Single Cell Protein Production: a Review

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262

ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 4 Number 9 (2015) pp. 251-262 http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article Single Cell Protein Production: A Review

Gour Suman1*, Mathur Nupur1, Singh Anuradha1 and Bhatnagar Pradeep2

1Environment Molecular Microbiology Lab., Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India 2Dean, Life sciences, IIS University, Jaipur, India *Corresponding author

A B S T R A C T

The increasing world deficiency of protein is becoming a major problem for human kind. Some of the underdeveloped countries like Algeria, Botswana, Nigeria, Madagascar etc., are facing major food and nutrition deficiency problems. India, although a developed nation, its major population is facing nutrition deficiency and food scarcity problems. In the face of such worldwide issues, single cell proteins K e y w o r d s derived from the waste organic products had been proved a very useful technology. Dried cells of bacteria, algae, yeast, and fungi, which are rich in proteins and could Single Cell be used as dietary supplements, are called Single Cell Proteins (SCP). The present Protein (SCP), review focuses on use of a variety of substrates for cultivation of single cell Nutritional protein. The various substrates which have been used as the common material for supplements, the production of various types of Single Cell Protein includes orange peel residue, Organic waste, sweet orange residue, sugarcane residue, paper mill waste rice husk, wheat straw Protein residue, cassava waste, sugar beet pulp, coconut waste, grape waste, mango waste, deficiency, etc..Microbial protein or SCP has various benefits over animal and plant proteins in Biomass that its requirement for growth are neither seasonal or climate dependent; it can be produced all round the year. It does not require a large expanse of land and it has high protein content with wide amino acid spectrum, low fat content and higher protein carbohydrate ratio than forages. It can be grown on waste and it is environmental friendly as it helps in recycling waste. It is therefore aimed at reviewing the production and processing of SCP from various substrates.

Introduction

The rapidly increasing world population explore new, alternate and unconventional generates the challenge of providing protein. For this reason, in 1996, new necessary food sources. In particular, protein sources mainly bacteria, yeast, fungi and supply poses a problem since essential algae were used to produce protein biomass amino acids cannot be replaced. The named Single Cell Protein (SCP). The term increasing world deficiency of protein is SCP was coined in 1966 by Carol L. Wilson. becoming a major problem for humankind. Single cell protein is dried cells of Since early fifties, efforts have been made to m icroorganism, which are used as protein

251

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 supplement in human foods or animal feeds. invented a method named Zulaufverfahren Besides high protein content (about 60 82% in which sugar solution was fed to an of dry cell weight), SCP also contains fats, aerated suspension of yeast instead of carbohydrates, nucleic acids, vitamins and adding yeast to diluted sugar solution. minerals. Another advantage with SCP is that it is rich in certain essential amino acids Moreover, Candilaarborea and C. utilis like lysine and methionine which are were used during the Second World War limiting in most plant and animal foods. and about 60 percent of the country replaced Microorganism like bacteria, yeast, fungi the food input (Arora et al., 1991). and algae utilize inexpensive feedstock and waste to produce biomass, protein In the 1960s, researchers at British concentrate or amino acids. Conventional Petroleum developed a technology called substrates such as starch, molasses, fruit and proteins-from-oil process for producing vegetable wastes have been used for SCP single cell protein by yeast fed by waxy n- production, as well as unconventional ones paraffins, a product produced by oil such as petroleum by-products, natural gas, refineries (Ageitos et al., 2011). Initial ethanol, methanol and lignocellulosic research work was done by Alfred biomass. The protein obtained from Champagnatar and BP s Lavera, Oil microbial source is designated as Single Refinery in France; a small pilot plant there Cell Protein (SCP). started operations in March in 1963, and the same construction of the second pilot plant, The worldwide, large-scale development of at Grange Mount oil refinery in Britain was SCP processes has contributed greatly to the authorised (Bamberg, 2000). advancement of present day biotechnology. Research and development of SCP processes In microbial protein production, several has involved work in the fields of natural products have been tested. The use microbiology, biochemistry, genetics, of natural cheap substrates and waste chemical and process engineering, food industrial products for cultivating technology, agriculture, animal nutrition, microorganisms appear to be general trend ecology, toxicology, medicine and in studies of applied nature (Grewal et al., veterinary science and economics. In 1990; Osho, 1995). For the same purposes developing SCP processes new technical Haider and EL-Hassy (2000) tested date solutions for other related technologies in extract supplemented with nitrogen source waste water treatment, production of as a suitable substrate whereas, cashew and alcohol, enzyme technology and nutritional apple juice was used by Osho (1995). science also improves. Several investigations were carried out using Research on Single cell Protein Technology cellulose and hemicellulose waste as a started a century ago when Max Delbruck suitable substrate for increasing Single Cell and his colleagues found out the high value Protein production. Many raw materials of surplus brewer s yeast as a feeding have been considered as substrate (carbon supplement for animals. During world War and energy sources) for SCP production first Single cell protein technology proved to (Nasseri et al., 2011). Further in many be more than useful as Germany used it to cases, these raw materials have been replace more than half of its imported hydrolyzed by physical, chemical and protein sources by yeast. In 1919, Sak in enzymatic methods before use. Various Denmark and Hay duck in Germany hydrocarbon, nitrogenous compounds, 252

