Resource Guide

ART AN EXPLORATION OF ILLNESS AND WELLNESS IN ART Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 IN SICKNESS AND IN HEALTH: An Exploration of Illness and Wellness

The vision of the United States Academic Decathlon® is to provide students the opportunity to excel academically through team competition. Toll Free: 866-511-USAD (8723) • Direct: 712-326-9589 • Fax: 651-389-9144 • Email: [email protected] • Website: www.usad.org This material may not be reproduced or transmitted, in whole or in part, by any means, including but not limited to photocopy, print, electronic, or internet display (public or private sites) or downloading, without prior written permission from USAD. Violators may be prosecuted. Copyright ® 2019 by United States Academic Decathlon®. All rights reserved. Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ...... 5 Brief Overview of Nonwestern Art . . . 32 Asian Art ...... 33 SECTION I: Chinese Art ...... 33 ART FUNDAMENTALS ...... 6 Indian Art ...... 34 Introduction to Art History ...... 6 Japanese Art ...... 34 African and Oceanic Art ...... 34 Methods and Inquiries of Art History . . . . . 6 Islamic Art ...... 37 The Nature of Art Historical Inquiry ...... 7 The Americas ...... 37 Sources, Documents, and the Work of Art Historians ...... 7 Elements of Art ...... 37 The Development of Art History ...... 8 Formal Qualities of Art ...... 37 Brief Overview of the Art of the Western Line ...... 37 World ...... 8 Shape and Form ...... 38 Perspective ...... 38 Ancient Civilizations ...... 9 Color ...... 39 Art of the Old Stone Age ...... 9 Texture ...... 40 Art of the Middle Stone Age ...... 10 Composition ...... 41 Art of the New Stone Age ...... 10 Ancient Mesopotamian Art ...... 11 Processes and Techniques ...... 42 Persian Art ...... 12 Ancient Egyptian Art ...... 12 Drawing ...... 42 Nubian Art ...... 13 Printmaking ...... 43

Greek and Roman Art ...... 13 Painting ...... 44 Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art ...... 13 Photography ...... 45 Ancient Greek Art ...... 14 Sculpture ...... 46 Etruscan Art ...... 15 Mixed Media ...... 47 Roman Art ...... 15 Byzantine and Medieval Art ...... 16 Performance ...... 47 The Renaissance in Southern Europe . . . . . 17 Craft and Folk Art ...... 47 The Renaissance in Northern Europe ...... 21 Architecture ...... 48 Baroque Art ...... 22 Section I Summary ...... 49 Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism . . . 25 Realism and Impressionism ...... 26 Post-Impressionism and Other Late SECTION II: ART AND THE Nineteenth-Century Developments ...... 27 PLAGUE ...... 51 The Emergence of Modernism ...... 28 Abstraction ...... 30 Representing the Bubonic Plague in Early Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism . . .31 Modern Europe ...... 51 Earthworks, Installations, and Performance . .31

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 2 Selected Work: Pieter Bruegel the Section III Summary ...... 82 Elder, The Triumph of Death, c.1562 . 52 Selected Work: Josse Lieferinxe, SECTION IV: WOMEN, SICKNESS, St. Sebastian Interceding for the AND PORTRAITURE ...... 85 Plague Stricken, 1497–99 ...... 55 The Ideal and the Real Female Body as a Subject in Nineteenth- and Twentieth- The AIDS Crisis and Contemporary Century Art ...... 85 Art ...... 58 Selected Work: James Abbott McNeill Selected Work: Keith Haring, Whistler, Maud Reading in Bed, Altarpiece, 1990/1996, Cathedral of 1883–84 ...... 86 Saint John the Divine ...... 60 Selected Work: Frida Kahlo, Without Selected Work: David Wojnarowicz, Hope (Sin Esperanza), 1945 . . . . . 90 Untitled (Falling Buffalos), 1988–89 ...... 62 Section IV Summary ...... 92 Section II Summary ...... 64 SECTION V: NEURASTHENIA AND VITALITY IN TURN OF THE SECTION III: THE RISE OF CENTURY ART ...... 94 MODERN MEDICINE ...... 66 Neurasthenia and the New Woman in The Professionalization of Medical Practice American Art at the Turn of the Twentieth from the Renaissance through the Twentieth Century ...... 94 Century ...... 66 Selected Work: Thomas Wilmer Dewing, Selected Work: Filippo Brunelleschi, A Reading, 1897 ...... 95 Ospedale Degli Innocenti, c.1419, Florence, Italy ...... 67 Selected Work: John Singer Sargent, Mr. and Mrs. I. N. Phelps Stokes, Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Selected Work: Rembrandt Van Rijn, 1897 ...... 97 The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632 ...... 69 Selected Work: Francis Picabia, Agnes Meyer, 1915 ...... 101 Selected Work: Thomas Eakins, Portrait of Dr. Samuel D. Gross (The Section V Summary ...... 104 Gross Clinic), 1875 ...... 73 Selected Work: Kadir Nelson, Henrietta SECTION VI: ART AND MENTAL Lacks (HeLa): The Mother Of Modern HEALTH ...... 107 Medicine, 2017 ...... 76 The Othering of Mental Illness in Art . 107 Selected Work: HOK with Jack Travis, Selected Work: William Hogarth, Harlem Hospital Pavilion Facade, Illustration of Bedlam from A Rake’s 2005–12, New York ...... 79 Progress, 1735 ...... 108

