Front Matter

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76587-9 - Australia and the ‘New World Order’ David Horner Frontmatter More information

Australia and the ‘New World Order’ From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991

This volume of the Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations is the first comprehensive study of Australia’s role in the peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations that developed at the end of the Cold War. Recounting vital missions, it covers the commitment of Australian Army engineers to Namibia in 1989 to establish the election conditions for a new nation. It examines the difficulties experienced by Australian military observers in Iran (1988–1990) following the Iran–Iraq war, and also explains what happened to the mine clearance instructors who worked in Pakistan and Afghanistan (1989–1993). This important volume has a strong focus on Australia’s reaction to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, including its maritime interception operations, and its controversial participation in the 1991 Gulf War. With access to all relevant Australian Government records and through extensive interviews with participants, David Horner explains the high-level political background to these activities. He analyses the conduct of the missions and in so doing, brings to life the little-known, yet remarkable stories of many individuals who took part. Australia and the ‘New World Order’ is an authoritative, comprehensive and compelling history of how members of the Australian Defence Force engaged with the world at a crucial time in international affairs.

David Horner is Professor of Australian defence history in the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre at the Australian National University. In 2004 he was appointed the Ofﬁcial Historian of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations, and in 2009 was made a Member of the Order of Australia for service to military history.

The Ofﬁcial History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations (Series Editor: David Horner) Volume II Australia and the ‘New World Order’: From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement: 1988–1991 David Horner

THE OFFICIAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIAN PEACEKEEPING, HUMANITARIAN AND POST-COLD WAR OPERATIONS

Australia and the ‘New World Order’ From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991

David Horner

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication data Horner, D. M. (David Murray), 1948– Australia and the new world order : from peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991 / David Horner. 9780521765879 (hbk.) Ofﬁcial history of Australian peacekeeping, humanitarian and post-cold war operations; 2. Includes index. Bibliography. Peacekeeping forces–Australia–History. Peace-building, Australian–History. Iraq-Kuwait Crisis, 1990–1991–Participation, Australian. Persian Gulf War, 1991–Participation, Australian. Australia–Armed Forces–Political activity–History. 355.3570994

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Contents

List of maps page x Preface xi Chronology 1987–91 xix Abbreviations xxiii

PART 1 STRATEGY AND POLICY 1 Towards a ‘new world order’: Global political, strategic and peacekeeping developments: 1988–91 3 Impact of the Cold War 5 End of the Cold War 7 The new world order 12 Revival of UN peacekeeping 15 Evolution of UN peacekeeping 18 Implications of the ‘new world order’ 23 2 Responding to a new world order: Australia’s policy towards overseas deployments and peacekeeping: 1988–91 25 The beginning of Australian peacekeeping: 1947–50 26 Forward defence and peacekeeping: 1950–72 28 Self-reliance and peacekeeping: 1972–82 31 The Hawke Government and peacekeeping 36 Developing Australia’s defence policy 39 Foreign policy and peacekeeping 44

PART 2 NEW MAJOR PEACE OPERATIONS 3 An international obligation: Australia’s commitment to Namibia: 1979–89 53 A sacred trust 54 Australia’s initial commitment 58 End of a Cold War conflict 69 Australia’s final commitment 75 Situation in Namibia 81 4 Establishing the force: The first UNTAG contingent: March–August 1989 83 Early days 86 Swapo incursion 89 Operation Piddock 91 Reflections on Operation Piddock 96 Arrival of the main body 100 Military organisation 101 Untag’s mission 102 Australian engineer tasks 105 Working and living environment 109 End of tour 117

Contents

5 Success in Namibia: The second UNTAG contingent: September 1989 – April 1990 119 Preparing for the elections 122 Operation Poll Gallop 126 After the election 133 Working and living conditions 134 Withdrawal 137 Conclusion 141 6 Shadows from a distant war: Australia and the Iran–Iraq War: 1980–88 144 Origins of the Iran–Iraq War 145 Course of the war 147 Australian policy 151 Chemical warfare 153 Tanker war 157 Trade 169 War of the cities 170 United Nations peace initiatives 172 7 A mission of presence: Military observers in Iran: 1988–90 176 Establishing the mission 177 Early problems 182 Living conditions 185 The later contingents 187 Observer operations 188 Risks 195 Working with the United Nations 197 End of the mission 200 Aftermath 202 8 The genesis of humanitarian demining: The UNMCTT in Pakistan: 1989–91 206 Soviet occupation 207 Australian policy 210 Operation Salam 211 Australian involvement 214 First contingent: July–November 1989 217 Contingents 2 to 5: 1989–91 225 Changes to the program’s structure 226 Changes to the Australians’ tasks 230 Security concerns 231 Working and living conditions 234 Conclusion 236 9 Balancing the risks: Mine-clearers in Pakistan and Afghanistan: 1991–93 238 Sixth contingent: March–September 1991 239 Seventh contingent: September 1991 – February 1992 242 Australia’s expanding role 244 Eighth and ninth contingents: February 1992 – January 1993 245 Cross-border operations 249 Working and living conditions 254 Ending the commitment 257 An enduring legacy 262

Contents

PART 3 THE FIRST GULF WAR 10 In defence of vital interests: Committing a naval force: August 1990 269 Origins of the 1991 Gulf War 271 Australia–Iraq relations: July 1988–July 1990 280 International and Australian reaction 288 Committing a naval force 293 11 Off to the Gulf: The first deployment: August–September 1990 303 The Royal Australian Navy in 1990 304 Selecting the ships 306 Preparing the ships 310 The ships sail 311 Transit to the Gulf 313 Operations begin 319 12 Debate and decision: Government policy and the Gulf crisis: August–September 1990 323 Public debate 323 Australians in Iraq and Kuwait 328 Evacuation plans 330 Parliamentary debates 331 Rules of engagement 334 Logistic support 335 International response 337 The Walls mission 340 Amending the rules of engagement 342 International naval conference 344 Medical support 346 Conclusion 348 13 Boarding and searching: Maritime interception in the Gulf of Oman: September–December 1990 350 Operational environment 352 Operational routine 355 First boarding 357 Visit to Muscat 360 Tadmur and Al Wasitti incidents 361 Al Bahar Al Arabi incident 364 Amuriyah incident 365 Public information 367 The Navy ‘Arab’ video 368 End of the first deployment 371 14 A serious decision: Committing Australians to war: September–December 1990 375 Relieving the first task group 376 Terrorist threat 377 Hostages 378 Options for more forces 381 Prospect of hostilities 384 The government’s decision 388 New directive 395

