg/l).

Figure 4.18 Results of water quality analysis conducted in 2007 (RDPII Geo-hydrology report)

The parameters of the data collected in 2007 and the recent data showed a similar trend for seawater infiltration, while nitrate and nitrite in the recent samples appeared to be into the normal WHO values.

71 5. METHODOLOGY

5.1 Environmental assessment

5.1.1 Photo transects At each site, a photo transects was conducted in order to obtain data about coral cover and substrate. A series of five pictures were taken at each point, perpendicularly to the substrate. While doing transect, the snorkeler followed the current to avoid overlap in the photos. At most sites, photos were also taken to illustrate the overall site landscape. Pictures were analysed using CPCe and results of benthic percentage cover were plotted using Excel.

Table 5.1 Reef photo-transects geo-coordinates

Latitude N Longitude E Site Degree Minutes Seconds Degree Minutes Seconds 1 3 45 32.71 72 58 8.36 2 3 45 32.30 72 58 10.58 3 3 45 31.76 72 58 10.87 4 3 45 32.92 72 58 14.49 5 3 45 31.52 72 58 20.58 6 3 45 23.21 72 58 27.59 7 3 45 17.94 72 58 10.50 8 3 45 18.39 72 58 4.11 9 3 45 21.18 72 57 52.72 10 3 45 29.99 72 57 51.64 11 3 45 30.27 72 57 55.27 12 3 45 30.71 72 57 57.69

5.1.2 Climate data Climate data were collected from Department of Meteorology stations at the regional and international airports. In addition, data from the NASA Scatterometer on board the satellite QuikSCAT was used to construct wind roses.

Satellite and aerial photos as well as field observations were used to assess the wave regime around the island.

72 5.1.3 Water quality All the samples were taken at a depth of 1m from the mean sea level or mean water depth for shallow area. For testing of physical and chemical parameters, empty plastic water bottles were flushed with the water from the sampling site before being filled. The bottles were promptly stored in iceboxes to reduce the temperature of the samples until analysis. Physical and chemical tests were carried out using electrometry and photometry at Male’ National Health Laboratory. Previous tests were carried out in 2007 by PIU staff and other consultants. Results of the previous test were also used in this report.

Table 5.2 Water quality samples geo-coordinates. FW: freshwater; SW: seawater Latitude N Longitude E Site Water type Degree Minutes Seconds Degree Minutes Seconds Well SPS 3 FW 3 45 25.02 72 58 18.32 Well SPS 1 FW 3 45 30.5 72 58 1.29 Old mosque FW 3 45 27.93 72 58 6.46 Sea outfall SW 3 45 31.71 72 58 11.39 South harbour SW 3 45 20.17 72 58 8.16

5.1.4 Vegetation survey A vegetation survey was carried out in February 2009 at the proposed SPSs and STP sites. All the plants inside a 10 x 10 m quadrat were identify and counted to highlight the general and the dominant species and delineate a plant profile for the selected areas. Plants dimension were recorded according to the 4 storeys characterised below: • Ground – 0 – 0.25 m in height • First – 0.25 – 2 m in height • Second – 2 – 8 m in height • Third – > 8 m in height The following table gives the geo-coordinates of the vegetation survey locations with their corresponding codes.

73 Table 5.3 Vegetation surveys geo-coordinates. Latitude N Longitude E Site Degree Minutes Seconds Degree Minutes Seconds SPS 1 3 30 30.70 72 58 1.60 SPS 2 3 30 30.56 72 58 12.27 SPS 3 3 24 24.89 72 58 19.02 STP 3 30 30.76 72 58 12.8

5.2 Socio-economic survey A socio-economic survey was conducted in association with the local PIU unit in November 2008. Questionnaires were distributed among 50 households covering the three sewage catchment areas (Fig.1.1). The questionnaire (appendix C) was formulated with multiple-choice close answers and few open answer where the population could state their opinion. PIU staff surveyed ten households in zone 1, twenty-five in zone 2 and fifteen in zone 3. The data collected were compiled in excel and the answers are presented in this report (appendix C).

5.3 Impact identification methodology Impacts on the environment can be divided into two main categories: impacts during construction and impacts during operations.

5.3.1 Impacts during construction

The impact prediction methodology for constructional impacts starts with the identification of the potential impact area from the development. There is, in this category, a difference made between direct physical damage and indirect impacts, which could come from turbidity plumes for example. Therefore, the extent of the damage area very often follows natural features, such as shoreline and streamline of hydrodynamic patterns.

Once the location was defined, the activities taking place at the site were listed and their impacts on the environment were identified. The impacts were predicted using the following: • The results of field surveys • Impact prediction was also based on experience from similar projects carried out previously. • The magnitude of the impact was inferred based on the conditions at the site and experience from previous projects.

74 5.3.2 Impacts during operations

For the operational impacts, the process starts with the identification of the factors, which potentially differ from the existing conditions before the works, and the situation once the works are completed. The impacts are mostly linked to the treatment plant failure and effluents discharge into the seawater. At present, there are no National Standards for discharges to the marine environment or for marine water quality for different beneficial uses in the Maldives. It is therefore appropriate to use standards from countries in similar geographic regions, which have established relevant standards. While there is some value in applying a standard to the effluent being discharged a more appropriate approach is to apply a standard that is to be maintained in the environment, this is referred to as an Environmental Quality Standard (EQS). By taking this approach, the concentration of contaminants and the quantity of effluent are taken into consideration together with the dilution capacity of the receiving water. Whenever an effluent in which the concentration of a contaminant exceeds the EQS is released into the environment, there will be a zone around the outfall within which the EQS is exceeded; this zone is referred to as the Mixing Zone (MZ). The size of the MZ which is acceptable is dependent on the receiving environment and is usually subject to approval by the Regulatory Authority. Since the marine coral environment is important in the Maldives it was therefore appropriate to use standards, which have been, developed elsewhere to protect similar habitats. The Government of Australia has developed a set of standards or trigger values that should not be exceeded for their tropical waters, which include the Great Barrier Reef. However, the extent and quality of the coral in the area into which the effluent was being discharged was found to be poor and consequently less stringent standards, those for the prevention of eutrophication have been used when considering nutrients.

5.3.3 Impacts ratings

The results from the survey presenting the natural environment in the considered area were then used to assess how the changing conditions will affect the existing environment. The significance of the impacts were predicted based on the experience gathered over years of observations, the magnitude and the duration of the exposure to changing condition as well as the long lasting changes caused to the natural processes.

The negative impacts on the environment have been considered in the worst-case scenario in order to emphasize the need for mitigation and try to minimize the impacts.

75 The importance of each impact was rated along a scale from very negative (---) to negligible (not very significant impact).

Even though a thorough brainstorming occurs when assessing the impacts, there is always a possibility for some of the impacts to have been disregarded, either that they have not been noticed in the past or that the effects and causes have not been related. Therefore, there is an intrinsic limitation due to the limitation of our knowledge itself. The lack of previous devoted studies or careful monitoring creates a lack of information as to the extent and magnitude of the impacts encountered in other similar, and in many case it is difficult to ascertain the significance of impacts, which remains subjective to the field experience of the consultant and observations of the proponent. There is often a discrepancy between the understanding of the consultant and the work methods carried on site by the contractor. Even though the environmental follow up of the project is supposed to reduce these discrepancies, it is clear that there is an inherent risk of misunderstanding. Furthermore, there is always a possibility that uncertainties about related decisions such as planning, negotiation, coordination, etc., affect the accuracy of prediction in EIA process.

76 6. PUBLIC CONSULTATION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE

6.1 Stakeholders scoping meeting A scoping meeting was organised in November 2008 at the Environmental Research Centre (ERC) in Male’. The focus groups that were consulted for the Sewerage System Development consisted of the following: The Ministry of Housing Transport and Environment, The Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority (MWSA) The Male’ Water Sewerage Company (MWSC) The engineering consultants

The meeting focused on environmental issues and practical aspects of the proposed sewerage system. The MHTE official pointed out the importance of phasing properly the project to ensure that the system will be able to cater the effluents flow calculated for the projected population. Furthermore, he highlighted the importance to avoid any potential damages to the sea outfall pipe by burring it and if the area is use for recreational purposes, to consider any health risk for the community. In addition, the official concerned for the potential impact to the environment during the construction phase and suggesting to avoid any invasive construction method (i.e. dynamite), and the problematic related to the sea outfall maintenance. The MWSC official express is approval to the proposed system and pointed out the importance to lay the pipe far out the reef edge by choosing an appropriate pipe length and secure it on the seabed.

6.2 Local stakeholders meeting In addition to the focus group meeting, the Island Development Council organized a meeting on April 2007, in the Atoll Development office in Mahibadhoo. The following stakeholders attended the meeting: Atoll and Island officials PIU officials Women committee Mahibadhoo Youth association Financial institution Fishermen Business community

77 Consultants Deputy team leader, development economist, sewerage engineer, procurement specialist

During the meeting, stakeholders were invited to discuss the issues related to their sector and provide their opinions. A brief note of the meeting and the list of participants were provided to Seamarc in January 2009 (appendix C). A summary of the note is presented below. The island officer was the only one to highlight all the issues covered by the RDPII. In his opinion improvement of water supply, sewerage system and garbage disposal are key factors to the economical development of Mahibadhoo. He was concerned by the persistent sewerage problems, the bad quality of rain and groundwater, the absence of a proper waste management system on the island and the need of house connections for water supply. In general, stakeholders seemed to underestimate problems related to water borne diseases, waste management and water supply, giving more importance to issues relative to their professions.

78 7. ANTICIPATED ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

7.1 Impacts and Mitigation Related to Scheme Location

The project is to provide access to a sewer system for all properties on the island. It is inevitable therefore, that the system must be constructed within the residential and commercial areas, and that there will be some temporary impacts to the population and properties during the period of construction of the sewer network. Within these constraints, the project has been designed to minimize impacts on the overall efficiency of operation, taking into account the aesthetics of the island setting.

7.1.1 On-site ecology and natural features

7.1.1.1 Locations of gravity sewers and pumped mains The locations of the gravity sewers and pumped mains are all within existing roadways and consequently there will be no impacts on areas of significant ecological value or the cutting of trees. No mitigation is required. However, the contractor will be required to relocate trees if need or compensate the owner with the appropriate amount of money if trees are cut.

7.1.1.2 Locations of pumping stations None of the locations of the pump stations are within or adjacent to areas of significant ecological habitat, consequently no impacts on on-site ecology will occur. No mitigation is required.

7.1.1.3 Location of Sewage Treatment Plan The STP site is located on an area of reclaimed land of no unique ecological value. The existing vegetation includes impoverished xerophytic herb and shrub layers. Proposed mitigation includes the creation of a buffer landscape strip along the east and west sides of the STP site which will be planted with native species and thereby provide compensation for loss of existing vegetation on the site and improve the aesthetic.