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 3 Selected Work: Théodore Géricault, CONCLUSION ...... 120 The Madwoman, 1819–20 ...... 111 TIMELINE ...... 121 Representing the Experience of Mental Illness in Art ...... 113 GLOSSARY ...... 124 Selected Work: Francisco Goya, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters NOTES ...... 126 (El sueño de la razon produce monstruos), 1799 ...... 113 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 129 Selected Work: Vincent Van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889 ...... 115 Section VI Summary ...... 118 Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 4 Introduction

The fascination with sickness and human frailty emphasizes its connections to the local community transcends media, time, and space. It is a subject and African-American history. that can allow artists to express the concerns of the cultural moment or represent experiences that are The fourth and fifth sections of the resource guide not always visible to the naked eye. This resource deal with gender and medicine. Section IV looks guide explores eighteen works produced in Europe, at the use of art to represent the sick female body, North America, and Japan that deal in fundamental whether it be the body of a loved one or the artist’s ways with disease, illness, and health. The historical own self. Section V examines neurasthenia, a range of the artists discussed here stretches from the nineteenth-century nervous disorder thought to be Italian Renaissance to global contemporary art. The caused by modernity. This section contrasts the artworks represented include a hospital, an altarpiece, discourse and imagery surrounding the disease with a photograph, paintings, prints, and an art installation. the rising interest in the New Woman, as expressed in images—both representational and abstract—of The first section of the resource guide describes healthy, dynamic women. the methods of art history and provides a brief overview of the trajectory of Western art, along with a The final section of the resource guide studies discussion of Asian, African, Islamic, and Indigenous mental illness in art and how its representation has American art traditions. There is a discussion of the evolved from the sensationalizing depictions of the basic formal qualities of art and the techniques and infamous Bedlam asylum to more introspective media used to express these elements. and empathetic images born out of artists’ personal experiences. Examining illness as a subject in art The second section of the resource guide investigates provides a window into how our conceptions of how art has responded to the plague and other health disease, treatment, and health are culturally specific Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ crises. This section includes Renaissance paintings and evolve over time. created in response to the Black Death and examines the art world’s response to the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. NOTE TO STUDENTS: Throughout the resource guide you will notice that some terms have been boldfaced and The third section of the resource guide explores underlined . These terms are included in the glossary of what artworks can tell us about the development terms at the end of the resource guide . Also, students should of modern medicine. This section examines the be aware that dates in art history, especially early dates, architecture of a hospital, surgical scenes from the frequently vary depending on the source and are often highly contested . The dates presented in this resource guide are not seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, a modern-day necessarily definitive, but are those dates provided by the portrait commemorating a once-hidden contributor museums that house the artworks or the sources consulted by to medical science, and a hospital facade that the author in writing this guide .

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 5 Section 1 Art Fundamentals