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15 Into the Persian Gulf: The second naval deployment: September–December 1990 397 Preparing the ships 397 Passage to the Gulf 400 In the Gulf of Oman 401 Into the Persian Gulf 403 The Ibn Khaldoon ‘peace ship’ 404 End of the interceptions 407 16 Countdown to a deadline: Preparing for war: 1–16 January 1991 410 Australian diplomacy 411 Criticism 415 Coalition forces 418 Naval preparations 420 Individual Australians 424 Medical teams 426 Deployment of HMAS Westralia 427 Air evacuation plans 429 Information 430 17 A supporting role: The RAN in Desert Storm: 17 January – 24 February 1991 433 Air strikes begin 433 Reaction in Canberra 435 Early days 438 HMAS Success completes her tour 441 Protest and debate 442 Deploying the clearance divers 445 War continues 451 Managing information 452 Security 455 Joint facilities 457 Preparing for the amphibious assault 458 Moving forward 459 The Faylaka ‘raid’ 461 Combat search and rescue 462 18 End of the war? Into Kuwait: 24 February – May 1991 466 Collateral damage 466 Soviet peace proposals 468 Ground offensive 473 Australian role 477 Ceaseﬁre 480 Continuing naval operations 482 Clearance Diving Team 3’s operations 483 Return of the ships 488 Conclusion 490

Conclusion 499 Appendix A: Australian participation in multinational peacekeeping operations, 1947–2007 508 Appendix B: Key United Nations Security Council resolutions and statements 514

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Appendix C: Investigations into chemical warfare in the Iran–Iraq War, 1984–87 by Daniel Flitton 515 Appendix D: Gulf War syndrome by Rosalind Hearder 524 Appendix E: Major ofﬁce bearers, 1987–96 554

Bibliography 557 Index 584

Maps

1 Southern Africa, showing the ‘Front Line states’ page A1 2 Southern Angola and northern Namibia A2 3 Northern Namibia, including Ovamboland and Kavango A2 4 Namibia in 1989 A3 5 Namibia, showing bantustans in 1988 A4 6 Middle East B1 7 Southern Iraq and Iran B2 8 Persian Gulf B3 9 Iran–Iraq border showing UN team sites B4 10 Afghanistan and western Pakistan C1 11 Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait 270 12 Area of operations, Operation Damask C2 13 Maritime Interception Force patrol areas C3 14 Gulf of Oman C3 15 Course followed by MV Al Fao, 14 September 1990 D1 16 Course followed by MV Tadmur, 8 October 1990 D2 17 Course followed by MV Ibn Khaldoon, 26 December 1990 D3 18 Operation Desert Storm, 17 January 1991 D4 19 Operation Desert Storm, 4 February 1991 D5 20 Operation Desert Storm, 14 February 1991 D6 21 Operation Desert Storm, 24 February 1991 D7 22 Coalition ground operations, February 1991 475 23 Operation Desert Storm, mine clearance operations D8

Preface

In February 2004 the Cabinet authorised the researching and writing of the Official History of Australian Peacekeeping and Post–Cold War Operations, and in July 2004 the Official History team began work on the five-volume series. With the inclusion of overseas emergency relief operations, the series was later expanded to six volumes and became the Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations.1 This is Australia’s fifth Official History series and I am its fifth Official Historian, following distinguished predecessors. Charles Bean was general editor and principal author of the 15-volume Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Gavin Long was general editor of the twenty-two volumes of Australia in the War of 1939– 1945. Robert O’Neill wrote most of the two volumes of Australia in the Korean War. And Peter Edwards was general editor of the nine-volume Official History of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975. As with the previous official histories, my team and I have been given full access to all relevant Australian Government records. There has been no censorship, except that the Government reserved the right to prevent publication of any material that might be damaging to Australian national security, such as intelligence sources and information received from allied countries. The excision of such material – and it has been extremely small – has in no way changed my conclusions or caused me to compromise the integrity of the history. This Official History series is quite different from its predecessors.2 The first three series each dealt with one war, although in the case of the two world wars there were several theatres of war. The fourth series covered three wars or conflicts: the Malayan Emergency, Confrontation and the Vietnam War, although these took place in the same general area and, in the case of Confrontation and Vietnam, at the same time. By contrast, the present series covers more than fifty missions in some twenty-seven conflicts over a period of more than sixty years and includes the activities of Australian police as well as military personnel. Further, it also includes more than sixty emergency relief operations by the Australian Defence Force. Except in a few cases, Australian military personnel were not deployed on warlike operations; but their missions were arduous and demanding.3 They were truly representing Australia in its engagement with the world.

1 The Cabinet authorised the researching and writing of the history of ‘all multi-national operations and post–Cold War operations in which Australia has participated since 1947, excluding the recent operations in East Timor, Afghanistan and Iraq (2003)’. It is hoped that these excluded operations, especially East Timor, Australia’s largest peacekeeping mission (and one which concluded its initial task in 2004), will be authorised in the near future. 2 For a more extensive discussion see Horner, ‘Chronicling the peacekeepers’. 3 In 1993 Cabinet agreed that ‘warlike service’ refers to ‘those military activities where the application of force is authorised to pursue speciﬁc military objectives and there is an expectation of casualties’. For the deﬁnition see Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Defence and Defence Related Awards, p. 163.