7.1.1.4 Location of the outfall The outfall is located on the north side of the island in an area with unpredictable flow patterns, and it is feared that the effluent may be constrained to that area and not

79 flushed away rapidly. The outfall must be of sufficient length and depth as to provide sufficient dilution and should pass beyond this area to reach steadier hydrodynamic conditions with better dilution and dispersion away from the island. The outfall will laid on the natural seabed profile, anchored by concrete blocks to the bottom and there will be no requirement for excavation of the seabed. A negligible strip of beach will be excavated to protect the pipeline when entering the water.

7.1.2 Residential Areas

7.1.2.1 Disturbance to home gardens when connecting households to the gravity Networks Connection to the gravity sewer system will be available along all sides of each housing plot thereby minimising the length of the connection pipe between any individual property and the system.

7.1.2.2 Odours from pumping stations The sewer foul gas generated in the sewer network will be expelled from the pumping station by vents located above the ground. The number of air changes may be varied thus that odour filters are not necessary.

7.1.2.3 Odours from treatment plant and sludge drying beds The proposed site for the STP is at the northern side of the island adjacent to the harbour and consequently located as far away from residential areas as possible and by dint of its location will minimise impact of odours. The process design has been carried out in such a way that processes giving rise to odours will be in enclosed building fitted with air extraction. The sludge, which is to be dried, will be from aerobic processes and therefore pre-stabilised and not give rise to odours when drying.

7.1.2.4 Access to properties during gravity sewer construction The contractor’s work area for the gravity sewer works will be required to occupy no more than an area extending from a boundary wall to approximately 0.5 m from the road centre line towards the opposite boundary. Since the typical minor road width is 4m this will leave, as a minimum, a passage width of 1.5m for longitudinal access. For the narrow roads of 3m width the longitudinal access passage will be, as a minimum, 1m wide. The maximum length of an excavated trench between adjacent manholes at any one time will around 60m. 80 As mitigation, the contractor will be required to provide a temporary bridge across any open trench for each property access, which is within the 60m length.

7.1.3 Loss / damage to livelihood

7.1.3.1 Damage to business premises, or loss of livelihood such as damage to household garden plots by disturbance to top soil, agricultural land, uprooting of coconut trees During design, effort has been made to locate gravity and pumped sewers in a way to minimize disturbance to home gardens and private plots . It is suggested that damage incurred during construction will be reinstated as a part of the contract. Access to commercial properties will be maintained throughout the construction period to enable continuation of business.

7.1.3.2 Disturbance resulting from re-adjustments of the sewer network The design provides a sewer carrying capacity which takes into account the proposed island development plan up to the year 2037 and consequently will not require upsizing in the future. Rather, a new sewerage treatment plant unit will be added to the existing one.

7.1.4 Effect on Trees worth Preserving The sewerage layout and location of the treatment facilities have been designed to avoid the need to cut down large trees other than ground storey palm trees on the STP site. As mitigation for loss of trees, compensation planting will take place in the landscape buffer zone within the STP site.

7.1.5 Impact to the Aquatic Environment

7.1.5.1 Contamination by effluent discharge to the shallow fresh water lens At this time effluent from septic tanks, even though not in use in every plot, is contaminating the freshwater lens. The sewer system will intercept all black and grey water and stop the contamination. No negative impacts are predicted as a consequence of the project.

7.1.5.2 Salination of the fresh water lens Freshwater on the island occurs almost entirely as groundwater within the aquifer that overlies the coral rock, and forms a freshwater ‘lens’ floating on the seawater beneath.

81 Increase in salinity is likely to occur when the freshwater lens is used at high rate . However when the groundwater lens is recharged it is protected from high salinity levels and depletion. In addition, the high rate pumping for dewatering associated with construction of foundations and trenches can lead to rapid and severe groundwater salinity increase.

Mitigation to salinity increase could be realize by recharging the freshwater lens or reducing groundwater pumping rate by using the desalination plant that is already in place on the island. This will stabilize the freshwater lens and decrease the risk of saline infiltrations. Effluent treated at tertiary level represents a win-win solution to recharge the freshwater lens and provide at the same time the population with quality water. Some concern is derived from tertiary treatment plant failure, however in this case the flow treated at a secondary level can be direct to the sea outfall, avoiding pollution of the groundwater lens.

A calculation for a density of 100 p/ha has been devised considering that the water usage will reflect the design value of 110 l/d/p of effluent. This of course includes both usage of harvested rainwater and groundwater. Falkland (2001) considered that 30 % of the rainwater will infiltrate in the ground nourishing the lens (table 7.1).

Table 7.1 Values to calculate groundwater lens recharge . Rainfall mm/year 2000 Available for recharge /ha m3/year 6000 Used by population and sent to sea /ha m3/year 4015 Effectively building lens /ha m3/year 1985

At such densities, it looks possible to abstract the amount of water required by the population, and still have an overall positive water balance. On the other hand, if 4015 m 3 of water per year leaves the freshwater lens by being sent to the sea, there will be a thinning of the freshwater lenses, as the downwards pressure of the freshwater lens will be less. Using a reasonable 30 % pore space in the aquifer (Falkland 2001) the difference of pressure height between a recharge of 6000 m3/ha (presently includes the leachate from soak away pits, but some sent to the sea) and a recharge of 6000 m 3/y– 4015 m 3/y = 1985 m 3/y would be that of a water column of 2 m to another of 0.66 m height. Using a density of 1.035 for the saltwater, this could mean an overall elevation of (2-0.66)*1/1.035 = 1.29 m of the freshwater/saltwater interface. If this should not be a problem in the middle of the island given the 5m thickness of the lens, it may be more of a problem on the sides of the island.

82 It can also be argued that the result from the conductivity study (Appendix A) in the football field could be due to the fact that houses near the shore would already be the ones discharging their effluent to the sea. This could be the reason for the sharp transition noticed. The long term effect of the pumping at sea of the domestic effluent could be to make the change from salt water to fresh water more abrupt, without reducing too much the amount of very low salinity freshwater.

7.1.5.3 Impact on the marine environment due to discharge of effluent to sea At present some households discharge raw effluents directly into the seawater through individually owned sewerage system. Already, the nutrient load of the tertiary treated water will be a lot less than that of the raw sewage currently discharged. In addition, the effluent outfall will be extended beyond the reef edge; it is suggested to increase length and depth of the outfall pipeline. The effluent would therefore be discharged in the hydrodynamically active zone. This will ensure that nutrients, in particular nitrogen, are diluted and advected rapidly. Flow towards the shoreline is minimized by the effect of offshore currents. The high dilution of the suspended solids in effluent is unlikely to give rise to a significant increase in the near shore turbidity. The reef at the designed outfall area is in a poor condition with only 20- 25% of live coral present.

7.1.5.4 Damage to outfall by waves and current action causing pipeline failure and pollution The outfall pipe will be laid on the natural seabed profile. The outlet pipe will be anchored to the reef edge to prevent movement of the pipe bend at that point and avoid wave and current action threats.

7.1.5.5 Reverse-flow in outfall pipes during high tides Seaward flow in the outfall will be maintained by head works with a weir. Reverse flow in the outfall pipe can be prevented by use of a ‘duck bill’ style diffuser but the opinion of the engineers is that any flow of seawater into the pipe will have no negative impact on the effective functioning of the outfall as the pipe after the discharge sump and TSP will be high enough above maximum seawater levels.

83 7.2 Possible Accidents/System Failures

7.2.1 Collection System Risks The pumping main system has been designed in such a way that the failure of any one pump has no effect on the functioning of any other part of the pumped system. In addition, the risk of a pump failing is small. However, each pumping station will have a stand-by pump installed to maintain the flow in the event that the duty pump fails. The contractor will be required to provide an Operation and Maintenance Manual for the pumping stations, which will detail the action to be taken in the event of different failure scenarios. Furthermore, the emergency systems would be operated routinely to ensure that they are functional when the occasion demands.

7.2.2 Treatment Plant Failures

7.2.2.1 External power failure It is not proposed to install standby generator at the STP to provide power to the plant in the event of an island wide failure of the electrical power supply system. Any additional flow during a prolonged power failure would be diverted to the marine outfall.

7.2.2.2 Failure of the tertiary treatment process During any failure of the tertiary treatment process, the flow will be diverted to the marine outfall. This will result in the discharge of effluent treated to at least secondary effluent quality.

7.2.2.3 Boat damage to outfall pipe In the inner reef part the pipe will be laid on the sea bed profile. Once in deeper water there is just the possibility that someone might anchor out there although this is unlikely because the area is adjacent to Mahibadhoo harbour. The landward end of the outfall should be marked with the internationally recognized marker for an underwater pipeline, a diamond ( ♦).

7.2.3 Failures in system operation and maintenance The construction contractor will be required to carry out the project under a Design and Build arrangement. This will require him to carry out the construction of the STP and to train PIU staff in the operation and maintenance of the sewer system and sewage treatment plant. At the end of the contract period, the contractor will hand over the system with a fully trained staff to MHTE. 84 Included in the system will be comprehensive operation and maintenance manuals and spares for pumps in accordance with the recommendations of the pump manufacturer. Ongoing training of the staff and training of new recruits will ensure that the system is maintained and operated by competent and suitably qualified staff.

7.3 Alternative Scheme Design Alternative scheme designs were considered and the most cost effective and appropriate technical solution chosen.

7.3.1 Information gathering

7.3.1.1 Insufficient primary environmental data The duration of the design period is not adequate to conduct full seasonal variation surveys in marine current direction and tidal stages in the vicinity of the outfall location.

7.3.2 Design of sewers

7.3.2.1 Excavation below groundwater level Because of the shallowness of the groundwater surface with respect to the topographic surface, there is a need for excavation below the ground water level for sewers and pumping stations. This will require dewatering which may cause loss of water in household wells. Gravity sewer lengths have been limited to those that require excavation to a maximum depth of 2.5-3m below the ground level. The contractor has to lay the sewer as single welded lengths between manholes without the requirement for dewatering of the trenches, and the working length of trench has been limited to around 60m some of which may need to be dewatered. This would create a zone of influence of 20m either side of the pipe trench in which the water level was drawn down. Mitigation for temporary drying of the house plot wells will be implemented through the provision of water bowers and portable water storage tanks for the period during which dewatering is taking place.

7.3.2.2 Contamination of groundwater by leaking wastewater Joints in the non-pressurised gravity sewers will be O-ring sealed collar joints, which have a high resistance to leakage. The pumped sewers will be constructed using welded joint plastic pipes. Junctions with manholes will be by bolted flange and gasket joints.