INTRODUCTION TO ART sculpture, and architecture, usually produced specifically for appreciation by an audience who HISTORY also understood these objects as works of art. Today Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the we define art much more broadly, also taking into reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic consideration objects that in the past were dismissed contexts in which an artwork was created. The basic as “craft”: textiles, pottery, and body art such as goal of this work is to arrive at an understanding of tattoos, for example. Art historians also consider art and its meaning in its historical moment, taking objects that might not be considered art by their into consideration the formal qualities of a work intended audience, including mass-produced posters of art, the function of a work of art in its original and advertisements and even the design of ordinary context, the goals and intentions of the artist and household items like telephones, forks, and the living the patron of the work of art, the social position and room sofa. perspectives of the audience in the work’s original time and place, and many other related questions. Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of a Art history is closely related to other disciplines such work of art can shift over time, and that an artwork as anthropology, history, and sociology. In addition, may be perceived differently by viewers who art history sometimes overlaps with the fields of approach it from different perspectives. To give one aesthetics, or the philosophical inquiry into the hypothetical example, Michelangelo’s paintings nature and expression of beauty; and art criticism, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel would have or the explanation of current art events to the general certainly been significant in different ways in the public via the press. eyes of 1) the Pope, who commissioned the work and who had sophisticated theological knowledge and This brief introduction to the discipline of art history Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ nearly exclusive access to this private space within will help you understand the kinds of questions the Vatican and 2) a worker who was charged with that one may ask in order to arrive at a deeper cleaning the floors of the chapel and whose level of understanding of a work of art. We will put these literacy was probably quite low. Differences such as ideas into practice as we proceed through case social status, education, physical access to a work studies related to the specific topic of the resource of art, religious background, race, and gender have guide. an impact on the construction of the meaning of a METHODS AND INQUIRIES OF ART work of art. Similarly, the paintings’ meaning to a HISTORY twenty-first-century Protestant, Muslim, or atheist is certainly different from the meaning they had Art historians today generally define “art” very for a practicing Catholic in the sixteenth century, broadly and include in their inquiries almost any even though the works may be equally admired for kind of visual material that is created by people and their aesthetic value by all of these viewers. In other invested with special meaning and/or valued for words, the meaning of a work of art is not fixed; it its aesthetic appeal. In the past, art historians often is sometimes open to multiple interpretations taking limited their focus to what was called “fine art,” into consideration factors such as historical context. which generally included paintings, prints, drawings,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 6 The Nature of Art Historical Inquiry Sources, Documents, and the Work of Art Art historians generally analyze works of art in two Historians ways that are distinct from one another, but also Art historians often begin their analysis with a close interrelated. These two modes of analysis are called examination of a work of art. Direct examination of formal analysis and contextual analysis. Formal the work of art is ideal because much is lost when analysis focuses on the visual qualities of the work we look at a reproduction rather than an original of art itself. A basic assumption of formal analysis is object. In the case of sculpture, it is often difficult that the artist makes decisions related to the visual to get a proper sense of the scale and the three- aspects of the artwork that can reveal to us something dimensional qualities of a piece from a photograph. about its meaning. From this point of view, aspects We lose the texture and some of the rich colors of meaning are intrinsic to the work of art. Terms when we experience paintings in reproduction. Even associated with the formal qualities of works of art, or photographs can appear flatter, lacking their subtle the “elements of art,” are discussed in detail a bit later transitions from light to dark when seen reproduced in this section of the guide. Formal analysis requires in books. It is quite common, though, for art excellent skills in observation and description. historians to settle for studying from reproductions Beginning our study of an artwork with formal due to practical constraints. In some cases, works analysis keeps the focus on the object itself, which to of art might be damaged or even lost over time, and the art historian is always primary. so art historians rely on earlier descriptions to aid in their formal and contextual analysis. In addition to Contextual analysis involves looking outside of the examining the work of art in question, art historians work of art in order to determine its meaning. This will also seek to understand any associated studies involves examining not only the context in which (sketches, preparatory models, etc.) and other works the work was created, but also later contexts in by the artist and his or her contemporaries. which the work was and continues to be consumed. Contextual analysis focuses on the cultural, social, Art historians also use many written sources in the religious, and economic context in which the work quest for contextual information about a work of art. was produced. Art historians may examine issues of Often these texts are stored in archives or libraries. patronage, viewer access to the work, the physical Archival sources may include items such as letters location of the work in its original context, the cost between the artist and patron, or other documents of the work of art, the subject matter in relation to pertaining to the commission, and art criticism other artworks of the time period, and so on.

produced at the time the work of art was made. An art Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ historian might also search for written documentation Art history often emphasizes a chronological about the materials used to produce the work of art, development with the assumption that within one such as their cost and source, and about the function cultural setting the work of one generation of artists of the artwork—how a particular sculpture was used will have an impact on following generations. Art in ritual practice, for example. Art historians also seek historians often use comparative study. For example, to situate the work in the context of the literature, by contrasting a Gothic with a Renaissance artwork, music, theater, and history of the time period. we can understand more clearly the unique features of each and the series of stylistic changes that led from Art historians may also rely on interviews with one to the other. Then, we can seek to relate these artists and consumers of works of art. This is changes to historical context. Art history provides especially the case in cultures that rely more on information and insights that add background to oral history than on written documents. Guided the meaning and significance of the works of art we by the field of anthropology, some art historians study. As we place these works of art in their cultural also use methods such as participant observation and historical context, they are connected to the long to understand the context of a work of art. An history of events that has led up to our present culture. art historian studying masquerade traditions in