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 polysaccharides and agricultural wastes such glucose, other hexose and pentose sugars as hemicelluloses and cellulose waste and disaccharides (Richmond, 2004). These (Azzam, 1992; Zubi, 2005) from plants and materials also are utilized in other branches fibrous proteins such as horn, feather, nail, of industry with a high price level, which and hair from animals have thus been used puts the economic aspect of the production for the production of SCP (Ashok et al., of microbial biomass in doubt. The choice of 2000). These waste products have been substrates that are normally abundant has converted to biomass, protein concentrate or determined the design and strategy of SCP amino acids using proteases derived from processes. The most widespread and certain microorganisms and are rich in some commonly used substrates for SCP growth factors required by microorganisms. production have been those where the carbon and energy source is derived from. Another investigation clearly revealed that Many companies producing SCP including for S.cerevisiae, banana skin was the best BP (UK), Kanegafuichi (Japan) and substrate followed by that of rind of Liquichimica (Italy) appeared on the scene. pomegranate, apple waste, mango waste and In the United States less than 15% of the sweet orange peel. Various forms of organic plants making SCP were said to rely on waste such as cellulose hemicelluloses, hydrocarbons as the source of carbons and hydrocarbon and different types of energy for the micro-organisms. Other agricultural waste were used in the potential substrates for SCP include bagasse, production of SCP (Adedayo et al., 2011). citrus wastes, sulphite waste liquor, The degree of SCP production depends on molasses, animal manure, starch, sewage, the type of substrate used and also on media etc. composition (Mondal, 2006). The highest amount of protein (690 mg) was obtained The future of SCP will be heavily dependent from Saccharomyces cerevisiae when grown on reducing production costs and improving on beetroot extract supplemented with basal quality by fermentation, downstream media, and the highest biomass yield per processing and improvement in the producer gram of substrate (16%) was obtained from organisms as a result of conventional Aspergillus niger when grown on banana applied genetics together with recombinant extract supplemented with basal media. For DNA technology (Omar and Sabry, 1991). Saccaharomyces cerevisiae cucumber waste Single cell proteins have application in has been proved better substrate followed by animal nutrition as: fattening calves, poultry, orange peels. Aspergillus terreus possesses a pigs and fish breading in the foodstuffs area high protein value and has been used as a as: aroma carriers, vitamin carrier, better choice for SCP production using emulsifying aids and to improve the cheap energy sources like Eichornia and nutritive value of baked products, in soups, Banana peel. (Jaganmohan et al., 2013). The in ready-to-serve meals, in diet recipes and cladodes of Opuntia ficus-indica (cactus in the technical field as: paper processing, pear) were one such lignocellulosic raw leather processing and as foam stabilizers. material that has potential for production of SCP in arid and semi-arid regions (Gabriel Choice of microorganism for scp et al., 2014). production