Preface

The large number of disparate missions posed particular research problems. No one series of government records cover all the missions and, unlike the other official histories, no previous attempt had been made to gather the records in one location; rather, we have needed to seek our records in various government departments, thus creating our own archive. Further, as peacekeeping missions are generally organised and managed by the United Nations, the specific activities of the Australians involved in them have not always been recorded by Australian government departments. It has been necessary to obtain UN records and to interview participants widely. The numerous and varied missions also created a challenge when structuring the series. Except for the overseas emergency relief volume (Volume VI), it was not possible to divide the volumes of the series either completely chronologically, thematically (first- generation and second-generation peacekeeping), geographically or by military service (Navy, Army or Air Force), as was the case with the earlier official histories. The series is therefore organised broadly on a chronological basis, with variations on the basis of geography and theme. As a result, the series is structured as follows: » Volume I: Missions beginning between 1947 and 1987, including Indonesia, Kash- mir, the Middle East, Congo, Cyprus and Rhodesia/Zimbabwe » Volume II: Missions beginning between 1988 and 1990, including Namibia, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait » Volume III: Missions beginning in 1991 and 1992 including Iraq, Western Sahara, Cambodia and Yugoslavia » Volume IV: Missions beginning from 1993 onwards including Somalia, Mozam- bique, Rwanda, Haiti, Eritrea and Sierra Leone » Volume V: Missions in the Pacific region since 1980, including Bougainville, Solomon Islands and other deployments » Volume VI: Overseas emergency relief operations, including Papua New Guinea, Sumatra, Pakistan, Iran and various Pacific nations. Each volume has its own challenges. Volume I covers the longest period; it includes those peacekeeping missions that began during the Cold War of 1947–87, but continues their stories through to the present. These were essentially traditional observer-type missions initiated after a peace of sorts had been negotiated between the belligerents. Volume II is concerned with Australia’s role in the operations that resulted from the end of the Cold War. The missions include observer activities, the conduct of elections and mine-clearance training. The volume also moves beyond peacekeeping to peace enforcement, such as the application of sanctions and even war. Volume III deals with missions that show the increasing complexity of peacekeeping and their overlap with sanctions, weapons inspection, humanitarian aid, election monitoring and peace enforcement in the post-Cold War world. Volume IV describes Australia’s involvement in the missions that developed in the mid-1990s and were concerned with internal conflicts, sometimes involving genocide, and demonstrated an ever-broadening geographic reach to areas distant from Australia. Volume V covers the sensitive operations in Australia’s near region, the South Pacific, from 1980 onwards. Volume VI deals with Australian overseas emergency relief operations that, while not peacekeeping missions, had many of their characteristics. They were deployed at short notice, needed to be coordinated with the governments and forces of other nations, involved important foreign policy decisions, were arduous and stressful, and in one instance involved the loss of Australian lives.

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We have not been too concerned about a rigid definition of peacekeeping, partly because our charter, with certain parameters, requires us to tell the stories of most of Australia’s overseas military operations. Certainly, Australia’s armed forces have been involved in many operations that fall under the broad heading of ‘peacekeeping’. The term can be interpreted in many ways, and the understanding of it has changed considerably since 1991, when the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade described it thus: ‘The use of military and civilian personnel under UN command to keep hostile factions or countries from fighting while peacemaking efforts are pursued’.4 In 1994 the Department of Defence defined it as ‘non-combat operations (exclusive of self-defence), that are undertaken by outside forces with the consent of all major belligerent parties, designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of an existing truce agreement in support of diplomatic efforts to reach a political settlement to the dispute’.5 Defence, however, also used the terms ‘peace enforcement’, ‘peace building’ and ‘peace support operations’. Peace enforcement operations were ‘a form of combat, armed intervention, or the threat of armed intervention . . . to compel compliance with international sanctions or resolutions – the primary purpose of which is the maintenance or restoration of peace under conditions broadly acceptable to the international community’. Peace building included diplomatic or military action to rebuild institutions and infrastructure, while ‘peace support operations’ was an umbrella term covering peacekeeping, peace enforcement and preventative deployment.6 In its 1994 report the Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade used the term ‘peacekeeping’ to encompass ‘all activities involving military operations in support of peace – peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement – unless specifically indicated otherwise’.7 This seems to be a sensible approach. More recently, in 2004 the Defence Department updated these definitions, but they do not alter the essence of the earlier ones.8 This Official History series is different from its predecessors in ways that go beyond its focus on peacekeeping. While not ignoring strategic issues, Bean concentrated on the story of the soldiers, memorialising the ‘great-hearted men’ whose glory rose ‘above the mists of ages’.9 The Second World War series was far more complex with five substantial home front volumes. In its combat volumes the historians attempted to balance strategy, command and the experience of individuals. By the time the first

4 Quoted in Report of the Senate Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, United Nations Peacekeeping and Australia,p.9. 5 Quoted in Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Australia’s Participation in Peacekeeping, p. 151. 6 Ibid, pp. 151–2. 7 Ibid, p. 2. 8 Peacekeeping: ‘A non-coercive instrument of diplomacy, where a legitimate international civil and/or military coalition is employed with the consent of the belligerent parties, in an impartial, non- combatant manner, to implement conflict resolution arrangements or assist humanitarian aid operations.’ Peace enforcement: ‘The coercive use of civil and military actions by legitimate, international intervention forces, to assist diplomatic efforts to restore peace between belligerents, who may not consent to that intervention. These actions will take the form of a graduated response to the conflict resolution: from the imposition of civil sanctions, followed by military support of sanctions, military sanctions and finally collective security actions’ (Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 2004, Operations Series ADDP 3.8, Peace Operations, Glossary, pp. 1, 2). 9 Bean, The Australian Imperial Force in France During the Allied Offensive, 1918, p. 1096.