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 7 West Africa, for example, may participate in a performance while carefully documenting the event in order to better understand art traditions. The Development of Art History As an academic discipline, art history arose in the mid-eighteenth century. However, we can look at the work of much earlier writers to see how commentary on art has developed over time. The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79 ce) sought to analyze historical and contemporary art in his text Natural History. During the Renaissance, the author and artist Giorgio Vasari (1511–74) gathered the biographies of great Italian artists, past and present, in The Lives of the Artists. Vasari’s text provides us with insights into the changing roles of artists in society during this period and the developing concept of artistic genius. Modern art history was strongly influenced by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) was a German scholar who shifted away from Vasari’s biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic development as related to historical context. Giorgio Vasari, self-portrait c . 1567 . Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, art historians continued to develop approaches that to film to photography and television imagery, has placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of come to view. the interrelationship between the formal qualities of a work of art and its context. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE ART OF THE WESTERN WORLD When considering contemporary views of art history Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ as well as perspectives on art history from the past, This brief overview of Western art is intended it is important to keep in mind that all histories are to provide you with a basic understanding of individual stories and thus will inevitably reflect important art historical periods as they developed certain biases. More recently, art history has been chronologically. This abbreviated discussion also revised, particularly by feminist historians, who covers some key artistic innovations that occurred have noted that the traditional version of art history over time, providing you with examples of artists has largely focused on white men, whether as and works in their historical contexts. This basic artists or as patrons. As a result of such revisions, information will set the stage for our more in- art history has expanded its scope in recent years depth discussion of our case study focusing on an and has become a field that is broader, more exploration of illness and wellness in art. Of course, international, more multicultural, and more inclusive a brief guide such as this only begins to touch upon than in the past, often involving Marxist, feminist, the richness and power of the stories that comprise and psychoanalytic methods and viewpoints. the history of art. You may also enjoy looking at Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses other works from each of the periods discussed, and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of beginning your own exploration of these works in “visual culture,” ranging from advertisement posters their historical contexts.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 8 Much of what we know of the earliest life on earth has been revealed through a study of the objects or artifacts that remain from early cultures. In many cases, the objects that remain are those made of enduring materials such as stone, metal, or fired clay, as opposed to those made of perishable materials like wood or fibers. Environmental conditions also have a major impact on preservation. The hot dry climate of the desert in Egypt, for example, enabled the preservation of even delicate materials like papyrus, and the sealed atmosphere of Egyptian caves and tombs likewise helped to preserve the objects contained within them for our wonder and enjoyment centuries later. In contrast, the humid climate of West Africa means that objects made of perishable materials have had little chance of survival over the course of decades, not to mention centuries. This is one reason that the history of art as a discipline has placed greater emphasis on Western Painting found in Chauvet Cave . cultures, often neglecting to focus on developments created using red ochre and black charcoal and in Nonwestern cultures. It is important to recognize depict animals such as horses, rhinoceros, lions, that the civilizations that are most often studied in buffalos, and mammoths. Additional cave paintings art history courses are not necessarily those where have been discovered in other parts of France and the most or the best art was made. Rather, they in Spain, with those in Lascaux and Altamira being are the civilizations whose art has been preserved the most famous. The art in these caves takes the and whose art has been discovered. There are, for form of large colored drawings of animals such example, many sites of important civilizations in as horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths, and Central and South America that though known, the paintings include several outlines of human remain yet unexplored. Too often the story at these hands. The earliest scholarship on these drawings sites has been one of exploitation and destruction, as considered them to be the spontaneous scribbling of people carelessly take artifacts to sell them on the primitive cavemen. However, with further study, it Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ international market in antiquities. became apparent that the various groups of drawings ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS had been created by skilled artists working within an established tradition. The artists used pigments Art of the Old Stone Age of red and yellow ochre to add color to the elegant The oldest works of art that we will consider black outlines they had created using charcoal. are the cave paintings found in Chauvet Cave in Though we cannot be sure of their original function, southeastern France. These paintings, discovered in it is possible that these works were created as a part 1994, date from c. 30,000 bce and thus are placed of hunting ceremonies or other ritual behaviors. in the Old Stone Age (Upper Paleolithic Period). Another well-known group of artworks from the It should be noted that art historians use the best Old Stone Age are small stone female figures that available information to date works of art from the have exaggerated bellies, breasts, and pubic areas. distant past. Estimated dates are frequently contested The best known of these figures is the Venus (or and sometimes revised as new information becomes Woman) of Willendorf (c. 28,000–25,000 bce), which available. Except for a minimal use of yellow, the is about four and one-eighth inches high. In contrast paintings and engravings in Chauvet Cave were to the exaggerated female features of the body, the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 9 Photograph of Stonehenge . Photo by Frédéric Vincent . facial features of the statue are undefined, the arms human beings, both alone and in groups, and there are barely visible, and the feet are missing. Scholars seems to be an emphasis on scenes in which human contend that these statues were fertility figures beings dominate animals. although it is not known precisely how they were used. Art of the New Stone Age Art of the Middle Stone Age The art forms most often linked with the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) are rings or rows of rough- During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period) hewn stones located in Western Europe. These the climate warmed, and a culture developed that formations have been dated as early as 4000 bce. produced art similar in some ways to the cave The stones used were often exceedingly large—as paintings of the Paleolithic Period. With the warming much as seventeen feet in height and fifty tons in Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ of temperatures during this era, cave dwellers moved weight. Indeed, the sheer size of these works led out of their caves and began using rock shelters, as historians to call the stones megaliths, meaning evidenced by the various paintings that have been “great stones,” and the culture that created these discovered at such locations in eastern Spain. There works is often termed “megalithic.” The most well has been much scholarly debate regarding the dating known of these rock arrangements is the one found of these paintings, but it is generally estimated at Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, that they were created from around 7000 bce until England. Stonehenge is believed to have been built 4000 bce. The rock shelter paintings, like the cave in many phases around 2100 bce. Stonehenge paintings that preceded them, demonstrate the skill features concentric rings made with sarsen (a form of their creators in the depiction of animal figures. of sandstone) stones and smaller “bluestones”— What sets the rock shelter paintings apart from the rocks indigenous to the region. The outermost ring cave paintings is their depiction of the human figure. is comprised of huge sarsen stones in post and lintel Except for one human figure found in the paintings at construction—two upright pieces topped with a Lascaux, cave paintings did not include any human crosspiece, or lintel. The next ring is composed of beings. The rock shelter paintings, however, portray bluestones, which encircle a horseshoe-shaped row