85 7.3.2.3 Damage to the sewer network from deformation and rupture by possible live loads acting on the ground surface, or by subsequent excavations carried out by others Pipe material specification chosen to provide sufficient material strength for anticipated surface loadings by construction of traffic . All pipelines should be marked by use of a standard, recognisable pattern, plastic tape laid above the longitudinal run of the pipe.

7.3.2.4 Overflow of sewage leading to flooding and risks to environment and public health All pump stations have been designed to have standby pumps, pump by-passes, internal storage for up to 30 minutes peak flow and standby generators. Each pump station will have a control panel, which will indicate the status of each pump station. The pumping station will be provided with an emergency gravity discharge to the sea, which will prevent flooding in the vicinity of the station in the events of failure of all of the main and backup systems.

7.3.2.5 Discharge of industrial wastes to sewers There are presently no polluting industries on Mahibadhoo. Any future industries will be required to comply with the regulations and standards regarding the discharge of wastewater to public sewer. Current businesses generating liquid waste, such as blacksmiths and engine repair workshops will be provided with guidance regarding the use of the sewer system.

7.3.3 Design of pumping stations

7.3.3.1 Waste arising from the use of disposable formwork The use of timber formwork for the pump stations has been minimised by the use of in-situ cast reinforced concrete rings, which will be sunk every 1.2 m intervals for the construction of the inlet sump.

7.3.3.2 Constraints on availability of public space for sewage pump stations and standby Generators Suitable land, not allocated for residential or commercial development, has already been identified. The footprint of each pumping station is 4.6m x 3.6m. Standby generators will be located at each pump station for use in an emergency or during a planned shut down of the island’s main power plant.

86 7.3.3.3 Impacts due to the number, location and size of pumping stations The number and locations of pumping stations were in the main determined by available land for their construction. Fewer, larger, pumping stations could have been used but this would have involved deeper gravity sewers and deeper inlet sumps to the pump stations. This would have required larger and more complex construction techniques for the sewers and require more dewatering of the trenches to a greater depth with the consequential larger zone of drawdown.

7.3.3.4 Minimisation of excavation dewatering The depth of the sumps necessary at the pump stations will involve working below the upper level of the water table. The design of the pump stations is such that dewatering of the excavation is only required for final placement and sealing of the bottom sealing slab. This will require dewater for one week at the most.

7.3.4 Design for effluent treatment

7.3.4.1 Contamination of coastal marine and deterioration of bathing water quality, reef ecology and marine life The wastewater, which will be discharged to sea, will undergo screening and removal of solids greater than 3mm and also grit removal. The screening will remove visible sewage solids such as plastic cotton bud sticks, sanitary towels and tampons, plastic panty liners and condoms. Dilution and dispersion of toilet paper fibres, dissolved contaminants and bacteria will be achieved by discharging the effluent beyond the reef crest and at a depth which will ensure at least three orders of magnitude of dilution within a 100m of the outfall location. In addition, the area under consideration is located near the waste dump sites and not used for recreational purposes by the islanders.

7.4 Construction Phase The main responsibilities for mitigation at this stage rest with the Contractor, who is required to price his work to include the mitigation measures. The site supervisor and the employer’s engineer will have the responsibility for monitoring the implementation of mitigation actions by the contractor.

87 7.4.1 Working areas

7.4.1.1 Noise and dust emissions during sewer trench and pumping station excavation The contractor will be required to employ plant for excavation of the gravity and pumped sewer trenches a small excavator. The noise level generated by small excavator is generally limited. Noise levels within the individual housing lots will be reduced significantly by the high solid walls, which surround each lot. Specific noise mitigation in the form of wooden panel noise barriers should be erected near mosque areas. The contractor may propose to cease work during the daily prayer periods should he consider that to be more appropriate to his working practice. The usual practice of spraying water on exposed heaps of excavated spoil is not applicable in the case of this project where water resources are limited. All exposed spoil heaps should be covered with polythene sheet.

7.4.1.2 Fuel spillage and leakage from construction plant The contractor will be required to excavate any ground contaminated by spillage of fuel or leaked oil/hydraulic fluids and arrange for disposal at the waste disposal site on Thilafushi . The contractor will be required to establish a plant maintenance area within his main work site at the STP site, which will be roofed . At this location, fuel for plant will be stored in bundled areas, all maintenance will be carried out on a concrete surface, and absorbent kits provided for clean up of fuel, oil and hydraulic fluid spillages. All used kits will be disposed at the Thilafushi waste disposal facility.

7.4.1.3 Pollution due to dumping of used oils, hydraulic fluids and service parts The contractor will be required to store used oil and hydraulic fluids and service spares and at suitable times arrange for disposal at the waste disposal site on the island of Thilafushi.

7.4.1.4 Pollution of groundwater from contractor’s site offices. The contractor will be required to maintain a site office on the STP site. These offices will be provided with toilet and washing facilities, which will be provided with a temporary septic tank of sufficient capacity for the number of staff on the STP site and for foul waste generated at construction areas remote from the main site. The effluent from the septic tank will drain into a suitable constructed soak-away.

88 7.4.1.5 Pollution of groundwater from remote construction areas The contractor will be required to provide portable toilet units at each active remote construction site. Wastewater from these sites will be stored in holding tanks and not chemically treated. At the end of each working day, the holding tanks will be taken to the main site where the wastewater will be transferred to the central septic tank unit.

7.4.1.6 Pollution from solid waste disposal The contractor will be responsible for the disposal of all non-bulk solid waste such as that generated from the site facilities, materials packaging, discarded formwork. End of day burning of waste will be prohibited.

7.4.1.7 Social unrest due to import of construction workers The successful construction of the treatment plant and in particular the sewer network requires supervision from experienced staff. It is expected that the contractor will employ most of the qualified engineers and experienced supervisory staff from overseas. Manual labour could be recruited from Mahibadhoo or other islands in the atoll with preference being given to suitable staff from Mahibadhoo if available.

7.4.1.8 Accommodation for non-Mahibadhoo resident workers The contractor will be required to provide temporary living accommodation for those workers who are non-resident on Mahibadhoo It is unlikely that there will be sufficient rooming for all project workers who are not residents of Mahibadhoo. The accommodation will be at a temporary location agreed with the Island Authorities at the time of the construction work.

7.4.1.9 Road blocking during construction of sewerage and facilities The contractor’s work area for the gravity sewer works will be required to occupy no more than an area extending from a boundary wall to approximately 0.5m from the road centre line towards the opposite boundary. Since the minimum road with is 3m this will leave, as a minimum, a passage width of 1m for longitudinal access. The maximum length of a working area at any one time will be restricted to 60m, the distance between two adjacent manholes. The contractor will be required to provide a temporary bridge across any open trench for each property access . The maximum period of time during which the works area will be adjacent to a property access has to be four days. A small excavator has a track

89 width of 970mm and will able to work within the dimensions of the contractor’s work area described above.

7.4.1.10 Trench excavations and public safety All open trench works will be enclosed within a safety barrier to prevent people falling into open trenches. A night watchman will patrol each of the contractor’s areas in which there are open trenches in the event that the safety barrier is deliberately crossed.

7.4.2 Disturbance to garden plots and vegetation

7.4.2.1 Disturbance or loss of ‘top soil’ inside the household garden plots and damage to island vegetation due to excavation and construction works All main sewers will be constructed within existing, un-paved, transport corridors and consequently no ‘top-soil’ will be encountered. At those pump stations where ‘top-soil’ is encountered the contractor will be required to separate and retain the ‘top-soil’ and use it to reinstate the site at the completion of the works. Within each plot, the contractor will install an inspection chamber, which he will connect to the main sewer outside the plot at a maximum depth of 1.5m.with a 160mm diameter pipe . The contractor will be required to set aside any garden ‘top soil’ and replace it on completion of the connection.

7.4.3 Disposal of excess excavated spoil. The estimated volumes of surplus excavated spoil are 90 m3 from the sewer lines and 20 m3, in total, from the three pump stations. This is assuming that the contactor will sort the excavated material to use it later for preparation of the trench in the proposed fashion (small rocks for unstable areas as well as sand bedding all around). This quantity can easily be disposed of in the dips of the roads which are causing puddles on rainy days.

7.4.4 Damage to underground services

7.4.4.1 Disruption of underground services during trenching Existing underground electrical and telecommunication services are laid, 1m and 600mm below ground level respectively, in the one-third road width corridors on either side of the roads. The main gravity and the pumped sewer lines will be laid the remaining central one third. Crossing of the services will therefore only occur at road junctions. The Contractor is responsible for confirming from the as-laid drawings obtained from the island office the

90 presence of a crossing at a junction and for locating the existing services using detection equipment or trial holes. The connections between the inspection chamber within the property boundary and the main gravity sewer will be excavated by hand and will be above the levels of the electrical and telecommunication services.

7.4.4.2 Damage to services laid shallow within the pressure zone of moving loads on wheeled and tracked vehicles The heaviest plant likely to be used during sewer construction is the excavator . Usually a small excavator has a ground bearing pressure of 0.34kg/cm2 while the minimum bearing capacity of the ground is in the region of 3kg/ cm2. Use of this size excavator is therefore unlikely to cause damage to underground services.

7.4.5 Dewatering

7.4.5.1 Disturbance of well water supply during dewatering of sewer trenches and pump station sites Excavation depth of gravity sewer trenches has been minimised as far as possible to minimise the length to be dewatered. Allowing for a maximum 40m length of trench to be dewatered at any one time the zone of influence will extend approximately 20m to each side of the trench. The contractor will provide bowsers of water or portable water storage tanks to supply water for each household whose well is affected by the dewatering sufficient to meet their daily needs for non-potable water. It is likely that all of the trenches deeper than 1.2m below local ground level will require dewatering and the majority of those in the 0.8–1.2m group. As a precautionary measure it has been assumed that all of those in the 0.8–1.2m group will require dewatering. Trenches excavated to less than 0.8m below the local ground level will not require dewatering. The estimated radius of the zone of drawdown around each of the three pumping stations is 20m . The contractor will be required to locate bowsers in key position within the 20m radius draw down area with sufficient suitable quality water to provide 100l/c/d for residential and 15l/c/d for non residential properties for the duration of the dewatering period.

7.4.5.2 Disposal of dewatering water Water pumped during dewatering, which is of suitable quality will be used for watering of the football field or other areas where this could benefit plant growth and ground water recharge. Water, which is unsuitable by virtue of its salinity, will be pumped

91 to the sea. Cross roads ramps will be provided to enable vehicles and bicycles to cross where pipes carrying this water.

7.4.6 Temporary water supply During dewatering and the associated local draw-down of the water table water will be provided to affected households for bathing, laundry and toilet flushing which is of no worse quality than the present well water. With an average household of eight persons and a generous 100 l/c/d each household should be provided with 0.8m3/day.