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volumes of the Official History of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts began to appear in 1992–93 there were claims that official histories had outlived their usefulness. For example, the historian John Murphy argued that Peter Edwards failed to provide a full portrait of Australian society and politics, and that his series consisted of books that were divided into specialist subdisciplines of diplomatic and military history. Murphy concludes:

Bean and Long were both journalists, writing for a wider audience; [Ian] McNeill [who wrote the ﬁrst and part of the second of the Vietnam combat volumes], and Edwards are writing within more specialised discourses. In these senses the tradition of ofﬁcial history seems problematic and near to exhaustion. Where before it meant an attempt to explain the social experience of war, it has been diverted into the scholarly study of war as seen from the commanding heights of the cabinet, bureaucracy and armed forces.10

The historian Glen St J. Barclay made a similar criticism. He acknowledged that the official historians of both world wars had ‘set a magnificent standard’, but asserted that ‘it could not be sustained’. It was possible, he said, ‘to write exclusively and in vast detail about Australia’s involvement in the two World Wars because Australians had played a significant part in their own right in many campaigns in both conflicts’, but, he added, ‘it would not be possible to write exclusively about Australian involvement in conflicts in which Australian units operated as marginal elements in a vastly largely Allied operation’ without producing an account for which the audience ‘would certainly be prone to miss the point’. Thus while Robert O’Neill’s volume Strategy and Diplomacy had been an ‘unqualified success’, his second volume, Combat Operations, although well done, was ‘precisely a regimental history’ that omits the larger picture.11 Murphy and Barclay were apparently arguing that O’Neill and Edwards failed because they did not exactly follow, or more generally because it was no longer possible to follow, the model of previous histories. They seemed not to appreciate that an official history is a record of the government’s activities, rather than ‘an attempt to explain the social experience of war’. This is not to say that an official history is the government’s view; rather, it is the story, told by an impartial historian, of what the government has done, based on its records. The experiences of individual service people are important because they are acting as agents of the government and, of course, as representatives of Australia. But how far can we go in telling their stories? Ian McNeill correctly believed that it was not ‘possible, and hardly desirable, to attempt to trace every operation in which Australian forces were engaged’ in his Vietnam combat volume.12 Similarly, Peter Dennis and Jeffrey Grey, authors of Emergency and Confrontation, felt that it was not part of their ‘brief to try to describe in detail at the level of the individual soldier what Malaya and Borneo were like for those who were not there’.13 For this present series we have tried to tell the story of the respective missions at three levels: the strategic level, in which we have concentrated on the government’s

10 Murphy, ‘The new ofﬁcial history’, pp. 123–4. 11 Barclay, ‘Australian historians and the study of war, 1975–88’, pp. 240–1. 12 McNeill, To Long Tan, p. xvi. 13 Dennis and Grey, Emergency and Confrontation, pp. xv, xvi.

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decision-making process; the operational level, in which we have sought to explain how the Australian Defence Force and other agencies planned and executed their tasks; and the tactical or personnel level, in which we have tried to describe what the peacekeepers actually did in the field. Beyond this, we have needed to explain the broader historical and political backgrounds for each of the missions in which Australia has been involved. We have also been conscious that, in contrast to the other conflicts and their official histories, it is unlikely that there will be many other books on the experience of the Australians in their respective missions. Further, peacekeeping veterans have often been frustrated by the community’s lack of understanding of what they had achieved. We have therefore felt a special responsibility to describe the particular circumstances and conditions that Australian service personnel endured in their respective missions. We have remained determined to produce scholarly accounts based on official Australian Government records and informed by wider research, but we have also attempted to recognise the part played by individual Australians. ❚❚❚ Researching and writing the Official History series has been a joint activity made enjoyable by the friendship and selflessness of good colleagues. We have shared the products of our research, and all team members have read and commented on each other’s chapters – often a painful process for the author but one that has invariably resulted in a much better chapter. I warmly acknowledge the support and contribution of the other authors. Dr Peter Londey, initially at the Australian War Memorial and later at the Australian National University, in his capacity as Deputy General Editor shouldered much of the administrative burden, and was always ready to challenge us and ensure that we had written balanced narratives. Dr John Connor, initially at the Australian War Memorial and now at the University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, could be relied upon for his perceptive and constructive criticism. Dr Bob Breen of the Australian National University brought to the project a wealth of practical experience and research in Australian peacekeeping and other operations. Dr Steve Bullard of the Australian War Memorial took up some of the Memorial administration when Peter Londey moved to the university, and brought a fresh set of eyes and ideas to the review process. We have been blessed with very capable and loyal research assistants over a five- year period. Dr Garth Pratten, the project’s principal research officer, set up the pro- cedures for preserving our records, and his administrative task was continued with energy and enthusiasm by Miesje de Vogel after he departed for a teaching appointment at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Our other talented researchers, Dr Jean Bou, Daniel Flitton, Dr Matthew Glozier, Dr David Hay, Dr Rosalind Hearder, Miesje de Vogel (who also prepared the index) and Dr Christine Winter, contributed to this and the other volumes with their archival research, by conducting and recording interviews, and by contributing vigorously to the review process. Dr Hearder and Mr Flitton researched and wrote appendices for this volume. Professor Joan Beau- mont, then of Deakin University, joined us for three months while, as a visiting fellow in 2007, reading draft chapters and providing wise counsel. Professor Peter Dennis and Dr Hugh Smith, both of the University of New South Wales, Aus- tralian Defence Force Academy, graciously read the entire manuscript and offered wise advice.