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 10 The 4100-year-old Great Ziggurat of Ur, near Nasiriyah, Iraq . of five lintel-topped sarsen stones—these are the developed writing and arts in parallel with Egypt largest ones used at Stonehenge, with some weighing (discussed later). Unfortunately, the Mesopotamian as much as fifty tons. Outside the formation, to the civilizations formed in a valley that lacked the northeast, is the vertically placed “heel-stone.” If one natural barriers of deserts and mountains that stands in the center of the rings and looks outward, protected Egypt. This left them vulnerable to this “heel-stone” marks the point at which the sun invasion, and hence, the history of this ancient rises on the midsummer solstice. region is one of successive conquest and destruction. Moreover, the use of more perishable materials by The works of art and the ideas we have considered Mesopotamian civilizations has left us with fewer thus far have been isolated examples that have examples of their arts. survived a very long time. The works and civilizations that we will consider next point to further conditions From around 4000 bce, the Sumerians in that allow for the creation of artworks and enable Mesopotamia created impressive sculptures and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ their survival. Usually, art thrives in highly organized buildings. Religion was a central aspect of Sumerian cultures with stable population centers—usually great life, and the Sumerians built massive temples at cities—that house ruling classes who in turn support the centers of their cities. Less complex platform the work of artists. structures evolved over time into the stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Around 2334 bce, the Also, if a civilization has a tradition of protecting cities of Sumer came under the rule of Sargon of its art in locations that are largely inaccessible, it Akkad. Although the Akkadians spoke a different is more likely that the works from that culture will language from the Sumerians, they assimilated survive to a point where they are included in a study Sumerian culture. With the Akkadian dynasty, loyalty of art history. Many extant artifacts have come from to the city-state was supplanted by loyalty to the king, burial chambers, caves, and tombs, where they have and consequently the art of this period tends to reflect been protected by being naturally concealed. an emphasis on the monarchy, with Akkadian rulers Ancient Mesopotamian Art depicted in freestanding and relief sculptures. Around 2150 bce, Akkadian rule came to an end as the Guti, The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took control. valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers About fifty years later, however, the cities of Sumer