7.4.7 Marine outfall There will be short-term environmental disturbance of the sea floor while laying the pipeline across the sub-tidal zone. Special care is needed to control the effects of any high turbidity when laying the concrete anchor blocks. Liquid and solid waste should be properly disposed of on shore. If pipe-pulling techniques are used for laying the outfall, the minimum anchoring and changing of anchoring should be practiced. Construction of a floating pontoon should display the required marine marker lights and signals to prevent accidental collision.

7.4.8 Decommissioning of septic tanks

7.4.8.1 Disposal of septic tank contents The contractor will not be required to decommission the septic tanks once the inspection chamber is installed in the compound. However, it is suggest in case of decommissioning to take the septic tanks contents to the STP thus will be discharged into the inlet chamber to reduce ground pollution.

7.4.8.2 Contamination of groundwater from septic tanks after decommissioning The tanks will be filled with sand to prevent ‘floatation’ at times of high groundwater level. Inlet and outlet pipes to and from the septic tanks will be sealed to prevent water entering.

7.5 Operation of System

7.5.1 Wastewater discharge to the marine environment Where untreated sewage has been discharged to sea in other places throughout the world and the dispersive and assimilatory capacities of the environment have been

92 exceeded negative environmental impacts have been experienced. Impacts, which have been associated with marine sewer outfalls, include: Visible slicks, floating solids and odours at the surface ‘boil’; Settlement of non-floating solids on the sea bed; Attraction of scavenger species and attached filter feeders which out-compete the natural fauna; Toxic effects where the effluent contains industrial wastes; Nutrient enrichment possibly leading to eutrophication; Localised dissolved oxygen sag; and Creation of public health hazard at nearby recreational facilities.

The rate of dilution of the plume and the trajectory of the rising plume are sufficient to ensure that the salinity at the level of seabed is not affected. Consequently, there will be no adverse impact on the coral and other benthic community members as a result of localised salinity reduction. Faecal colifom concentration will not exceed generally applied standards under normal operating conditions for both the 2352 and 2897 population discharges. In case of system failure faecal coliforms concentration will be higher, however on the north side of the island bathing beach are not present. It will be advised to close this area for fishing. Under normal operating conditions for a population of 2897 persons the dimensions of the plume from the outfall are slightly greater than those for the 2352 population so that differences in faecal coliform concentration are low. Total inorganic nitrogen is the limiting macronutrient in the marine environment. Elevated concentrations may provide sufficient nutrient enrichment as to cause eutrophication in the form of increased phytoplankton growth. Under normal operating conditions and under the failure of the STP the zone in which the critical TIN concentration value is exceeded is confined to a small, <10m, distance from the outfall and unlikely to give rise to any significant nutrient enrichment.

7.5.2 Noise and odour

7.5.2.1 Noise and odour from pumping stations Pumps are located in chambers below ground and noise impact will not be significant. Each inlet chamber will be ventilated and the number of air changes can be

93 varied so that the presence of a filter will not be necessary. The air will be discharged through a 1.2m high vent pipe.

7.5.2.2 Noise and odour from treatment plant The site for the STP is at the north side of the island adjacent to the harbour and consequently located as far away from residential areas as possible. Processes giving rise to odours will be in an enclosed building fitted with air extraction. The sludge, which is to be dried, will be from aerobic processes and therefore pre-stabilised and not give rise to odours when drying.

7.5.3 Blockages Total blockages of the sewer network are rare. Partial restrictions in flow can be caused by flows in the sewer being lower than the natural cleansing velocities or by the flushing of inappropriate items. Items commonly flushed include plastic stem, cotton buds, condoms, sanitary towels, disposable nappies. Normal toilet paper, in particular soft tissue, rapidly breaks down into separate fibres when wet and subject to turbulence in the sewer system. Regular maintenance of the gravity system by flushing will prevent the build up settled solids during the build up to peak design population. Use of groundwater will be minimised by using treated effluent for systematic flushing of the system. In order to reduce the risk of partial blockage by householders flushing inappropriate items into the sewer, system information leaflets will be distributed to householders to inform them of how to use a sewer system.

7.5.4 Damage to gravity system Connections to the gravity system laid in the road by non-authorised persons could cause damage to the structure of the system. All occupied housing, commercial and institutional lots occupied at the time of the construction of the gravity system will be provided with inspection/connection boxes inside the property boundary. Connections to the system by the householder will be to the connection box, which will present minimal risk to the main system.

7.6 Sludge Disposal The sludge from the SBR process will be a stable sludge having been formed during aerobic processes and consequently will have little odour. Following settlement within the SBR tank it will pass into a belt press where it will be ‘dried’ to 30% solids. The

94 liquid from this process will be collected by drains and pumped to the SBR tank inlet. The solids from the belt will be collected in a hopper and transported daily to the covered drying beds. The solids retained in the bar screen chamber compartment will be disposed of using the conventional method on the island, which will hopefully be changed as a whole to better practices than at present. Potential impacts from the sludge processing and disposal can be classified as: Odour; Surface and groundwater pollution by sludge liquor; Disposal of dried sludge; and Disease transmission.

The mitigation of the potential impacts arising from sludge disposal have been addressed during the design process and the training of operational staff. Sludge taken from the SBR tanks will have been produced by an oxidative process and so will be partially stabilized and with a low odour. All subsequent processes, pressing and drying will take place within an aerobic environment and consequently the reducing conditions, which give rise to hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans, di-methyl sulphide, and amines will be minimized. Sludge activated liquor from the belt press and the drying beds will be collected in sub-drains and pumped to the inlet to the SBR to be treated along with the incoming fresh sewage. The containment and re-circulation of the liquor will prevent it migrating into the aquifer. Dried sludge consisting of 30% solids will be taken directly from the STP to the adjacent solid waste management site without the need to travel along public roads, or could be mixed with top soil for enrichment. For a population of 2897 persons the average volume of sludge produced on a daily basis will be 0.2 m3. Before working on the STP site, the operations and maintenance staff will have undergone awareness training on the health (and safety) hazards of working on an STP site and the precautions to be taken on the site to prevent disease transmission.

7.7 Effluent quality

The tertiary treatment proposed would be expected to reduce BOD 5 up to 95% maximum COD up to 90% maximum, a value of 300mg/l of suspended solid and 10 5- 10 7/100ml faecal coliforms. Salinity would vary during the year according to changes in groundwater salinity, but would probably remain within WHO Maximum Acceptable Limits.

95 7.8 Health and safety of operators: Illness and injury to system operators The Operation and Maintenance manual for the system will include an Occupational Safety Plan for workforce. The Plan will cover, inter alia, health checks and vaccinations, first aid, safety equipment and clothing and confine space working. During the first year, operate period the contractor will be required to provide such Occupational Safety training as is necessary.

7.9 Impact on the household disposable incomes from operation and maintenance charges Maximum advantages from the system will be obtained only if the totality of the population shifts from the use of septic tanks to the sewerage system to dispose their wastewaters. Operation and maintenance costs for the sewerage system will be charged to the households. To sustain this process, financial support in the form of discounts or funding should be provided to those householders, which will not be able to incur these expenses.

96 8. ALTERNATIVES

8.1 Alternatives to the Project

8.1.1 The do-nothing scenario The continuation of the current forms of water supply and sanitation will be accompanied by a progressive deterioration in the groundwater resources and also in the quality of the groundwater and aquifer. The estimates of recharge made in the last decade indicate that a maximum figure of 95 l/d be used for the sustainable groundwater usage per head of the present population. The use is estimated to increase at 110 l/cap/d in the future. An increase in population as well as increase in the per capita consumption, will cause greater stress to be placed on the groundwater resources and the size of the ‘lens’ will continue to diminish. As the volume of the freshwater lens declines due to increased abstraction, the saline interface will rise and the water in the household wells will become more saline. The highly vulnerable aquifer with a shallow upper limit to the saturated zone and highly permeable unsaturated zone will receive increased loading of grey and black wastewater containing chemical and microbiological contaminants from the septic tank overflows, soak ways. Groundwater contamination will become greater and more extensive. While salinity may remain below 2,500 µS/cm the water will become unacceptable for laundry and personal washing and bathing.

8.2 Alternative Project Locations

8.2.1 Sewer network alternative The sewerage collection component of the project will be constructed throughout the whole of the developed area of the island with gravity collector sewers with purpose of collecting the black and grey wastewater from every property on the island. This can only be practically achieved by laying a sewer along the centre of every road on the island. By adopting this approach, each side of a plot will be adjacent to a sewer thus minimising the length of excavation required within any individual plot. The only alternative to laying the sewers in the roads would be to lay them through the individual housing plots at significant inconvenience to the householders and incurring large mitigation costs.

8.2.2 Sewerage treatment plant alternative An alternative location for the sewerage treatment plant was identified on the reclaimed land at the east side of the north harbour (fig. 8.1)

Fig 8.1 Layout of the alternative location for the treatment plant and the treatment plant pump

The location for the STP presents several advantages. At moment, this reclaimed land area is used to store and burn garbage (fig. 8.1). The aesthetic of the area will be improved by the lateral landscape strip. The development of the STP on the same lot will not be in conflict with the established garbage disposal site. Sea outfall pipe will be located in an area where current is more predictable and pipe length can be reduced for the outfall There is no need for changes in pipe diameter The sewerage network final length will exceed that shown in the MHTE concept design, but the extension of these pipes are not deemed prohibitive. In the proposed alternative, SPS 3 flow can be catered directly to the STP Wastewater flow from Zone 1 can be pumped from SPS 1 to SPS 2 in zone 2. From SPS 2 the wastewater will be pumped to STP.

On health and hygiene grounds, open wastewater treatment facilities are not permitted to be constructed within a kilometre from residential areas. Given the dimensions of the island and the present distribution of residential areas there are no areas of unused land which are more than one kilometre a residential area. Consequently, the processes within the STP will be covered structures.

9. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

9.1 Potential Impacts and mitigation measures Mitigation measures are required for pre-construction, construction and operation of the project. As far as possible, impacts have been designed out during the design phase. The mitigation measures, which are required, are therefore those which address the residual impacts and those which have been included in the design which, were the project to be implemented in a different location would not be required. The impacts and mitigation measures, which are described in the following sections, are divided into pre-construction, construction and operation phase measures. The impacts associated with pre-construction, construction and operational phase, described and discussed in detail in Section 7, have been summarised in tabular form and presented below in Tables 9.1 to 9.3. For each impact, the mitigation measures are together with the body with whom the responsibility for implementing the mitigation rests.