Preface

The Official History was made possible through a cooperative arrangement between the Australian National University and the Australian War Memorial, with financial support from the Department of Defence and the Australian Research Council. At the Australian War Memorial I am grateful for the support of the Chairman of the Council, Major General Adrian Clunies Ross, and his successor, General Peter Cosgrove. The Memorial Director, Major General Steve Gower, was one of the initiators of the project and was always willing to offer help, guidance and support. I also thank Helen Withnell, Assistant Director Public Programs, and Dr Peter Stanley and his successor, Ashley Ekins, head of the Military History Section. We received excellent help from the Memorial’s research centre, headed by Mal Booth. Madeleine Chaleyer, Bill Brassell and Lenny Preston provided valuable assistance in recording interviews with participants from many of the missions. Kerry Neale transcribed interviews in an efficient and timely manner. I should also acknowledge the invaluable assistance from the Memorial’s volunteers, particularly Rod Chidgey, Bev Clarke, Edward Helgeby, Jean Magdulski and David Nott, who have assisted with research tasks for this volume such as transcribing interviews, organising photographs, searching Hansard and keying records into our computer database. At the Australian National University the project was supported by Professor Robin Jeffrey, Director of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Professor Hugh White, Head of the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Anne Dowling, the Centre administrator, and Meredith Thatcher, the Centre’s publications manager and information officer. Within the Centre I have benefited from discussions with Professor White, Professor Paul Dibb, Admiral Chris Barrie and Dr Richard Brabin-Smith, all of whom had first-hand knowledge of many of the events covered in this volume. Professor William Maley of the Asia–Pacific College of Diplomacy gave me the benefit of his vast knowledge of recent Afghan history. The ANU Cartography Unit, headed by Kay Dancey, and with much good work by Anthony Bright, drew the excellent maps that appear in this volume. Darren Boyd, of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies photographic unit, skilfully copied the many photographs that were loaned to me by veterans of the peacekeeping missions. It would not have been possible to research the history without the whole-hearted cooperation of the Department of Defence and the Australian Defence Force. General Peter Cosgrove and Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, successive Chiefs of the Defence Force, and Ric Smith and Nick Warner, successive Department Secretaries, ensured that we had access to the necessary records and personnel, as well as arranging for the department to provide additional financial support. Access to departmental records was facilitated by the staff of the department’s Strategic Policy Branch including (the then) Commodore James Goldrick, Air Commodore Mark Lax, Commodore Richard Menhinick, Group Captain Gary Dunbar, Marc Ablong, Ben Coleman, Cameron Hooke, Katrina McColl and Kathryn Hitchings. Access to Navy records was organised by Dr David Stevens, John Perryman and Brett Mitchell of the RAN Seapower Centre, who made me very welcome while I worked at the centre. Roger Lee, Head of the Australian Army History Unit, his deputy Brian Manns, and Lieutenant Colonel Bill Houston made army records available and gave other crucial assistance. The RAAF historian, Dr Chris Clark, was always ready to forward RAAF records and personnel information. Irene Wilson and Graham Wilson of the Defence Honours and Awards Directorate provided useful lists of personnel with

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specific awards that enabled me to develop nominal rolls for some of the missions. Jenny Oldfield and Kim Byrnes at Defence Archives, Queanbeyan, were invariably obliging in tracking down files and making them available to us. At Land Headquarters in Sydney Chris Knell was always able to find the records we needed. Much of my research into the First Gulf War was conducted in 1991 and led to the publication of my 1992 book The Gulf Commitment. At that time, General Peter Gration, Chief of the Defence Force, approved access to ADF records and personnel. For this present volume I revisited the material that I had collected for the earlier project and built on the interviews I conducted then. The list of interviewees is in the bibliography of this present volume. For my description of the operational aspects of the Gulf War I have not been able to go much beyond my earlier book, for which I had full access to the operational records at that time. But my discussion of the political and policy side of the Gulf commitment has now been informed by the records of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and by the papers of Prime Minister Hawke and Foreign minister Evans, and it goes much beyond my earlier book. We have relied heavily on departmental records held by the National Archives of Australia, where were have been ably assisted by Anne McLean, Director Access and Information Services, David Bell, our obliging and dedicated reference officer, and the retrieval staff headed by Ritchie George. Marjorie Bly, Assistant Director Access and Communications at the National Archives office in Perth, facilitated access to the Beazley papers. I am grateful to the former Prime Minister, Bob Hawke, the former Defence minister, Kim Beazley, and the former Foreign minister, Gareth Evans, for generously making available their ministerial papers. Access to their papers was not covered by the Cabinet minute setting up the project, but these former ministers appreciated the importance of enabling us to understand how they made their decisions. The Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Dr Ashton Calvert, and his successor, Michael L’Estrange, supported the project. Dara Williams, Assistant Secretary, Information Resources Branch, and Dr David Lee, Director of the Historical Publications and Information Section, helped with access to records, and we were also assisted by Dr Moreen Dee and Stephen Robinson. For access to UN records, John Dauth, Australia’s Permanent Representative in New York, secured the approval of the UN Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, Hedi´ Annabi. At the UN Archives, Dr Hearder and Dr Pratten were assisted by the UN archivist, Angela Schiwy, during their research visits in December 2005 and January 2006. The Secretary of the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, Dr Peter Shergold, ensured that his and all other departments understood the special access granted to the Official Historian. Within his department, access to records was facilitated by Brendan McDowell and Jan Wooton. I thank Peter Varghese, Director General of the Office of National Assessments, and Derryl Triffet, Assistant Director General Corporate and IT Services, for arranging access to ONA reports. Similarly, I thank Paul O’Sullivan, Director General of Security, for providing access to records of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation. It is important for military historians to visit areas of operations, and in this endeavour we have been assisted by the staffs of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Department of Defence. In April–May 2004 I visited Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, receiving briefings at Australian and coalition military bases, and familiarising myself with the Persian Gulf region. I was capably