The classical raw materials are substances Bacteria containing mono and disaccharides, since almost all microorgansims can digest Characteristics that make bacteria suitable 253 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 for SCP production include rapid growth of by people near lakechad in Africa and the bacteria, short generation time and can Aztecs near Texcoco in Mexico. They used double their cell mass in 20 minutes to 2 it as a food after drying it. Spirulina is the hours. They are also capable of growing on most widely used algae so much that even a variety of raw materials that range from astronauts take it to space during their space carbohydrates such as starch and sugars to travel. Similarly, biomass obtained from gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons which Chlorella and Senedessmus has been include methane and petroleum fractions harvested and used as source of food by (Bamberg, 2000) to petrochemicals such as tribal communities in certain parts of the methanol and ethanol, nitrogen sources world. Alga is used as a food in many which are useful for bacterial growth include different ways and its advantages include ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, nitrates, simple cultivation, effective utilization of and the organic nitrogen in wastes, also it is solar energy, faster growth and high protein suggested to add mineral nutrient content. The algae Spirulina has been supplement to the bacterial culture medium considered for use as a supplementary to fulfil deficiency of nutrients that may be protein (Raja et al., 2008). It is a blue green absent in natural waters in concentration algae having strong antioxidant activity and sufficient to support growth. Potential provokes a free radical scavenging enzyme phototrophic bacterial strains are system. recommended for single cell protein production. Some researchers also suggest A diet enriched with Spirulina and other use of methanotrophic and other bacterial nutraceuticals may help protect the species for single cell protein production stem/progenitor cells. Spirulina maxima (Arora et al., 1991). Generation time of prevent fatty liver development induced by Methylophilusis about 2 hours is used in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). It is concluded animal feed and in general produces a more that the use of Spirulina should be favourable protein composition than yeast or encouraged in patients suffering from fungi. malnutrition, immune suppression, hepatic and neural compromise, etc. although Therefore the large quantities of single cell further investigations on the antiviral effects protein animal feed can be produced using of this alga and its clinical implications are bacteria like Brevibacterium (Adedayo et strongly needed. Single cell protein (SCP) al., 2011) Methylophilus methylitropous, production by five strains of Chlorella Acromobacter delvaevate, Acinetobacter species (M109, M121, M122, M138, and calcoacenticus, Aeromonas hydrophilla, M150), isolated from different habitats, and Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis was studied under the influence of eight (Gomashe et al., 2014), Lactobacillus environmental factors (Mahasneh, 2005). species, Cellulomonas species, Methylomonas methylotrophus (Piper, Yeast 2004), Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhodopseudomonas capsulate, Yeast single-cell protein (SCP) is a high- Flavobacterium species, Thermomonospora nutrient feed substitute (Burgents et al, fusca (Dhanasekaran et al., 2011). 2004). Among these, most popular are yeast species Candida (Bozakouk, 2002), Algae Hansenula, Pitchia, Torulopsis and Saccharomyces. The production of single Since ancient times, Spirulina was cultivated 254 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 cell protein using Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fusarium graminearum (Zubi, 2005), grown on various fruit waste (Tanveer, Aspergillus fumigates, A. niger, A.oryzae, 2010). The typical oily yeasts genera include Cephalosporium cichorniae, Penicillium Yarrowia, Candida, Rhodotorula, cyclopium, Rhizopuschinensis, Scytalidum Rhodosporidium, Cryptococcus, aciduphlium, Tricoderma viridae, Trichosporon and Lipomyces. Cucumber andTricoderma alba Paecilomyces varioti and orange peels were evaluated for the (Jaganmohan et al., 2013). production of single cell protein using Saccharomyces cerevisiae by submerged Potential substrates for SCP production fermentation (Sengupta et al., 2006). Single Cell Protein can be produced by a Fungi number of different substrates, often this is done to reduce biological oxygen demand of Many fungal species are used as a source of the effluent streams leaving various types of protein rich food (Bhalla et al, 2007). Many agricultural processing plants. The two main other filamentous species are also used as strategies with regard to substrate were to source of single cell protein. In 1973, in consider low grade waste material and very second international conference convened at high quality of protein in it (Reed and MIT, it was reported that Actinomycetes and Nagodawithana, 1995). filamentous fungi produced protein from various substrates. During the world war II, Many raw materials have been considered as trials were made to utilize the cultures of substrate for SCP production (Nasseri et al., Fusarium and Rhizopus (Yousuf, 2012) 2011). Conventional substrates such as grown in fermentation as a source of protein starch, molasses, fruit and vegetable wastes food. The inoculums of Aspergillus oryzae have been used for SCP production, as well (Anupama and Ravindra, 2000) or Rhizopus as unconventional ones such as petroleum arrhizus were selected because of their non- by-products, natural gas, ethanol, methanol toxic nature. Saprophytic fungi grow on and lignocellulosic biomass (Martin, 1991; complex organic compounds and convert Bekatorou et al., 2006). Carbohydrate them into simple structures. High amount of substrates are the most widely used for SCP fungal biomass is produced as a result of production due to the fact that carbohydrates growth. Mycelia yield vary greatly which are natural microbial substrates and also depends upon organisms and substrates. because carbohydrates constitute a renewable feedstock (Ugalde and Castrillo, There are some species of moulds, for 2002). example, Aspergillus niger (Yabaya and Ado, 2008), A. fumigates, Fusarium The availability of the substrate and its graminearum which are very dangerous to proximity to the production plant are the human, therefore, such fungi, must not be major factors that determine the design and used or toxicological evaluations should be strategy of an SCP production process. done before recommending to use as SCP. Molasses, the residual liquid obtained after Very recently, SCP technology is using crystallization of sugar from the fungal species for bioconversion of concentrated sugar solution obtained from lignocellulosic wastes (Lenihan et al, 2010). the milling of sugar cane or sugar beet, The filamentous fungi that have been used contains 45 55 % sugars, namely sucrose, include Chaetomium celluloliticum, glucose, fructose, raffinose, melibiose and