100

Table 9.1 Pre construction phase impact Activity Potential impacts Mitigation measure Responsibility Rating Relocation or financial compensation to the registered owner MHTE - Preparation of Removing existing trees STP sites Compensation planting in buffer strip around STP site Constructor negligible Location of SPSs Use of land designated for commercial or Location of SPSs and STP on land designated for municipal Consultant negligible and STP residential use use

Table 9.2 Impacts during construction

Activity Potential impacts Mitigation measure Responsibility Rating Connection of house plot to gravity Disturbance of ground within house plot Reinstatement of ground to pre-connection condition Contractor negligible sewer

Limitation of width of working area to maintain access along Access to properties Contractor - roads and provision of 'bridges' across open trench Laying of gravity and pumped sewer Open trenches will be patrolled by a night-watchman in the Contractor area Contractor negligible event that the safety barrier is deliberately crossed

Dewatering of pumping station Depression of water level in nearby wells Temporary water supply Contractor - excavation Dewatering of gravity sewer trench Depression of water level in nearby wells Temporary water supply Contractor - excavation

Use of noise suppressed construction plant negligible Noise Contractor Construction works Near mosques works have to be avoid during pray time negligible

Dust Covering of exposed spoil heaps Contractor negligible

Contamination by hazardous wastes Storage and disposal at selected disposal site Contractor -

101 Pollution of groundwater by wastewater from Provision of septic tanks for wastewater treatment Contractor negligible contractors office and workers housing Construction works Fly tipping of general construction waste Storage and disposal at selected disposal site Contractor negligible Safety of public adjacent to open excavations Night-watchman Contractor negligible

Sediment movement, high turbidity minimum anchoring and changing of anchoring should be Contractor - practiced

Laying of sea outfall Collision and damage display the required marine marker lights and signals to Contractor negligible prevent accidental collision Underwater noise, organism disturbance plan t keep work to the limited time negligible Table 9.3 Impacts during operation Activity Potential impacts Mitigation measure Responsibility Rating

Odour from pump station sump Filtration of extracted air from pump station sump Operator negligible Operation of pumping station Standby pumps and power supplies etc incorporated into Contractor/ Failure of system components negligible the construction design Operator Operation of Odour from SBR treatment tanks Filtration of extracted air from enclosed processes Operator negligible treatment plant

General failure to function as designed Training of operator’s staff Contractor -

Abuse of sewer system by the public Public awareness of correct use of sewer systems MHTE/MWSA negligible Operation of the system as a whole Improvement of water quality ++

Decrease of medical costs due to water-born ++ diseases

Operation of marine Landward end of the outfall will be marked with the Collision and damage Contractor negligible outfall internationally recognized marker [ ♦]

102 Under conditions of projected population and failure of the wastewater treatment plant temporary closure of the bathing Island office Operation of marine following High faecal coliform concentrations near outfall beach maybe required negligible outfall notification by the operator Forbid fishing in the area Operation of the Discharge of visible sewage solids to the Pre screening of wastewater before discharge Operator negligible marine outfall sea

Operation of sewer Flooding due to blockages of sewers Routine preventative maintenance of the system Operator -

Decrease of ground water pollution +++

Decrease of water-borne diseases +++ Operation of the system Illness and injury to system operators Appropriate ongoing training of staff Operator negligible

Operation and maintenance charge Government subsidiary to poor and vulnerable GOM -

103 10. Environmental Monitoring Monitoring is the systematic collection of information over a long period of time. It involves the measuring and recording of environmental, social and economic variables associated with the development impacts. Monitoring is needed to;

Compare predicted and actual impacts Test the efficiency of mitigation measures Obtain information about responses of receptors to impacts Enforce conditions and standards associated with approvals Prevent environmental problems resulting from inaccurate predictions Minimize errors in future assessments and impact predictions Make future assessments more efficient Provide ongoing management information Improve EIA and monitoring process

There are many types of environmental monitoring. Baseline monitoring is carried out to quantify ranges of natural variation and/ or directions and rates of change that are relevant to impact prediction and mitigation. The before- impact data collection of the Mahibadhoo environment was carried out during baseline surveys in November 2008. A set of reference data was obtained from these surveys, which can be used during the construction and operation phases to evaluate whether the predicted impacts occurred and to test the efficiency of the mitigation measures that will be implemented. Environmental effects monitoring or impact and mitigation monitoring is carried out to compare predicted and actual impacts occurring from project activities to determine the efficiency of the mitigation measures. This type of monitoring is targeted at assessing human impacts on the natural environment. By monitoring the actual impacts, the environmental risks associated with the project can be reduced. Impact monitoring is supported by an expectation that at some level, anthropogenic impacts become unacceptable and action will be taken to either prevent further impacts or re-mediate affected systems. Mitigation monitoring aims to compare

104 predicted and actual (residual) impacts, and hence determine the effectiveness of mitigation measures. In summary, environmental monitoring can: Illustrate the extent of environmental effects and resource losses Provide scientific information on the response of the environment to human activities and mitigation measures Provide data that can be used in the environmental auditing for management purposes. Environmental monitoring will be carried out throughout the construction phase as well as the operation phase. All monitoring activities will be carried out under the supervision of the environmental consultants. The details of the monitoring program are given in Table 10.1.

105 Table 10.1. Environmental Monitoring Plan for Mahibadhoo Monitoring Phase Methodology Indicators Sampling Estimated Parameter Frequency Cost Coastline Construction/ Beach level • Erosion or Every 6 USD Operation survey accretion months 1000/ • Changes to survey the beach profile • Sand movement around island Coastline Construction/ Photography • Erosion or Every 6 USD 200/ Operation accretion months survey • Changes to the beach profile Benthic Construction/ Photo • Percentage Every 3 USD substrate Operation transects live coral months 1000/ cover and during survey other Construction benthic phase and substrates every 6 months during Operational phase Reef fish Construction/ Visual Fish • Changes in Every 3 USD community Operation Census/ fish months 1000/ Photography diversity during survey and Construction abundance phase and every 6 months during Operational phase Water Construction/ Chemical • Physical Every 3 USD 100/ quality of Operation analysis parameters months test ground , water during period water level, Construction salinity, phase and turbidity every 6 months during Operational phase Water Construction Chemical • Physical Every 3 USD 100/ quality of and parameters months test seawater biological , Nutrient period analysis levels and

106 coliform count Water Operation Chemical • Physical Every 6 USD 200/ quality of and parameters months test seawater (at biological , Nutrient period STP outlet analysis levels and and 3control coliform sites) count Pest Operation Records of • Outbreaks Every month USD 100/ pesticide in pests survey use Composition Construction/ Terrestrial • Changes in Every 6 USD 500/ of flora and Operation surveys abundance months survey fauna and diversity of flora and fauna Utilities Operation Records of • Fuel usage Once a year USD 500/ fuel usage • Proper survey and STP, working generator order of and generators desalination and STP plant maintenance

10.1 Reporting An annual Environment Audit Report will be submitted to the Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment, according to the Ministry requirements. This report will include the results of the monitoring carried out on Mahibadhoo each year. The different aspects monitored will include the condition of the beach, reef and marine environment, water quality, sewage treatment, waste disposal and energy efficiency.

107 11. CONCLUSION

11.1 Benefits of the project The project will provide the householders of Mahibadhoo with a modern functioning sewerage system available to all properties on the island. A wastewater treatment plant will also be provided which in Phase 1 will have the capacity to treat the wastewater up to a suitable standard for 2352 people. The tertiary treatment will ensure that the treated water discharged through the outlet will have little impact on the seawater quality. By ending the discharge of grey wastewater and septic tank overflow into the gardens of the individual house compounds, the project will create a healthier environment and an improvement in groundwater quality.

11.2 Adverse effects By having the environmental team working closely with the engineers throughout the design process many potential impacts have been designed out or minimised. There are a number of inevitable short impacts, which will occur during the construction period. These have been identified, quantified and appropriate mitigation measures proposed. The impacts and their mitigation are summarised in Table 11.1

Table 11.1. Summary of impacts and mitigation measures Impact Duration Mitigation Depression of groundwater level during Maximum five Provision of temporary water supply pumping station construction dewatering days Depression of groundwater level during Maximum five Provision of temporary water supply sewer trench excavation dewatering days Elevated noise at mosques during prayer Occasional Noise barriers between works and time mosque or temporary halting of work during prayer times. Limited access to properties Maximum five As a minimum, pedestrian and days pedal cycle access will be maintained to all properties during sewer trench excavation. Vehicle access to the Ameene Magu and hospital area, waterfront road and main lateral roads will be maintained at all times. No impact on business is anticipated. Odour from pump stations and treatment All vents will be provided with a plant system to regulate the number of air changes thus filters are not need Water quality reduction at the outfall site In the event of a total treatment plant failure fishing would be banned temporarily.

108 11.3 Loss of natural resources The sewer network will be laid within existing roadways and consequently there will be no loss of natural resources associated with their construction. The pump stations have been located on public land in such a way that there is no requirement for the cutting of any valuable trees to provide the site. Financial compensation will be paid to the owners of any tree if it will need to be cut down. A buffer zone will be planted around the treatment plant site. This is to be planted with natural species as compensation planting and to provide a visual barrier around the treatment plant.

11.4 Project Environmental Monitoring A period of pre-implementation monitoring has been proposed which will quantitatively define the groundwater quality and depth of the freshwater lens, marine water quality and ecosystem health in the vicinity of the marine outfall and the health of the community in terms of sewage borne illnesses. The monitoring programme will continue following implementation of the project measuring the same determinants at the same locations and same frequency. This will enable the ‘before and after’ conditions to be compared statistically and quantified.

109 12. REFERENCES

Anderson RC (1998). Submarine topography of Maldivian atolls suggests a sea level of 130m below present at the last glacial maximum. Coral reefs , 17, pp. 339-341.

Alifu Dhaalu Government website: http://www.adh.gov.mv/

Asian Development Bank (2005). Report and recommendation of the president to the board directors on a proposed loan to the Republic of the Maldives for the Regional Development Project , phase II-environmental infrastructure and management . ADB, RRP: MLD 33218

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora website: http://www.cites.org/index.html

Department of Meteorology Maldives. Website: http://www.meteorology.gov.mv/

Falkland T (2001). Report on Integrated Water Resources Management and Sustainable Sanitation on Four Islands, Republic of Maldives

Ghina F (2003). Sustainable development in small island developing states. The case of Maldives. Environment, Development and Sustainability 5:139-165.

IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Jameel A, Faathin H, Shakeel H, Ahmed H, Ali Shareef H, Shareef M, Saleem M, Aslam M, Faiz M, Zuahir M, Hassan MZ, Saeed S (2002). National Biodiversity strategy and action plan of the Maldives. Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, Male’, Republic of Maldives.

Kohler KE, Gill SM (2006). Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Computers and Geosciences , 32 (9): 1259-1269.