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escorted by Flight Lieutenant Dean Paterson for the whole tour, and I thank him for his companionship. In Kuwait, Lieutenant Colonel Wayne Goodman arranged a visit to a Kuwaiti naval base and took me to the ‘highway of death’ and the Iraqi border. In Oman I was escorted by Commander Rob Woodcock RAN. In Bahrain I was hosted by Commander Paul Barrett RAN. I spent two days aboard HMAS Stuart in the northern Persian Gulf, and I am grateful to Commander Philip Spedding RAN and his ship’s company for their hospitability and for giving me an insight into naval operations in the area. In April 2005 I visited Namibia, where I was escorted by Peter Scott, from the Australian High Commission in Pretoria, and by Dr David Robertson of the University of Namibia, on behalf of the New Zealand honorary consul. I was able to inspect the main areas where Australians operated in 1989–90. A visit to Iran to look at the locations of the Uniimog teamsites was organised, with much difﬁculty, by the Australian Embassy in Tehran, but the Iranian Government cancelled it at the last minute on the grounds that they could not guarantee my safety. The Cabinet directed that I be given full access to all relevant Australian Government records, but of course it could not provide access to the records of other countries. Nonetheless, Miss Alex Ward, Head of the Army Historical Branch in the British Ministry of Defence, generously arranged access to British records of their missions in Namibia and Western Sahara. Similarly, Dr Serge Bernier and Dr Steve Harris of the Canadian Department of National Defence’s Directorate of History and Heritage, passed on some of the fruits of their research. I also received assistance from Dr Jeffery Clarke, Head of the US Army’s Center of Military History, and Dr Edward Marolda and Dr Gary Weir of the US Navy’s Historical Center. In researching this volume I interviewed some 110 peacekeeping veterans and key personnel and also relied on records of interviews with a further dozen participants conducted by other members of the team and Australian War Memorial staff. I am extremely grateful to all those who agreed to the interviews and to those who gave me access to private papers and diaries. Their names are listed in the bibliography. In many cases I circulated draft chapters to the interviewees to ensure that they were comfortable with the way I had used the information they provided. I thank them for their assistance with this task and for their useful comments and at times corrections to my draft chapters. At Cambridge University Press the project was managed by Debbie Lee, Susan Hanley, Jodie Howell and Cathryn Game, and I am grateful for their expertise. My deepest gratitude and appreciation is for my wife Sigrid, who over many years has been so generous in her support and forbearance.

Note on sources The Official Historian and his colleagues have been granted unrestricted access to Commonwealth Government records relevant to the preparation of the Official History. Some of the primary sources cited in the Official History might not necessarily be available for public access.

xviii

Chronology 1987–91

Events described in particular detail in this volume are printed in italics. 1987 19 March Defence White Paper, Defence of Australia 1987, presented to Parliament 24–28 April HMAS Cessnock, Sydney and Wollongong provide disaster relief to Vanuatu after Cyclone Umar 14 May Coup in Fiji 18 May Fijian patrol boat HMFS Kira challenges HMAS Stalwart, a supply ship, at sea 19 May Prime Minister Hawke announces the closure of the Libyan People’s Bureau for disrupting peaceful relations in the Pacific 22–23 May An Australian infantry company flies to Norfolk Island and deploys by RAN vessels to waters off Fiji (Operation Morris Dance) as a contingency for evacuation operations 7 June Australian evacuation force deployed to the waters off Fiji back in Australia 24 July Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade formed from the departments of Foreign Affairs and Trade 10 December Cabinet decides to make an RAN clearance diving team available for operations in the Persian Gulf (Operation Sandglass) 19 December Operation Sandglass begins when RAN officers visit the Persian Gulf 1988 12 January Captain Peter McCarthy killed in Lebanon while serving with UNTSO 23–24 February HMAS Cessnock provides disaster relief to Vanuatu after Cyclone Anne 5–12 March HMAS Cessnock provides disaster relief to Vanuatu after Cyclone Bola 14 April Geneva accords signed between Afghanistan, Pakistan, USA and USSR to allow for Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 17 May ADF troops and ships on standby to react to violence in Vanuatu (Operation Sail Cloth) 26 May ADF reverts to normal activities – end of Operation Sail Cloth 7 August Bill Hayden relinquishes appointment as Foreign minister 8 August Angola, Cuba and South Africa sign a protocol providing for cessation of hostilities in Angola and Namibia 9 August UN Security Council approves the implementation of the peace process to end the Iran–Iraq War and the formation of Uniimog 11 August Government announces the commitment of Australian observers to Uniimog 16 August Australian observers arrive in Iran 2 September Senator Gareth Evans takes up appointment as Foreign minister 5 September Government reconfirms its commitment of an engineer contingent to Namibia

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Chronology 1987–91

25–27 November The Bougainville Crisis begins when militants use stolen explosives in a series of attacks on infrastructure at Panguna copper mine 7 December Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev addresses United Nations and speaks of a new world order 22 December Angola, Cuba and South Africa sign an agreement aimed at allowing the people of Namibia to vote to elect a constituent assembly 1989 6 January Vietnam announces it will withdraw troops from Cambodia in September 16 January UN Security Council adopts Resolution 629, allowing for a settlement in Namibia 20 January George H.W. Bush succeeds Ronald Reagan as US President 6–26 February No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver an army helicopter and relief supplies to Western Samoa and Tuvalu after Cyclone Ofa 14 February Cabinet endorses Australia’s contribution to Untag in Namibia 15 February Last Soviet troops depart from Afghanistan 18 February Two AFP ofﬁcers deploy to Thai–Cambodia border as part of Unbro 11 March Australian advance party arrives in Namibia 14 April Main body of Australian contingent arrives in Namibia 26 June PNG government declares State of Emergency in Bougainville 5 July Defence minister Kim Beazley approves despatch of mine-clearers to Pakistan as part of UNMCTT 16 July First Australian mine clearance contingent arrives in Pakistan 7 August Two ADF ofﬁcers visit Cambodia as part of survey team for possible UN peacekeeping mission 26 September Vietnamese complete withdrawal from Cambodia 9 November Fall of Berlin Wall 24 November Foreign minister Evans announces Cambodia peace proposal based around the creation of a UN transitional authority 2–3 December Gorbachev and Bush meet in Malta and declare that the Cold War has ended 6 December Foreign Affairs policy statement, Australia’s Regional Security, presented to Parliament 20 December United States forces invade Panama 1990 2 January DFAT establishes Cambodia Task Force to develop Evans’s proposal into a detailed peace plan 11 February Nelson Mandela released from prison in South Africa 13 March International Observer Group arrives in Bougainville to monitor withdrawal of PNG security forces and surrender of weapons by Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) 4 April Senator Robert Ray succeeds Beazley as Defence minister 9 April Last troops of Australian contingent depart from Namibia 17 May Bougainvillean militants issue a Unilateral Declaration of Independence