255 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 galactose. It is estimated that for every product. Finally, safety and the protection of 100kg of cane milled for sugar production, innovation throw up legal and controlled some3.5 to 4.5 kg of molasses is obtained. aspects, namely operating licenses, product authorizations for particular applications and The use of molasses for the production of the legal protection of new process and SCP is determined by its availability and strains of microorganisms. low cost, its composition and absence of toxic substances and fermentation inhibitors Single cell protein can be produced by (Bekatorou et al., 2006). Though molasses is fermentation processes, namely: a suitable carbon feedstock for SCP production, it requires supplementation with Submerged fermentation ammonia salts and phosphorus salts (Ugalde and Castrillo, 2002). Cassava is a tropical In submerged process (Varavinit et al., root crop produced in more than 80 1996), the substrate used for fermentation is countries and it is a rich source of starch for always in liquid state which contains the SCP production (Ejiofor et al., 1996). nutrients needed for growth. The fermentor which contains the substrate is operated Cultivation methods continuously and the product biomass is continuously harvested from the fermentor The production of single cell protein takes by using different techniques then the place in a fermentation process (Chandrani- product is filtered or centrifuged and then Wijeyaratne and Tayathilake, 2000). This is dried. Aeration is an important operation in done by selected strains of microorganisms the cultivation, heat is generated during which are multiplied on suitable raw cultivation and it is removed by using a materials in technical cultivation process cooling device. The microbial biomass can directed to the growth of the culture and the be harvested by various methods (Kargi et cell mass followed by separation processes. al., 2005). Single cell organisms like yeast Process development begins with microbial and bacteria are recovered by centrifugation screening, in which suitable production while filamentous fungi are recovered by strains are obtained from samples of soil, filtration. It is important to recover as much water, air or from swabs of inorganic or water as possible prior to final drying done biological materials and are subsequently under clean and hygienic conditions. optimized by selection, mutation, or other genetic methods. Then the technical Semisolid fermentation conditions of cultivation for the optimized strains are done and all metabolic pathways In semisolid fermentation (Adedayo et al.., and cell structures will be determined. 2011), the preparation of the substrate is not Besides, process engineering and apparatus cleared and it is also more used in solid state technology adapt the technical performance e.g. cassava waste. Submerged culture of the process in order to make the fermentations require more capital production ready for use on the large investment and have high operating cost. technical scale. Here is where the economic factors (energy, cost) come into play. Safety The cultivation involves many operations demands and environmental protection is which include stirring and mixing of a also considered in the production of SCP in multiphase system, transport of oxygen from relation both to the process and to the the gas bubbles through the liquid phase to