Mimura, N., L. Nurse, R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L. Briguglio, P. Lefale, R. Payet and G. Sem, (2007). Small islands . Climate Change 2007 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University, Press, Cambridge, UK, 687-716.

Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment-Government of Republic of Male’ (April 2008). Concept design for sewerage system for L.Fonadhoo . Regional Development Project-Phase II Environmental Infrastructure and Management, ADB Loan No. 2170-MLD-SF. Submitted by: Management and Implementation Consultants, Intercontinental Consultants and Technocrats Pvt., Ltd (India)

WHO (2008). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: incorporating first addendum . Vol. 1, Recommendations- 3 rd edition. World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.

Wilkinson C (2000). Status of coral reefs of the world:2000 . AIMS, Queensland, Australia.

110 13. DECLARATION OF THE CONSULTANTS

I certify that the statements made in this Environmental Impact Assessment study are true, complete and correct.

Name: Mariyam Rozlyn Saleem

Signature:

Date: 25/02/2009

111 Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADB: Asian Development Bank ADh : Alifu Dhaalu atoll BOD 5: Biological oxygen demand COD : Chemical oxygen demand CPCE : Coral point count with Excel CWWTP : Centralized wastewater treatment plant EAASP : Extended aeration activated sludge process EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment ERC : Environmental Research Centre GOM : Government of Maldives Ha: Hectare HDPE : High-density polyethylene IDC : Island development Council IEE : Initial Environmental Examination Km : Kilometre m3: Cubic meter m2: Square meter MOFAMR : Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources MHTE : Ministry of Housing, Transport and Environment MSL : Medium sea level MT : Metric tons MWSA: Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority MWSC : Male’ Water Sewerage Company Pvt. Ltd. PGA : Peak ground acceleration PIU : Project implementation unit PMU : Project management unit PVC : Poly Vinyl Chloride RDP : Regional Development Project SBR : Sequential batch reactor SDB : Sludge drying bed SHZ : Seismic hazard zones SPS : Sewerage pumping station STP : Sewerage treatment plant TEPS : Treated effluent pumping station TSS : Total suspended solids uPVC : un-plasticised Poly Vinyl Chloride WHO : World health organization WWTP : Wastewater treatment plant

APPENDIX A

112

Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA for the proposed sewerage system at ADh. Mahibadhoo The EIA report shall be carried out in accordance with this TOR.

113

114

115

APPENDIX B

116 Environmental Impact Assessment Team The EIA for the construction of a sewerage system at ADh. Mahibadhoo was carried out by Seamarc Pvt. Ltd. with an experienced professional team lead by Ms Mariyam Saleem (EIA Consultant No. EIA05/07). Following are the Curriculum Vitae of the team members:

117 CURRICULUM VITAE of MARIYAM SALEEM PERSONAL DETAILS

Name: Mariyam Rozlyn Saleem Nationality: Maldivian Gender: Female Date of Birth: 1st of September 1974 Marital Status: Married with two children Languages: Dhivehi, English and French Present address For communication: M. Maahura Kulhidhoshu Magu Male’ Republic of Maldives Tel: (960) 320496 (H) (960) 331626 (W) Fax: (960) 336575 Email: [email protected]

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

SECONDARY EDUCATION : 1991-1993 Woodstock School, Mussoorie, U.P, India High School Diploma

May 1993 - Advanced Placement 1981-1991 Aminiya School, Male’ Republic of Maldives GCE O' level

TERTIARY EDUCATION : Bachelor of Science (Marine Biology) July 1996 - June 1997 - University of the South Pacific, Fiji July 1997 - July 1999 - James Cook University, Australia Conferred in August 1999

118

Master of Applied Science (Protected Area Management) James Cook University February 2002 – April 2004 Conferred in May 2004

EMPLOYMENT HISTORY

28.06.00 – ongoing Environmental Manager Seamarc Pvt. Ltd.

08.05.04 – ongoing Senior Research Officer Marine Research Centre Min. of Fish, Agri. & Mar. Res.

28.07.99 – 08.05.04 Research Officer (Grade 3) Marine Research Centre Min. of Fish, Agri. & Mar. Res.

29.11.94 - 30.06.96 Research Assistant Marine Research Section Min. of Fish, Agri. & Mar. Res.

23.08.93 - 28.11.94 Marine Biology Trainee Marine Research Section Min. of Fish, Agri. & Mar. Res.

WORKSHOPS AND SEMINARS ATTENDED

Workshop held on the "Introduction of Reef Resources Management Handbook", Vaavu & Meemu Atoll, 1994

Involved in the International Coral Reef Initiative Workshop 1995, Bandos Island Resort.

Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management 1996, MCSE, Male’.

119 CORDIO Workshop on Survey Design and Data Analysis 23-30 January 2000, MRC, Male’'.

Workshop on Monitoring the Social, Economic and Environmental Impacts of Tourism in the Maldives 27 January 2000, Nasandhura Palace Hotel, Male’.

Introduction and demonstration of Marine GIS to conduct the spatial analysis for fisheries and oceanographic data 27 March 2000, MRC, Male’.

Training Workshop on Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment 17-27 April 2000, Bandos Island Resort, Maldives. 

GCRMN Training Workshop on Coral Reef Survey Design and Data Analysis 1-8 May 2000, Chennai, India

First Regional Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity 15-18 July 2000, AA. Mahibadhoo, Maldives

Third Regional Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity 25-26 August 2000, Seenu Gan, Maldives

Fourth Regional Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity 15-16 September 2000, Baa Eydhafushi, Maldives

Fifth Regional Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity 13-14 October 2000, Meemu Muli, Maldives

9th International Coral Reef Symposium 23-27 October 2000. Bali, Indonesia

Sectoral Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity 6-7 November 2000, Hulhulé, Maldives

GCRMN Evaluation Meeting Phase II March 2001, Male’, Maldives

GCRMN Database Evaluation Meeting June 2001, Colombo, Sri Lanka

120

National Workshop on Conservation of Biodiversity September 2001, Male’, Maldives

Workshop on Protected Areas: IUCN categories November 2001, Male’, Maldives

Workshop on Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries January 2004, Male’, Maldives

10th International Coral Reef Symposium 28 June – 2 July 2004, Okinawa, Japan

Technology Needs Assessment for Climate Change: First Workshop on Technology Needs Assessment Methodology 22 – 24 November 2004, Hulhule’, Maldives

Inception workshop on the “Preparation of National Adaptation Plan of Action” (NAPA) Project 25 November 2004, Hulhule’, Maldives

Inception workshop on AEC – AEC Baa Atoll Project July 2005, Hulhule’, Maldives

First Workshop on the Development of a National Waste Management Strategy December 2005, Hulhule’ Island Hotel, Maldives

Second Workshop on the Development of a National Waste Management Strategy May 2006, STELCO Seminar Room, Male’, Maldives

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) and National Development Plan 7 Review Retreat – Atoll Ecosystem Conservation Project and National Climate Change Project, July 2006, Paradise Island, Maldives

NAPA Workshop on Identifying and Prioritisation of Adaptation Measures, September 2006, Bandos Island Resort, Maldives

Roundtable on Coastal Erosion and Disaster Risk and Vulnerability, September 21, 2006 - Male, Maldives

121 Regional Resource Coordination and Mobilisation Workshop for the Long-term Management and Conservation of MCPAs in South Asia, September 2006, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Environment and Disaster Risk Assessment of Islands in the Maldives, December 2006, Hulhule’ Island Hotel, Maldives

SAARC Expert Group Consultation on Coastal Zone Management, April 2007, Dharubaaruge, Male’, Maldives

Workshop on the Development of a Grouper Management Plan, April 2007, Dharubaaruge, Male’, Maldives

National Consultation on the Fisheries Sector Master Plan, May, Islamic Centre Conference Hall, Male’, Maldives

WORK EXPERIENCE

Was involved in the Integrated Reef Resources Management Programme, MRS & BOBP. This project was carried out in Vaavu, Meemu, Faafu and Dhaalu atolls and was focused on working with the communities to develop sustainable reef resource management. Importance was given to environmental awareness and community involvement in the process of management.

Was involved in the National Turtle Conservation Program and my main task was to liaise with the researchers at the turtle hatchery at Vaadhoo resort, Male’ Atoll.

Was involved in setting up a system for regulating and monitoring coral and sand mining in the Maldives. My task was to give expert advice on the coral reef environment in the development of the Regulations.

Carried out the environmental component of two bids for resort development at Hudhufushi Island, Lhaviyani Atoll. The emphasis of my work was on Ecological values and relationships as well as conservation.

122

Carried out the environmental component of the Proposed Information Technology Project in the Maldives for ADB. My task was to analyse and discuss the existing marine environment and the predicted impacts from the proposed development as well as mitigation measures and monitoring.

Annual monitoring for resorts: Velavaru Island and Reethi Beach Resort where my main responsibility is to carry out the monitoring of the marine environment including field work and report writing.

Carried out the Environmental Impact Statement for Thari Village Resort for the Harbour enhancement Project and my area was to assess the marine environment as well as the terrestrial environment and associated impacts.

Project Manager, GCRMN Socio-economic Monitoring Project, MRC, Maldives. My main task was to carry out the field work including interviews with the community and coordinating the project.

GCRMN Coral Reef Database Development Project, Seamarc Pvt. Ltd., Maldives. My main tasks were testing the database, preliminary data entry, developing the help file and the data entry guide.

National Coral Reef Monitoring Program (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network) team member. My main task within this project was to collect field data which contributes to the National Coral Reef Database.

CORDIO (Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean) Project team member. My main responsibility was to collect field data on coral reef recovery and compile it. I was also in charge of data collection for the project carried out to assess the impacts of the 1998 Coral Bleaching on Tourism in the Maldives. This involved questionnaire based interviews with departing tourists at the airport.

Maldives Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation team member. My area was to give expert advice on coral reef related issues.

123

Focal point for GEF Conservation of Coral Reefs in the Maldives Project, PDF B. My task was to give expert advice on coral reefs at the community workshops held in the atolls as well as report writing. I was also involved in the field data collection carried out in Baa Atoll.

Focal Point for TNA Climate Change Project. My task was to give expert advice on the marine environment associated with climate change issues.

Worked on the preparation of a report on the Status of the Shark Fishery in Maldives. This involved field trips to the northern and southern atolls of Maldives to collect socio- economic data on the fishery.

Worked on the preparation of a report on the Aquarium Fishery of Maldives. This involved compilation and analysis of export data and interviews with exporters.

Preparation of report on Cost Estimation and Willingness to pay for waste management in Baa Atoll as National Consultant for AEC project.

Presently working on the Management of the Aquarium Fishery of the Maldives.. It involves working closely with the exporters and Maldives Customs Services to develop tools and guidelines for monitoring and management.