Chronology 1987–91

27 June UN Security Council approves plan for peacekeeping force (Minurso) in Western Sahara 12 June Boris Yeltsin elected Chairman of Supreme Soviet of Russia (effectively President of Russia; takes office 10 July) 29 July An Australian Army officer arrives in Morocco as part of the technical survey mission for a UN force in Western Sahara 2August Iraq invades Kuwait 2 August UN Security Council adopts Resolution 660 condemning Iraq and demanding its withdrawal from Kuwait 5 August PNG government and BRA sign the Endeavour Accord 6 August Australian Government imposes sanctions on Iraq 6 August UN Security Council adopts Resolution 661 imposing mandatory sanctions on Iraq 10 August Prime Minister Bob Hawke announces the commitment of Australian warships to sanctions operations 13 August Two Australian frigates depart Sydney for the Persian Gulf 3 September Australian task group enters area of operations in Gulf of Oman 3 October Reunification of Germany 29 November UN Security Council adopts Resolution 678, authorising the use of force to eject Iraq from Kuwait 3 December First Australian naval task group is relieved by the second task group on the edge of the Gulf of Oman operational area 4 December Prime Minister Hawke announces that Australia would make its naval task force available for operations to eject Iraq from Kuwait 7 December Last Australian Uniimog observers depart from Iran 16 December Australian naval task group enters the Persian Gulf 1991 17 January Coalition air strikes begin against Iraq 23 January PNG government and BRA delegations sign the Honiara Declaration 24 February Coalition ground campaign begins against Iraq 28 February Ceasefire in Gulf War 15 March Australian mine-clearers permitted to enter Afghanistan 26 March Australian combat ships depart from the Persian Gulf 3 April UN Security Council adopts Resolution 687, setting out terms for the ceasefire to end the Gulf War 5 April UN Security Council adopts Resolution 688, demanding access to Kurds in northern Iraq 10 April Australian Government agrees to provide inspectors to Unscom 16 April Prime Minister Hawke announces provision of inspectors to Unscom 30 April Cabinet approves the commitment of medical and support personnel to Operation Habitat in northern Iraq 30 April Cabinet approves the commitment of signallers to Western Sahara 8 May Australian advance party arrives in southern Turkey 13 May Cabinet approves the deployment of a frigate as part of the Multinational Naval Force (MNF) to apply sanctions against Iraq 14 May First Australian official takes part in weapons inspection in Iraq

xxi

Chronology 1987–91

24 May Australian contingent arrives in northern Iraq 29 May HMAS Westralia departs from the Persian Gulf 17 June Last Australians of Operation Habitat depart from northern Iraq 17 June HMAS Darwin enters Persian Gulf as part of the MNF 1 July Warsaw Pact is dissolved 1 July First members of Operation Blazer (weapons inspectors) arrive in Bahrain 10 July Government announces the commitment of signallers to Western Sahara 18 August An attempted coup in USSR by communist hardliners fails and leads to break-up of Soviet Union 5 September Australian advance party arrives in Western Sahara 5 September HMAS Darwin departs the Persian Gulf 5–12 September HMAS Swan and Westralia provide disaster relief after Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines 5–14 September No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver relief supplies after ﬂooding in Cambodia 19 September Main body of Australian contingent arrives in Western Sahara 24 September Cabinet endorses Australian contribution to Unamic 5 October HMAS Sydney arrives in northern Red Sea as part of MNF 16 October UN Security Council adopts Resolution 717, establishing Unamic in Cambodia 23 October Cambodia peace agreement signed in Paris 31 October UN Security Council adopts Resolution 718, establishing Untac in Cambodia 8 November Australian signallers depart for Cambodia as part of Unamic (Operation Goodwill) 11–18 December No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver army helicopters and relief supplies to Western Samoa after Cyclone Val 20 December Paul Keating succeeds Hawke as Prime Minister 21 December Former republics of USSR form the Commonwealth of Independent States 25 December Gorbachev resigns as USSR president 31 December USSR ceases to exist

xxii

Abbreviations

ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation ACMO Assistant Chief Military Observer ACOPS Assistant Chief of the Defence Force (Operations) ACPOL Assistant Chief of the Defence Force (Policy) ADF Australian Defence Force AEC Australian Electoral Commission AFP Australian Federal Police AG Administrator General (Namibia) AHU Army History Unit AIDS acquired immune deﬁciency syndrome AIF Australian Imperial Force Air Cdre Air Commodore ALP Australian Labor Party Anzus Australia, New Zealand and United States treaty AP assembly point ARA Australian Regular Army AS Assistant Secretary ASC Australian (Services) Contingent or Component Asean Association of South-East Asian Nations ASIO Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ATC Afghan Technical Consultants AVM Air Vice-Marshal AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System AWM Australian War Memorial Brig Brigadier Capt Captain CBW Chemical and biological warfare CCB Civil Cooperation Bureau CDF Chief of the Defence Force CDFS Chief of the Defence Force Staff Cdr Commander Cdre Commodore CDT Clearance Diving Team Centcom Central Command (United States) CGS Chief of the General Staff CIA Central Intelligence Agency (United States) CIS Commonwealth of Independent States Civpol United Nations civilian police CIWS Close In Weapons System CJOP Chief of Joint Operations and Plans CMF Citizen Military Forces, also Commonwealth Monitoring Force