256 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 the microorganisms and the process of heat generally done via stirring the fermentation transfers from liquid phase to the media. Accurately managing the synthesis of surroundings (Anderson and Jorgensen, the desired metabolites requires regulating 2005). A special bioreactor is designed for temperature, soluble oxygen, ionic strength identifying mass and energy transportation and pH and control nutrients (Capalbo et al., phenomena, called U-loop fermentor 2001). (Jorgensen, 2010). Production of single cell protein involves basic steps of preparation of Nutritional advantages of SCP suitable medium with suitable carbon source, prevention of the contamination of Single cell protein basically comprises medium and the fermentor, production of proteins, fats carbohydrates, ash ingredients, microorganisms with desired properties and water, and other elements such as separation of synthesized biomass and its phosphorus and Potassium. Aside from the processing (Soland, 2005). Carbon source nutritional benefits of single cell protein, used can be n-alkenes, gaseous another benefit of single cell protein hydrocarbons, methanol and ethanol, technology is their throughout the year renewable sources like carbon oxide production. Also it plays its role in waste molasses, polysaccharides, effluents of management as waste materials are used as breweries and other solid substances substrate. Small area of land is required and (Talebnia, 2008). SCP is made in less time. To access nutritional value of single cell protein, many Solid state fermentation factors must be considered which include nutrient composition, amino acid profile, Solid state fermentation (SSF) has been vitamin and NA content as well as allergies extensively studied with thousands of and gastrointestinal effects. publications describing various types of bioreactor designs, process conditions and To access toxicological and carcinogenic microorganisms for the production of affects, long term feeding trails are also various value added products like SCP, required. A process of drying, harvesting feeds, enzymes, ethanol, organic acids, B- and processing has an effect on the nutritive complex vitamins, pigments, flavours, values of the finished products. Single cell (Singhania et al., 2009). This process protein is basically composed of protein, consists of depositing a solid culture fats, carbohydrates, ash ingredients, water substrate, such as rice or wheat bran, on and other elements such as potassium and flatbeds after seeding it phosphorous. The composition of SCP with microorganisms; the substrate is then depends on the nature of substrate and also left in a temperature-controlled room for on organism used. Proteins not only provide several days. Liquid state fermentation is nutritional value but also perform number of performed in tanks, which can reach 1,001 other functions. to 2,500 square metres (10,770 to 26,910 sq ft) at an industrial scale. Liquid Single cell protein from yeast and fungi has culture is ideal for the growing of unicellular 50-55% protein it has high protein- organisms such as bacteria or yeasts. To carbohydrates ratio (Mchoi and park, 2003). achieve liquid aerobic fermentation, it is It contains more lysine less amount of necessary to constantly supply the methionine and cysteine. It also has good microorganism with oxygen, which is balance of amino acids and it has high B-

257 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262 complex vitamins and more suitable as Burgents et al., 2004). The idea that the poultry feed. Some yeast strains with single cell protein could help the less probiotic properties such as Saccharomyces developed countries in future food shortages cerisiae and Debaryomyces hansenii was gaining research interest among improve larval survival either by colonizing scientists in universities and industry. For gut of fish larvae, which triggers the early future success of SCP, first, food technology maturation of the pancreas. problems have to be solved in order to make it similar to familiar foods and second, the Single cell proteins produced by using production should compare favourably with bacteria contain more than 80% protein other protein sources. although they have small amount of sulphur containing amino acids and high in nucleic Drawbacks of single cell protein acid content (Attia et al., 2003). technology

Nutritive and food values of SCP vary with SCP is gaining popularity day by day the microorganisms used. The method of because they require limited land area for harvesting, drying and processing has an growth and also help in recycling of waste effect on the nutritive value of the finished (Hojaosadati et al., 2000). Application of product (Bhalla et al., 2007). Single cell agro-industrial residues (Bacha et al., 2011) protein basically comprises proteins, fats in bioprocesses such as cultivation of SCP carbohydrates, ash ingredients, water, and on the one hand provides alternative other elements such as phosphorus and substrates, and on the other hand helps in Potassium (Jamel et al., 2008). The solving pollution problems, which their composition depends upon the organism and disposal may otherwise cause some the substrate upon which it grows. Proteins problems (Ashok et al., 2000). Research on not only provide a nutritional component in SCP has been stimulated by a concern over a food system but also perform a number of the eventual food crisis or food shortage that other functions (Mahajan and Dua, 1995). will occur if the world s population is not controlled. With excellent nutrient profiles and capacity to produce mass economically, SCPs have The high nucleic acid in SCP could be been added to aquaculture diets as partial removed or reduced with one or all of the replacement for fishmeal (Olvera-Novoa et following treatments: chemical treatment al., 2002) and for fortification of rotifer and with sodium hydroxide, treatment of cells Artemia (McEvoy et al., 1996). Yeast with 10% sodium chloride, activation of single-cell proteins (SCPs) are playing a endogenous nucleases during final stage of greater role in the evolution of aquaculture microbial biomass production and thermal diets (Gao et al., 2008). Some yeast strains shock (Santin et al., 2003). These methods with probiotic properties, such as are aimed at reducing the ribonucleic acid Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Oliva-Teles and content from about 71%which is considered Goncalves, 2001) and Debaryomyces to be within the acceptable level. Huei- hansenii (Tovar et al., 2002), boost larval hsiung Yang in his study developed a simple survival either by colonizing the gut of fish method for reduction of nucleic acid in larvae, thus triggering the early maturation Brevibacterium NNJM98A by incubation of of the pancreas, or via the immune non-proliferating cells at pH 10.3 and55°C stimulating glucans derived from the yeast for 3 hours. cell wall (Campa-Cordova et al., 2002 and 258 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262