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 11 were able to reassert control, and a Neo-Sumerian ruler was established as the King of Ur. Perhaps the greatest known works of this era were the ziggurats that were built at the city centers. The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but also served as administrative and economic centers. The next important civilization in Mesopotamia was that of the Babylonians. For centuries Mesopotamia had witnessed the coexistence of several independent citystates, but around 1792 bce, Hammurabi, king of the city-state of Babylonia, was able to centralize power. Hammurabi left an enduring legacy in that he codified Babylonian law—the Code of Hammurabi is the oldest legal code known in its entirety. The best-known artwork from this period, preserved in the Louvre Museum, is related to this code of law; it is a stone stele onto which Hammurabi’s code is carved with a sculpture in high relief at the top that depicts Hammurabi receiving inspiration for his code of law from the sun-god, Shamash. While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians dominated in the north. From about 900 bce to around 600 bce, the Assyrians were the most powerful civilization in the Near East. Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks are relief carvings, Burial mask of King Tutankhamun . which often depict battles, sieges, hunts, and other important events. Throughout the seventh century Egyptian architecture. bce, the Assyrian hold on power weakened, and from c. 612–538 bce, Babylonia once again became the Ancient Egyptian Art dominant force in the region. It was during this Neo- Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Ancient Egyptian civilization is generally dated Babylonian period that the famous hanging gardens from c. 3000 bce, following the predynastic period, of Babylon were constructed. Another important through 332 bce, when Egypt was conquered by construction at this time was the gateway to the Alexander the Great. Recognizable works include great ziggurat of the temple of Bel, called the Ishtar the great monuments of ancient Egypt: the Sphinx, Gate, which is considered one of the greatest works the great pyramids at Giza, the larger-than-life-sized of architecture in which figures—in this case animal statues of the pharaohs, and the portrait head of figures—are superimposed on a walled surface. Queen Nefertiti. Persian Art Much Egyptian art emphasizes a style called The Persian Empire (c. 538 bce–330 bce) hierarchical scale, which uses the status of figures flourished in what is present-day Iran. The Persians or objects to determine their relative sizes within were notable for their impressive architectural an artwork. Hierarchical scale is exemplified in achievements, the most important of which was the Palette of King Narmer, a relic from the Old the palace at Persepolis, which was constructed of Kingdom. This slab of stone, which may have been stone, brick, and wood and reflects the influence of used as a ceremonial palette for mixing cosmetics,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 12 presents King Narmer centrally, and he is depicted this great African civilization is being uncovered. as being considerably larger than the other figures. Indeed, it is now known that there was a period in the In the main image on the palette, Narmer is seen history of Egypt when Nubia ruled the area, and the holding the hair of a fallen enemy, with his arm Pharaohs of that era were Nubian. While there are few raised in preparation for delivering a deathblow. collections that feature Nubian works, this may well In the lowest section of the palette, below the king soon change as revisions to the story of art continue. and his enemy, are two smaller figures of defeated enemies. The organization of the figures, their GREEK AND ROMAN ART relative sizes, and their poses recurred in most of Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art the ancient Egyptian art that followed. Figures are presented so that each part of the body is shown The Aegean island cultures were very important as as clearly as possible, in a technique known as precursors of the Greeks in terms of art production. Three major cultures flourished on the islands in “fractional representation.” The head is in profile with the eye in frontal view, the torso is in full the Aegean Sea, on Crete, and along the Aegean frontal view, and the lower body, legs, and feet are coast. The earliest of these cultures, the Cycladic in profile. This formula became a standard style culture, flourished from about 3200 to 2000 bce that endured for centuries as the typical way of in the Cyclades, a group of islands in the Aegean. representing people in Egyptian art. Archaeologists still have many unanswered questions about Cycladic culture, but the simplified, We know a great deal about the art of Egypt geometric nude female figures from this area are because excellent conditions for preservation highly appealing to modern sensibilities. In addition were present in much of Egypt. In addition, the to these sculptures, the Cycladic culture produced burial customs of the Egyptians, which decreed decorated pieces of pottery as well as marble bowls mummification and entombment with lavish and jars. Eventually, the Cycladic culture was furnishings, symbolic servants, and jewelry, supplanted by the Minoan culture, which developed resulted in rich stores of objects and images. on the island of Crete and reached its pinnacle in the The most famous of the Egyptian tombs is that second millennium bce. of the boy king, Tutankhamun. By the twentieth century, most of the ancient Egyptian tombs of the The Minoan culture centered around the city Pharaohs had been broken into and robbed of the of Knossos on Crete, where the legend of the materials inside. However, Tutankhamun’s tomb, Minotaur—the creature believed to be half man and half bull who devoured those who entered his because it was cleverly hidden, remained almost Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ completely intact until 1922. When it was opened, maze—is supposed to have taken place. The maze the excavators found a treasure-trove of objects, was actually the royal palace, a sprawling complex all superbly made of rich materials. Among the that has since been excavated. The art of these most famous of the objects is Tutankhamun’s burial island people depicts sea life and includes statues mask. This mask, found in the innermost layer of of a female snake goddess. The Minoans created the king’s sarcophagus, rested on the mummy’s face artworks that were characterized by a naturalistic and shoulders. It is made of gold and is decorated pictorial style. Their paintings took two major forms: with blue glass and semiprecious stones. The mask frescoes painted on palace walls and pottery designs. presents an idealized portrait of the young king. The architectural achievements of the Minoans were also impressive, as they built four major palaces, Nubian Art all completely unfortified and designed in a light, flexible, and organic style. The kingdom of Nubia lay to the south of Egypt and covered a large area of Africa. As contemporary The collapse of the Minoan civilization coincided historians become increasingly interested in revising with the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, and as a and expanding art history, more knowledge about result, many historians believe the Minoans were destroyed by the Mycenaeans. The Mycenaean