xxiii

Abbreviations

CMO Chief Military Observer CMTTU Commonwealth Military Training Team – Uganda CNN Cable News Network CNS Chief of Naval Staff CO Commanding Officer Col Colonel Col (OA) Colonel (Operations Analyst) COMUSNAVCENT Commander US Naval Forces Central Command CPD Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates Cpl Corporal CPO Chief Petty Officer CSAR Combat Search and Rescue CTO Compensatory time off DOA87 The Defence of Australia 1987 (Government Defence White Paper) DFA Department of Foreign Affairs DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade DGI Directorate General of Intelligence (Iraq) DIO Defence Intelligence Organisation DPKO (United Nations) Department of Peacekeeping Operations DSTO Defence Science and Technology Organisation DTA Democratic Turnhalle Alliance DU depleted uranium DVA Department of Veterans’ Affairs EOD explosive ordnance disposal Fapla People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola FAS First Assistant Secretary FDA Food and Drug Administration FFG Guided missile frigate (Australia) FPDA Five Power Defence Arrangements GDP Gross Domestic Product Gen General Gp Capt Group Captain GPS Global Positioning System H of R House of Representatives Halo Hazardous Areas Life-support Organisation HIV human immunodeficiency virus HMAS Her Majesty’s Australian Ship HMCS Her Majesty’s Canadian Ship HMS Her Majesty’s Ship HMZS Her Majesty’s New Zealand Ship HNLMS Her Netherlands Majesty’s Ship HQ Headquarters HQADF Headquarters Australian Defence Force ICJ International Court of Justice ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross INF Intermediate Nuclear Force

xxiv

Abbreviations

Inmarsat International Marine Satellite (radio) IRGN Iranian Revolutionary Guard Navy ISI Inter-service Intelligence (Pakistan) JIO Joint Intelligence Organisation JIPC Joint Imagery Production Complex JOTS Joint Operational Tactical System Jstars Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System L Cpl Lance Corporal Ledet Law Enforcement Detachment Leut Lieutenant (Navy) LHQ Land Headquarters LO Liaison officer LSE Logistic Support Element LSF Logistic Support Force LSG Logistic Support Group Lt Lieutenant (Army) Lt Cdr Lieutenant Commander Lt Col Lieutenant Colonel Lt Gen Lieutenant General Maj Major Maj Gen Major General MCPA Mine Clearance Planning Agency MFO Multinational Force and Observers MIF Maritime Interception Force Minurso United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara MNF Multinational Naval force MOIR (Iranian) Military Organisation for the Implementation of Resolution 598 MOU memorandum of understanding MP Military Police MPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola MSA mission subsistence allowance MSF Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) MV Motor Vessel NAA National Archives of Australia NAPS Nerve Agent Pre-Treatment Set Nato North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NBC nuclear, biological and chemical NBCD nuclear, biological and chemical defence NCO non-commissioned officer NGO non-government organisation OAU Organisation of African Unity OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OFOESA Office of Field Operational and External Support Activities OMA Organisation for Mine Awareness OMAR Organisation for Mine Clearance and Afghan Rehabilitation ONA Office of National Assessments

xxv

Abbreviations

Onuc United Nations Operation in the Congo (Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo) Onuca United Nations Observer Group in Central America Onumoz United Nations Operation in Mozambique Onusal United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Opec Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OSPA (United Nations) Office for Special Political Affairs PLAN People’s Liberation Army of Namibia PM&C Prime Minister and Cabinet (Department) PNG Papua New Guinea Polisario Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberaciónde Sagu´ıael Hamra y R´ıode Oro (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro) Pte Private PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder R Adm Rear Admiral RAAF Royal Australian Air Force RAM radar absorbent material RAN Royal Australian Navy RAR Royal Australian Regiment RHIB rigid hull inflatable boat Rimpac Rim of the Pacific ROE rules of engagement RSM Regimental Sergeant Major SADF South African Defence Force SAS Special Air Service (Regiment) SBS Special Broadcasting Service SCR Security Council Resolution Seal sea air land (US Navy special warfare operators) Seato South-East Asia Treaty Organisation Sgt Sergeant SME School of Military Engineering SMO Senior Medical Officer SMOIL smoke and oil (pollutant) SNCO senior non-commisioned officer SO1 Staff Officer Grade 1 SPC-A Sea Power Centre – Australia Spr Sapper SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General Start Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty Swaad South West Afghanistan Agency for Demining Swapo South West Africa People’s Organisation Swapol South West Africa Police Swataf South West Africa Territorial Force TGMSE Task Group Medical Support Element

xxvi

Abbreviations

UK United Kingdom UN United Nations (Organisation) Unamic United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia Unavem United Nations Angola Verification Mission Uncip United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan Uncok United Nations Commission on Korea Undof United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Unef United Nations Emergency Force Unficyp United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus Ungoc United Nations Committee of Good Offices Ungomap United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Unifil United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon Uniimog United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer Group Unikom United Nations Iraq–Kuwait Observation Mission Unipom United Nations India–Pakistan Observer Mission Unita National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UNMCTT United Nations Mine Clearance Training Team Unmo United Nations Military Observer Unmogip United Nations Military Observer Group on India and Pakistan Unmovic United Nations Monitoring and Verification Inspection Commission Unoca Office for the Coordination of United Nations Humanitarian and Economic Assistance Programmes Relating to Afghanistan, sometimes shortened to United Nations Office for the Coordinator Afghanistan Unocha United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan Unogil United Nations Observer Group in Lebanon Unscob United Nations Special Commission on the Balkans Unscom United Nations Special Commission (on Iraq) UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution Untac United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia Untag United Nations Transition Assistance Group Untcok United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea Untea United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (West New Guinea) Untso United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation Unyom United Nations Yemen Observation Mission US United States (of America) USAF United States Air Force USN United States Navy USNS United States Naval Ship (a non-commisioned, civilian-manned vessel operated by the US Navy) USS United States Ship USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

xxvii

Abbreviations

V Adm Vice-Admiral VCDF Vice Chief of the Defence Force WEU Western European Union WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction (nuclear, biological and chemical weapons) WO1 Warrant Ofﬁcer Class 1 WO2 Warrant Ofﬁcer Class 2

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