ADDITIONAL SKILLS

Computer literate - Fluent in Microsoft Windows Languages spoken - Fluent in Dhivehi (mother tongue) and English French (intermediate)

REPORTS & PUBLICATIONS

124 Anderson, R.C. & M.R. Saleem. (1994). Seasonal and Regional Variation in Livebait Utilization in the Maldives. In: Rasain, M. H. Maniku (ed.), Vol 14. Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture. pp: 162-182. Anderson, R.C. & M.R. Saleem. (1995). Inter-annual Variations in Livebait Utilization in the Maldives. In: Rasain, M. H. Manik (ed.), Vol 15. Ministry of Fisheries & Agriculture. pp: 194-216. Ahmed, H., Mohamed, S. & M.R. Saleem. (1996). Exploitation of Reef Resources - Beche- der-mer, Reef Sharks, Giant Clams, Lobsters and Others. In: Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management in the Maldives, D.J. Nickerson and M.H. Maniku (eds.), Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras. pp: 137-165. Ahmed, H. & M.R. Saleem. (1999). Marine Flora and Fauna of the Maldives. Biodiversity theme paper prepared for the Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment. Unpublished manuscript. Ahmed, H., Le Berre, T. & M.R. Saleem. (2000). Environmental statement for Thari Village Beach reclamation and associated harbour development project. Unpublished report. Ahmed, H., Le Berre, T. & M.R. Saleem. (2000). Annual environmental monitoring report – Velavaru Island Resort, Maldives. Unpublished report. Ahmed, H., Le Berre, T. & M.R. Saleem. (2000). Annual environmental monitoring report – Reethi Beach Resort, Maldives. Unpublished report. Cesar, H., Waheed, A., Saleem, M. & D. Wilhelmsson. (2000). Assessing the impacts of the 1998 Coral Bleaching on Tourism in the Maldives and Sri Lanka. Report prepared for CORDIO Programme. Ahmed, H., Le Berre, T. & M.R. Saleem. (2001). Initial Environmental Examination for Proposed Information Technology Project in the Maldives. Report prepared for ADB. Jameel, A., Hameed, F., Shakeel, H., Ahmed, H., Shareef, H.A., Shareef, M., Saleem, M., Aslam, M., Faiz, M., Zuhair, M., Hassan, M.Z. and S. Saeed. (2002). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of the Maldives. Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, Male’, Maldives. Zahir, H., Clark, S., Rasheed, A. and M.R. Saleem. (2002). Spatial and temporal patterns of coral recruitment following a severe bleaching event in the Maldives. In: O. Linden, D. Souter, D. Wilhelmsson and D. Obura (eds.) Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean: Status report 2002. CORDIO, Sweden. 125-134 pp.

125 Saleem, M.R. (2004). Monitoring management effectiveness of Kuda Huraa Dive Site, North Male’ Atoll, Maldives. Report submitted for the degree of Master of Applied Science in TESAG, James Cook University, Australia. Saleem, M.R. and M.S. Adam. (2004). Review of the Aquarium Fishery of the Maldives. Unpublished report. Saleem, M.R. and M.S. Adam. (2004). Status of the Shark Fishery of Maldives. Dhivehi report prepared for the Fisheries Advisory Board of Maldives. Saleem, M. R. and M. Hameed. (2006). Willingness to Pay for Waste Management in Baa Atoll. Report prepared by Seamarc for the AEC Baa Atoll Project.

REFEREES Dr. Abdulla Naseer Executive Director Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture & Marine Resources Male’ Republic of Maldives

Tel: (960) 3322625 Fax: (960) 3326558 Mr. Peter Valentine Associate Professor/ head of School Tropical Environmental Studies and Geography James Cook University Qld 4811 Australia Tel: (61) 7 4781 4441 Fax: (61) 74781 4020

126 CURRICULUM VITAE of THOMAS LE BERRE 1st floor M. Maahuraa Kulhidhoshu Magu 32 y. o Republic of Maldives Work : +960 333 16 26 Married Fax: +960 333 65 75 Mobile: 778 76 42 E-mail : [email protected] 2 children MAIN COMPETENCES - Trilingual (french (mother tongue) / english (fluent) / divehi (maldivian)), bicultural french- maldivian. - Environmental consultant, coastal oceanography, Programming (Delphi) - Worked overseas (Maldives, Australia).

EDUCATION 1995 -1998 Engineering Diploma (ENSTA, Paris), a 3 year-formation, admission after preparatory classes, ending Baccalaureat + 5 years. Participated in two exchange programs with KTH, Stockholm, Sweden (6 months in second year), studies in groundwater management and fluid mechanics, and JCU, Townsville, Australia (1 year in third year), studies in environmental engineering, coral reef geology and fluid mechanics. 1992 -1995 Mathematic superior and special : Preparatory classes for selective examination to the french engineering schools (major in Physics and Chemistry) Lycée Chateaubriant, Rennes. This is to prepare the selective examination to enter the french “Grandes Ecoles”. 1992 Baccalauréat C (Math-Physics, distinctions). Lycée Lesage, Vannes. French equivalent to A-levels

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE 1999 - 2008 Setup and run an Environmental Consultancy in the Maldives - Seamarc Pvt. Ltd. (Systems Engineering and Marine Consulting)

The major contracts in which I was involved were: • Environmental Impact assessment and design for coastal development of Vabboa Huraa (Four Seasons Resort, HPL)

127 • Coral Monitoring of T. Vilufushi, which was undergoing major dredging operations, dredging works and consultancy for Boskalis International. • Environmental Impact Assessment for the development of a fisheries project in Addu Atoll, for MIFCO (Maldives Industrial Fisheries Company) • Environmental Impact Assessments for the development of Herethere as a tourist resort, for MTDC (Maldives Tourism Development Corporation). • Work as national consultant for the development of the Integrated Climate Change Strategy. Includes GEF (Global Environmental Facility) NAPA (National Adaptation Plan of Action) project, NCSA (National Capacity Self Assessment) project and TNA (Technology Need Assessment) project. Remains member of the National Climate Change Technical Team. • Environmental Impact assessment and design for coastal redevelopment of Kuda Huraa (Four Seasons Resort, HPL) • Environmental Impact Assessment and coastal designs for the redevelopment of K. Kandooma. redevelopment works not yet started (Leisure Hollidays, HPL Maldives) • Erosion control at Baa Landaa Giraavaru (upcoming Four Seasons resort, LGPL) (on going). • Coral translocation as a mitigation measures for development impacts at Baa Landaa Giraavaru (upcoming Four Seasons resort) (on going). • Setting up of a fish laboratory to breed Amphiprion nigripes and other ornamental species at Baa Landaa Giraavaru (upcoming Four Seasons resort) (on going). • Supervising clearing of 45 hectares plot in L. Gan for the French Red Cross utilizing man power from the IDP camps and villages in L. Gan. • Constructed a 50 feet boat in the Maldives in order to carry out research and tourism activities. Subsequently managed this activity (on going). • Bid documents for a number of resort islands, regularly obtained among top ranking for environmental concepts. • Local Environmental counterpart for BCL (Bangladesh Consultant Limited) for a IDB funded project for the government of Maldives about Focus Development Islands.

128 • Research on Amphiprion nigripes (Maldives clownfish for aquarists) and export of 500 individuals maricultured by the Marine Research Center of the Government of Maldives. • Bid document and Environmental Impact Assessment for the development of a hotel/marina in H.A. Dhonakulhi for Turquoise Pvt. Ltd. • Environmental and research programs for restoration and rejuvenation of reefs affected by global warming and bleaching using Reef Balls, for Four Seasons Resort (on going). • Consultancies for the dredging operations and coastal works at Medhufinolhu (One and Only at Reethi Rah). • Database design and programming for coral reef resources management for the governments of India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, for IOC/UNESCO through the GCRMN (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network) • Analysis of salinity and temperature profile data at the mouth of the Herbert and Burdekin River in North Queensland, Australia, for James Cook University. • Environmental auditing of tourist resorts for Velavaru (Turtle Island Resort) and Fonimagoodhoo (Reethi Beach Resort) since 2000. • Feasibility study for power generation with wind mills in the Maldives. • Translation into French of books pertaining to the Maldives (Marine Life of the Maldives, by Neville Coleman, Dive Maldives, by Tim Godfrey).

129 CURRICULUM VITAE OF CHIARA FRANCO Name: Chiara Franco Nationality: Italian Gender: Female Date of Birth: 30th July 1977 Languages: Italian, English For communication: [email protected] EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

SECONDARY EDUCATION:

High School Diploma July 1997- scientific subjects at the Sassari’s “Liceo Scientifico G. Spano”

TERTIARY EDUCATION: Bachelor of Science (Marine Biology) • November 2004 - Università Politecnica delle Marche (Polytechnic University of Marche), Ancona • Master of Applied Science (Tropical Coastal Management) Newcastle University September 2006 – August 2007 Conferred in October 2007

EMPLOYMENT HISTORY

06.10.08 – ongoing Environmental consultant Seamarc Pvt. Ltd.

01.03.08 –29.06.08 Volunteer Marine Science Station Aqaba, Jordan

01.10.07 – 30.01.08 Environmental consultant La Maddalena Marine Park, Italy

10.12.05 – 09.06.06 Volunteer Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

130 01.01.05 - 12.11.05 Aquarist Mare Nostrum Aquarium, Italy

WORKSHOPS AND SEMINARS ATTENDED

• 11th International Coral Reef Symposium 7 July – 11July 2008, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida • Ecology, Economics and Management (EEM)- Newcastle University 2007 • Stakeholders dialogue a good practice approach to participation-Newcastle University 2007 • Seagrass Workshop- Thailand, Certified by University of New Hempshire (USA) 2006 • Coral Identification Training Course- PMBC, Phuket (Thailand)- 2006 • II National Algological Congress, Italy- 2004

WORK EXPERIENCE

Was involved in the Artificial Reef Project carried by the Ecophysiology Laboratory in Jordan. The project was focused in coral reef restoration, using artificial reef divers device units. Support in data collection was given also in the coral reef monitoring program for the Gulf of Aqaba, in the mid-water coral nursery management and construction and in the analysis of data.

Was involved in the “Sustainable renewable Energy Program” for the Marin Park of La Maddalena (Italy). Principal tasks were the production of marine environmental data for the EIA, stakeholders consultation and social survey organization.

Carried out experiment on coral self-attachment ability during MSc field project funded by REFES & GEF. The emphasis of my work was on the time of self-attachment of coral fragments for restoration purpose.

Was involved in the coral reproduction experiment for the Coral Restoration Project for the Thailand North Gulf. My task was produce data on coral spawning, fertilization, settlement, metamorphosis and symbiont ingestion in a close aquaria system.