These problems are high concentration of and higher protein carbohydrate ratio than nucleic acids which is 6-10% which elevates forages. It can be grown on waste and is serum uric acid levels and becomes cause of therefore environment friendly. Thus, the kidney stone formation (Bankra et al., use of SCP as an alternative nutrient 2009). About 70-80% of total nitrogen is supplement can solve the problem of food present in amino acids while rest occurs in scarcity of rapidly growing population nucleic acids and this concentration of especially in a developing country like nucleic acids is higher than conventional India. However despite of all these benefits protein which is characteristic of all fast SCP production has gained less importance growing organisms (Esabi, 2001; Nasseri et because of lack of acceptability of SCP as a al., 2011). nutrient supplement among people. Moreover, high nucleic acid content, Another problem is presence of cell wall presence of non-digestible cell wall, which is non digestible, in case of algae and unacceptable colours and flavours and a yeast, there may be unacceptable colour and high risk of contamination and cell recovery flavours, cells of organisms must be killed further restricts their use as a global food. before consumption, there is chance of skin Therefore efforts should be made to find reaction from taking foreign proteins and alternative substrates and methods which gastrointestinal reactions may occur can minimize the pitfalls of the substrates resulting in nausea and vomiting (Adedayo and methods currently in use for the et al.,2011). production of SCP and thus lead to acceptance of this valuable nutrient SCP obtained from bacteria also has high supplement on a global basis. nucleic acid content, high risk of contamination during the production process References and cell recovery also causes many problems. SCP from bacteria has also been Adedayo, M.R., Ajiboye, E.A., Akintunde, found to be associated with these pitfalls J.K., Odaibo, A. 2011. SCP: As which include: high ribonucleic acid nutritional Enhancer. J. Microbiol., 2(5): content, high risk of contamination during 396 409. the production process and recovering the Ageitos, J.M., Vallejo, J.A., Veiga-Crespo, P. cells is a bit problematic. All these Villa, T.G. 2011. Oily yeasts as detrimental factors affect the acceptability of oleaginous cell factories. J. Am. Sci., 90: SCP as global food. 1219 1227. Andersen, Jorgensen, S.B. 2005. U-loop In conclusion, SCP shows very attractive reactor modelling for optimization, part 1: features as a nutrient supplement for estimation of heat loss. J. Environ. Issues, humans. It basically comprises of protein, 9: 88 90. carbohydrate, fats, water and elements like Anupama, Ravindra, 2000. Value added Food: phosphorous and potassium. SCP has single cell protein. Biotechnol. Adv. J. various benefits over animal and plant Microbiol., 18: 459 479. proteins in that its requirement for growth Arora, D., Mukerji, K., Marth, E. 1991. Single cell protein in Hand book of applied are neither seasonal or climatic dependent mycology. J. Am. Sci., 18: 499 539. therefore it can be produced all round the Ashok, R.S., Nigam, P., Vanete, T., Luciana, year.SCP has a high protein content with P.S. 2000. Bio resource technology. J. wide amino acid spectrum, low fat content Am. Sci., 16: 8 35.