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 13 Diagram of Greek and Roman Orders . Classical Greek and Roman columns consist of a base, shaft, capital, and an entablature. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders are differentiated by their degree of ornamentation. culture was centered around the city of Mycenae but were more linear and larger in scale. Red-figure on the Greek mainland. The Mycenaeans built vases, with red figures standing out against a black elaborate tombs, and their burial practices allowed background, were also common. for a large number of objects to be preserved. The objects that are best known are made of gold and The best-known ancient Greek art is that from show astonishing levels of mastery in goldsmithing. the city-state of Athens from the Classical Period. Additionally, the Mycenaeans demonstrated much During the Early Classical Period, temples skill in their use of relief sculpture. were typically built with sturdy, Doric columns. Unfortunately, much of the sculpture from this Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Ancient Greek Art period has not survived, but luckily Roman copies have provided us with a good deal of information From around 660 to 475 bce, during the Archaic on these ancient works. The sculpture of the Early Period, the Greeks, influenced by the stone sculptures Classical Period was characterized by its solemnity, of Egypt and Mesopotamia, created sculptures carved strength, and simplicity of form and most often in marble and limestone. These freestanding figures focused on a figure or scene either in the moment borrowed the frontal pose used in Egyptian art, but before or the moment after an important action. were more dynamic and placed greater emphasis on Significant advances were made in sculptural depicting realistic human features. Temples were techniques, as the stiff frontal postures of the also built during this time period using columns in Archaic Period were largely abandoned in favor of the early Doric and Ionic decorative styles. Vase more complex and life-like figures and positions. painting was another notable art form and was done in many different styles. Some vases portrayed black Greek statuary evolved from a stiff, frontal silhouetted figures, while those in theCorinthian presentation like that of the Egyptians to an style set figures against a floral, ornamented increasingly natural-looking figure. A pose called background. Athenian-style vases used black figures, “contrapposto,” or counter positioning, was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 14 invented to show the body to its best advantage. and ceilings of tombs. These were done in bright, In contrapposto, the standing figure is posed with flat colors, and they show figures playing music and its weight shifted onto one leg, for a more relaxed, dancing as part of funeral celebrations. naturalistic appearance. Greek sculpture set the model for thousands of years in Western art, and the Roman Art Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical artists of the The story of Rome is one of conquest and empire fifteenth through early nineteenth centuries aspired building. Early Roman art reflected the influence of to equal the perfection displayed by the surviving Etruscan art. However, by the second century bce Greek statues. many Roman sculptures and other Roman artworks The Middle Classical Period witnessed important were variations of Greek works, and the standards advances in architecture as is evident in the temples for idealized presentations of Roman rulers were of this time period. The temple called the Parthenon, based on those of the Greeks. The Romans, however, restored in 447 bce after being destroyed by the made pioneering advancements in architecture and Persians in 480 bce, is one of the most admired engineering. The Roman discovery of the equivalent works of all ages, and the use of columns as of modern concrete was a major contribution to exemplified in the Parthenon has been a principal architecture, as it enabled Roman builders to fill feature of Western architecture for more than two the spaces between their stone walls with rocks thousand years. and rubble bound together by the concrete mixture. With this strong material, the Romans were able to Architecture declined during the Late Classical construct huge domed buildings. They also pioneered Period as Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian the use of the curved arch, using this form to build War. Temples in this era were still built using simple bridges and aqueducts. These structures were part Doric columns, but the use of highly decorative of a paved road system, making communication and Corinthian columns became more and more popular. control very effective in the Empire. Two buildings The Hellenstic Period saw an increasing influence that can still be seen in Rome, the Colosseum from Eastern civilizations as Greek styles blended (72–80 ce) and the Pantheon (c. 126 ce), remain as with those of Asia Minor. Notable works of this time monuments to the engineering genius of the Romans. period include freestanding sculptures such as the Venus de Milo and the Laocoön Group, which are The Romans created numerous sculptures. Often, masterworks designed to present ideals of beauty. colossal triumphal arches would be topped with relief sculptures portraying Roman emperors or Etruscan Art Roman military victories. The Romans also created Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ relief sculptures for funerary purposes. Tombs The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a and sarcophagi were decorated with reliefs. Some transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic of these reliefs were simply decorative, but many concerns of the Romans. Etruscan civilization arose others had narrative subject matter. The Romans in what is now Italy in the first millennium bce. also sculpted portraits, which ranged in size from Like other cultures we have examined, this one is tiny busts to huge statues. During the Roman known largely from the arts of tomb decoration. Republic it became common for members of a Nothing remains of Etruscan buildings as these were funeral procession to carry small carved images constructed of brick and wood. However, ceramic of the deceased family member. Later, statues in models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs memory of great statesmen or other noble figures supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks. were erected in public areas. Both the funerary Extant Etruscan artifacts also include sarcophagus sculptures and the public statues did not present lids and other art forms made of baked clay, as naturalistic depictions of their subjects. Rather, the well as objects that display the Etruscans’ talent in Romans favored an idealistic style that highlighted bronze work. The only paintings that remain from Roman ideals. The art of the Romans not only had the Etruscan culture are those found on the walls