131 Was involved in the analysis of Thailand shrimp invasive species. My task was analysis of shrimp gut of local and invasive shrimps collected from the wild and culturing some of these species.

Aquarist for Alghero’s Mare Nostrum Aquarium, Italy. My main tasks were fish feeding, identification and disease care, scientific guide to schools

ADDITIONAL SKILLS

Computer literate - Fluent in Microsoft Windows, SPSS, Minitab. Basic knowledge in CPCe, ArcView, Imagetool 3.0, PRIMER, ECOPATH/ECOSIM

Languages spoken - Fluent in Italian (mother tongue) and English Spanish (basic)

Diving license- Rescue diver (PADI) and Emergency responder (PADI)

REPORTS & PUBLICATIONS

Abstract 11th ICRS (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 2008): JR Guest, RM Dizon, C Franco, AJ Edwards, E Gomez; How quickly do coral-fragments of different species “self-attach” after transplantation? Guest JR, Dizon RM, Edwards AJ, Franco C, Gomez E (2008). How quickly do fragments of corals ‘self-attach’ after transplantation? Restoration Ecology. In Review

132

APPENDIX C

133 Water quality analysis: Source RDPII Geo-hydrology report 2007

134

135 136 Resistivity profile ADh. Mahibadhoo (Source Geo-Hydrological Report RDP II, 2007)

137 Results water quality analysis (2009)

138

139 Topographic map of ADh. Mahibadhoo (Source PMU)

140 Socioeconomic survey-Questionnaire Regional Development Project Phase II-Environmental Infrastructure And Management. Socio-Economic, Environmental Infrastructure Status Community Perception And Perferences And Willingness To Pay Survey.

Name of island: Atoll: House identification No: Time: ………………….hrs Name of interviewer: Date: ……. /……… / 2007 Name of respondent (M/F):

SECTION I: SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA . 1.1 Family Details 1.1.1 Head of Family(M/F): 1.1.2 Family Details

S.NO NAME SEX AGE EDUCATION OCCUPATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 • Education: Illiterate (0) , Primary(1), O Level(2), A Level(3), Graduate(4), Professional(5) • Occupation: None(0) , Fisheries(1), Agriculture(2), Business(3), Government Services(4), Private Services (5), Professional Practice (6), Student (7), Housewife(8), Retired(9)

1.1.3 Total Monthly Income of Household.

< Rf5000 Rf5,000 – 10,000 Rf10,000 – 15,000 Rf15,000 – 20,000 Rf20,000 – 25,000 Rf25,000 – 30,000 Rf30,000 – 35,000 >Rf35,000

1.2 Household Assets

Fridge Colour TV Mobile/Phone

Scooter/Motor cycle Cycle Washing Machine

Others

1.3 Business Assets

141 Dhoni Bokkura Speedboat

Generator Shop Café

Others

1.4 Housing Details

Flat Single Unit Approx Area (in m2) Owner /Tenant Electric Connection(Y/N) Water Sanitation

1.5 Expenditure of Household last month

ITEM AMOUNT IN RUFIYYA Food Stuff Electricity Gas Water Garbage Disposal School Fees Medical Expenses Clothing Leisure/Travel Transport Fuel Others

1.6 Health Related Issues 1.6.1 In the last 3 months, any member of family suffered from diarrhoea

Yes If yes how many times No 1.6.2 In the last 3 months how many members of family suffered from water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, stomach flu, etc?

Yes If yes specify: No

1.6.3 What is medical cost associated with illness.

1.6.4 How many person-days of lost work? Male/Female

1.6.5 How many person-days of missing school? Male/Female

142 SECTION II ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE STATUS SURVEY

2.1 WATER SUPPLY

2.1.1 Water Tank. Do you have Water Tank for rainwater harvesting(Y/N):

If yes Size: Liters Year of purchase:

Cost: RF Self financed/ Grant/ Is condition satisfactory(Y/N):

2.1.2 What source of water is mainly used in this household

SOURCE OF WATER

USES Rainwater Collected Public water Own Mosque/public

at home tank well well

Drinking

Cooking

Washing/Bathing

Flushing Toilet

2.1.3 Does your private well have electricity operated pump.

If yes, pump size: hp

Numbers of hours run each day hrs

2.1.4 Do you experience water shortage during the year.

If yes, how long Months

2.1.5 Do you have problem with Drinking Water or Well Water TYPE OF BAD BAD COLOUR SHORTAGE WATER SMELL TASTE Rain Water Well Water

2.1.6 Do you use any type of purification of drinking water

1. Boiling(Y/N): 2. Filtration (Y/N): 3. Chlorinating(Y/N): 4. Any Other (Y/N):

143 5. Other (Specify):

2.2 SANITATION

2.2.1 What type of toilet facilities is mainly used in the household? A. Sanitary toilet with Pour Flush C. Open Defecation B. Sanitary toilet with Flushing Cistern D. Gifili

2.2.2 Is septic Tank in your housing premises? If yes, Details Year Constructed: Interval of Deluding (year): Size L x B x D (m): Removed sludge is disposed on Island/Sea: Material of Construction: Do you pay for sludge removal(Y/N): Is it emptied/desludged: How many rufiyaa:

2.2.3 What sort of problem present Toilet Facilities is posing you 1. Smell (Y/N): 3. Inconvenient(Y/N): 2. Polluting well Water (Y/N): 4. Lack of cleanliness(Y/N):

2.2.4 How septic tank Effluent or Sewage is Discharged. 1. To sea through sewer pipes: 4. Soak pit in the island: 2. To island through sewer pipes: 5. Other: 3. Soak pit in the compound:

2.3 SOLID WASTE/GARBAGE DISPOSAL

2.3.1 How do you dispose your garbage? i) Backyard (Y/N): ii) Beach (Y/N): iii) Designated Area on Island (Y/N):

2.3.2 Do your family members dispose garbage (Y/N):

2.3.3 If No, Do you pay anybody to dispose garbage (Y/N):

2.3.4 If yes, charge (Rf/Month):

SECTION III – COMMUNITY PERCEPTIPONS/ PERFERENCE IN REGARDS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURES

3.1 WATER SUPPLY

3.1.1 What is your preference for water supply? Piped water supply from Desalination Plant. Own tube well with Motorized Pump Piped water supply from Ground water sources. Own well or hand pump. 3.1.2 If reply is A or B, Do you prefer A. House Connection B. Street Connection

144 3.1.3 Do you prefer? A. 24 Hours supply B. A few Hours Supply

3.1.4 Are you aware that piped water supply needs to be paid(Y/N):

3.2 SANITATION

3.2.1 State your preference for Sanitation A. Household septic tank. B. Offsite Sanitation

3.2.2 Reason for your preference of the above choice:

3.3 GARBAGE DISPOSAL

3.3.1 Are you ready to segregate Organic Waste/Non-organic Waste on household basis (Y/N):

3.3.2 Are you ready to compost organic waste at Household Level if training is provided to you (Y/N):

3.3.3 Are you ready to use compost for your garden at Household Level (Y/N):

3.3.4 Do you prefer a compost plant at?

A. Island B. Regional or other place (name pls):

3.4 PERCEPTIONS ABOUT RDP II

3.4.1 Are you aware that Government of Maldives is implementing RDP II in Central Regions and your island is one of the Focus island (Y/N):

3.4.2 What are your expectations from RDP II A. Improved water supply (Y/N): B. Improved Sanitation facilities (Y/N): C. Improved garbage disposal (Y/N):

3.4.3 Do you want to give your suggestions for improvement of this project?

3.4.4 Are you ready to interact with the PIU team and participation specialist on regular basis?

SECTION IV – WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR IMPROVED WATER SUPPLY, SANITATION, GARBAGE DISPOSAL

4.1 If piped water supply with stand post (street post) how much maximum are you ready to pay? A. Rufiyaa 100 B. Rufiyaa 150 C. Rufiyaa 200 4.2 If septic tank is provided to your household and septic tank effluent is properly treated at island , how much maximum are you ready to pay per month or year? A. Rufiyaa 100 B. Rufiyaa 150 C. Rufiyaa 200

145 4.3 If entire household sewage is treated and septic tank is eliminated, how much maximum are you ,ready to pay per month or year? A. Rufiyaa 200 B. Rufiyaa 300 C. Rufiyaa 400 4.4 If house to house garbage collection is arranged on daily basis, how much maximum are you ready to pay per month or year? A. Rufiyaa 50 B. Rufiyaa 75 C. Rufiyaa 100

146 Dataset socio-economic survey (Source PIU office ADh. Mahibadhoo)

147

148

149

150

151

152 153 Local stakeholders consultation (Source PMU)

154 155 156

157

158 List of participants scoping meeting Date Name Office Designation Organized by 26/11/2008 Mohamed Rasheed MWSC Engineering manager 26/11/2008 Hassan Mughnee MWSC Assistant manager 26/11/2008 Thomas Le Berre Seamarc Pvt. EIA Consultant Ltd. 26/11/2008 Marie Saleem Seamarc Pvt. EIA Consultant Environmental Ltd. Research 26/11/2008 Mohamed Rasheed MIC, ICT, Sanitation Centre (ERC) Bari MHTE Environmental Engineer 26/11/2008 Ahmed Waheed MHTE Department Director 26/11/2008 Ahmed Salah MWSA Project officer 26/11/2008 MWSA Engineer 26/11/2008 Mussa MHTE Assistant Director 26/11/2008 Hussain Naeem MHTE Division Director

List of participants to the community meeting Date Participants name Designation Organized by 11/ 04/ 2007 Abdul Hameed Ali Island Chief 11/ 04/ 2007 Abdulla Faiz Island Development Commitee 11/ 04/ 2007 Ali Marin Island Development Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Ahmeed Rifath Island Development Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Rashadh Ali Island Development Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Ali Shaheem Island Development Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Abdul Hameed Island Development Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Ali Shameem Assist. Island chief 11/ 04/ 2007 Shamil Mohamed PIU project 11/ 04/ 2007 Ali Shaheem Fisherman Mahibadhoo 11/ 04/ 2007 Abdul Hameed Businessman Island 11/ 04/ 2007 Hussain Saleem BML Assistant Development 11/ 04/ 2007 Hassan Ismail RK Committee member Office 11/ 04/ 2007 Abdullah Sameen PIU-social development Asst. 11/ 04/ 2007 Aminath Anusha PIU-secretary 11/ 04/ 2007 Hawwa Adam Women Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Kadheeja Mohamed Women Committee 11/ 04/ 2007 Hussain Abbas Mahibadhoo Youth Association 11/ 04/ 2007 Nasrulla Mohamed LH-PIU-Manager 11/ 04/ 2007 Sukriti Mandal MIC for RDP II 11/ 04/ 2007 Mohamed Rasheed Bari ICT/RDPII 11/ 04/ 2007 Satyakam Development Economist

159