259 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262

Attia, Y.A., Al-Harthi M.A and El-Deek A.A Chandrani-Wijeyaratne, S., Tayathilake, A.N. 2003. Nutritive value of undehulled 2000. Characteristics of two yeast strain sunflower meal as affected by (Candida tropicalis) isolated multienzymes supplementation to broiler from Caryotaurens (Khitul) toddy for diets. Braz. J. Genetic Eng., 67: 97 106. single cell protein production. J. Natl. Sci. Azzam, A.M. 1992. Production of metabolites, Found. Sri Lanka, 28: 79 86. industrial enzymes, amino acids. J. Dhanasekaran, D., Lawanya, S.S., Saha, N.T., Environ. Sci. Eng., 56: 67 99. Panneerselvam, A. 2011. Production of Bacha, U., Nasir, M., Khalique, A., Anjum, single cell protein from pineapple waste A.A., Jabbar, M.A. 2011. Comparative using yeast. Innovat. Roman. Food assessment of various agro-industrial Biotechnol., 8: 26 32. wastes for Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ejiofor, A.O., Chisti, Y., Moo-Young, M. biomass production and its quality 1996. Culture of Saccharomyces production: as a single cell protein. J. cerevisiae. Am. J. Food Technol., 68: Anim. Plant Sci., 21(4): 844 849. 100 134. Bamberg, J.H. 2000. British petroleum and Esabi, B.R. 2001. Production of single cell global oil. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. protein from ram horn hydrolysate. Sci., 6: 445 478. Turkish J. Biol., 25: 371 377. Bankra, A.V., Kumar, A.R., Zinjarde, S.S. Gabriel, A., Ntuli, V., James, D. 2014. 2009. Environmental and industrial C1Cactus pear biomass, a potential applications. J. Appl. Microbiol. lignocellulose raw material for Single Biotechnol., 84(5): 847 865. Cell Protein production (SCP). Int. J. Bekatorou, A., Psarianos, C., Koutinas, A.A. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 3(7): 171 2006. Production of food grade yeasts. 197. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 44: 407 415. Gao, J., Zhang, H.J., Yu, S.H., Wu, S.G., Bhalla, T.C., Sharma, N.N., Sharma, M. 2007. Yoon, I., Quigley, J., Gao, Y.P., Qi, G.H. Production of metabolites, industrial 2008. Effects of yeast culture in broiler enzymes, amino acids, organic acids, diets on performance and immune antibiotics, vitamins and single cell modulatory functions. Poult. Sci., 87: proteins. J. Environ. Issues, 6: 34 78. 1377 1384. Bozakouk, A.H. 2002. Acid hydrolysis of Gomashe, A.V, Pounikar, M.A., Gulhane, Phragmites austral: is powder for P.A. 2014. Liquid whey: a potential production of single cell protein by substrate for single cell protein Candida utilis. J. Res., 98: 876 897. production from Bacillus subtilis NCIM Burgents, J.E., Burnett, K.G., Burnett, L.E. 2010. Int. J. Life Sci., 2(2): 119 123. 2004. Disease resistance of Pacific white Grewal, H., Kalra, K., Kahlom, S. 1990. shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei,following Improvement of lipase production at the dietary administration of a yeast different stirring speeds and oxygen culture food supplement. Aquacult. J. levels. J. Res., 1: 90 96. Microbiol., 231: 1 8. Haider, M., EL-Hassy, M. 2000. Campa-Córdova, A.I., Hernández-Saavedra, Biodegradation of orange and pineapple N.Y., De Philippis, R., Ascencio, F. 2002. peels for production of single cell protein. Fish shellfish. Immunol. J. Biol., 12: 353 Garyounis J. Sci., 1: 7 23. 366. Hojaosadati, S.A., Rasoul, K., Abbas, J., Capalbo, F.H., Moraes, I.O., Pelizer, M.H. Hamid, R.S. 2000. Resources 2001. Solid-state fermentation of Bacillus conservation and recycling. J. Chem. thuringiensistolworthi to control fall Eng., 27(1-2): 125 138. armyworm in maize. Electr. J. Jaganmohan, P., Purushottam, B., Prasad, S.V. Biotechnol., 4 (2): 1 5. 2013. Production of SCP with Aspergillus 260

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262

terrus using Solid State fermentation. single cell protein from fruits waste. Am. Eur. J. Biol. Sci., 5(2): 38 45. J. Food Technol., 6(2): 103 116. Jamel, P., Alam, M.Z., Umi, N. 2008. Media Oliva-Teles, A., Gonçalves, P. 2001. optimization for bio proteins production Aquaculture enhancement. J. Chem. Eng., from cheaper carbon source, J. Engi. Sci. 202: 269 278. Technol., 3(2): 124 130. Olvera-Novoa, M.A., Martínez-Palacios, C.A., Jorgensen, J.B. 2010. Systematic model Olivera-Castillo, L. 2002. Aquacult. Nutr. analysis for single cell protein (SCP), J. Biotechnol., 8: 257 264. production in a U-loop reactor, 20th Omar, S., Sabry, S. 1991. Microbial biomass European Symposium on Computer and protein production from whey. J. Aided Process Engineering escape Am.- Islamic World Acad. Sci., 4: 170 172. Eur. J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 20: 79 90. Osho, A. 1995. Production of metabolites, Kargi, F., Shuler,M.L., Vashon,R., industrial enzymes, amino acids, Seeley,H.W., Henry,A.and Austic,R.E., vitamins, single cell protein. J. Res., 6: (2005) Continuous aerobic conversion of 521 529. poultry waste into single-cell protein Piper, S. 2004. Continuous cultures of using a single reactor: Kinetic analysis Methylococcus capsulatus. Center of and determination of optimal conditions. Microbial Biotechnology (Biocentrum) - Biotechnology and Bioengineering J., 22: Technical University of Denmark, 1567-1600. Master s thesis Saccharomyces Lenihan, P., Orozco, A., Neill,E. O., Ahmed, cerevisiae, PhD. Thesis. Chalmers Univ. M.N.M., Rooney, D.W., Walker, G.M., Techno., 90: 123 167. 2010. Dilute acid hydrolysis of Raja, R., Kumar, N.A., Sridhar, S. 2008. A lignocellulosic biomass. Chem. Engr. J., perspective on biotechnological potential 156(2): 395 403. of microalgae. Cr. Revised Microbiol., Mahajan, A., Dua, S. 1995 A perspective on 34: 77 88. biotechnological potential. J. Food Sci. Reed, G., Nagodawithana, T. 1995. Technol, 32: 162-165. Biotechnology enzymes, biomass, food Mahasneh, I.A. (2005) Production of SCP and feed. Bibliographic Citation, 9: 168 from five strains of microalgae species. 215. Biotechnol. Bioeng. J., 90: 153 161. Richmond, A. 2004. Handbook of microalgal Martin, M.A. 1991. Bioconversion of waste culture. Biotechnol. Appl. Phycol., 6: 87 materials to industrial products, Vol. 7. 124. Elsevier Applied science, London, UK. Santin, E., Paulillo, A.C., Maiorka, A., Pp. 44 190. Nakaghi, L.S.O., Macari, M., Silva, McEvoy, L.A., Navarro, J.C., Hontoria, F., A.V.F., Alessi, A.C. 2003. Evaluation of Amat, F., Sargent, J.R. 1996. the efficacy of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aquaculture. Int. J. Adv. Biotechnol., 134: cell wall to ameliorate at toxic effects of 339 352. aflatoxin in broilers. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 2: Mchoi, M.H., Park, Y.H. 2003. Production of 341 344. yeast biomass using waste Chinese Sengupta, S., Bhowal, J., Bhattacharya, U. biomass bio energy. J. Microbiol., 25: 2006. The Association of Official 221 226. Analytical Chemists. The official Mondal, A.K. 2006. Production of single cell methods of analysis of AOAC protein from fruits waste by using International, 18th edn. J. Environ. Issues, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Am. J. Food Arlington, U.S. 6: 99 126. Technol., 58: 117 134. Singhania, A.K., Soccol, C.R., Pandey, A. Nasseri, A.T., Rasoul-Amini, S., Moromvat, 2009. Recent advances in solid state M.H., Ghasemi, Y. 2011. Production of 261 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015) 4(9): 251-262

fermentation. Biochem. Eng. J., 9: 667 789. Soland, L. 2005. Characterization of liquid mixing and dispersion in a U-loop fermentor. Am.-Eur. J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 67: 99 109. Talebnia, F. 2008. Ethanol production from cellulosic biomass by encapsulated Saccharomyces cerevisiae, PhD. Thesis. Chalmers Univ. Techno., Gothenburg (Sweden), 334: 113 145. Tanveer, A. 2010. Production of single cell protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae by utilizing fruit wastes. J. Environ. Issues, 1(2): 127 132. Tovar, D., Zambonino, J., Cahu, C., Gatesoupe, F.J., Vázquez-Juárez, R., Lésel, R. 2002. Aquaculture. Int. J. Adv. Biotechnol., 204: 113 123. Ugalde, U.O., Castrillo, J.I. 2002. Single cell proteins from fungi and yeasts. Appl. Mycol. Biotechnol., 2: 123 149. Varavinit, S., Srithongkum, P., De-Eknamkul, C., Assavanig, A., Charoensiri, K. 1996. Production of single cell protein from cassava starch in air-lift fermenter by Cephalosporium eichhorniae. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 48: 379 382. Yabaya, A., Ado, S.A. 2008. Mycelial protein production by Aspergillus niger using banana peel. Sci. World J., 3(4): 9 12. Yousuf, M.K. 2012. To determine protein content of single cell protein produced by using various combinations of fruit wastes in the production of SCP by using two standard food fungi Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligospora. Int. J. Adv. Biotechnol. Res., 3(1): 533 536. Zubi, W. 2005. Production of single cell protein from base hydrolyzed of date extract byproduct by the fungus Fusarium graminearum. M.Sc.Thesis, Garyounis University, Benghazi. 19: 167 225.

262