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 15 The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi .

a tremendous influence on the art of the Middle preserved largely by the Church. During these times, Ages, but also had a notable impact on the art of the the majority of the population was illiterate; formal Renaissance and much of the art that followed. education was largely limited to the noble class and the clergy. The international language was Latin, and BYZANTINE AND MEDIEVAL ART books were hand copied on vellum or parchment. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the connections The preservation and production of books was between its parts disintegrated, and what was once a largely confined to monasteries, where the monks Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ vast empire evolved into separate and often warring spent time copying and illustrating the books in their kingdoms. But even as the Empire collapsed in collections, which were so valuable that they were Western Europe, it continued in Byzantium. The art chained to the tables where they were read. These that is best known from this Eastern culture is mosaic illuminated manuscripts were remarkable works of work in which small ceramic tiles, pieces of stone, or art and helped facilitate the exchange of artistic ideas glass were set into a ground material to create large between northern and southern Europe. Among the murals. It is an art that is largely Christian in content many notable examples are the Book of Kells (late and can best be studied in the glimmering, shining eighth or early ninth century) and the Coronation mosaic walls of the great churches of Ravenna. Gospels (c. 800–810). Although Ravenna is in present-day Italy, it was then under Byzantine control. In terms of Byzantine Notable from the early medieval period (c. 375– architecture, the Hagia Sophia (532–537 ce), built in 1025) is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, Constantinople, is still considered one of the greatest particularly their metalwork. The metal arts of this architectural achievements in history. time period were abstract, decorative, and geometric and often took the form of small-scale, portable The medieval period witnessed a great deal of jewelry or ornaments made of bronze, silver, or civil strife, and consequently the art of this era was gold and covered with patterns of jewels. Artifacts

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 16 Components of an arch, a barrel vault, and a groin vault . The Romans pioneered the use of the curved arch . from this era also exist from the seafaring culture of The Gothic style developed in the first half of the the Vikings in Scandinavia. While metalwork was twelfth century and remained popular into the popular with the Germanic peoples, wood was the sixteenth century. Though this style was used for most important medium to the Vikings, who carved some secular buildings, it was largely applied to the artistic designs and sculptures on their wooden construction of churches. One characteristic of the ships. As a result of Viking invasions, the artistic Gothic style was the use of pointed arches, which styles of the Vikings eventually merged with those gave an upward, soaring sense to Gothic interiors. found in Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic Ireland. Another important element of the Gothic style was The resultant style is often termed Hiberno-Saxon. the addition of ribbed vaults, a framework of thin stone ribs or arches built under the intersection of the In later medieval art, the architecture of churches vaulted sections of the ceiling. A key innovation came became a dominant art form. Every city, town, and in the early Gothic period when architects learned that village had a church at its center, and the largest of the downward and outward pressure created by the these are masterpieces of art that often took more arches of the barrel vault could be counteracted by the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ than a century to complete. The earliest churches of use of flying buttresses—additional bracing material this period used a Roman arch as the basis of their and arches placed on the exterior of the building. This design, and so the style used is called Romanesque. advance allowed for larger windows, many of which One famous example is Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, were filled with beautiful stained glass, and higher France (c. 1070–1120). Romanesque churches were ceilings. A classic example of a Gothic cathedral is stone vaulted buildings that often replaced earlier Chartres Cathedral in France (begun c. 1145; rebuilt churches that had highly flammable wooden roofs. after 1194). Here the effect of the tall arches and the Romanesque churches are usually formed of a tunnel brightly colored light from the stained-glass windows of arches called a barrel vault. A vault is an arch- directs attention heavenward. shaped structure that is used as a ceiling or as a support to a roof. Massive walls had to be built to THE RENAISSANCE IN SOUTHERN support the heavy stone arches of the Romanesque EUROPE style. Consequently, window and door openings were Although we often tend to divide historical periods usually kept quite small and were often decorated into a series of discrete and separate styles and events, with carvings and relief sculpture. in actuality, history is much more complicated and

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 17 stylized figures of the Gothic style. Like the art of ancient Greece, the art of the Renaissance continues to have an impact on art today. It is interesting to note that a change in the economy played a key part in triggering the Renaissance. It was in this time period that paper money was first developed, and its use led, in part, to the vast fortunes accumulated by notables such as the Medici family. These wealthy families were the major patrons of the arts during the Renaissance era. Another important factor was the fact that examples of Greek and Roman art were readily available in Italy, and these classical works of art had a tremendous impact on the art of the Renaissance. As we discuss the art of this period and later, you will observe that the lives and works of individual artists are often highlighted, while this has not been the case in our discussion of earlier periods. In part this can be attributed to a new emphasis on the individual and the concept of individual genius that emerged during the Renaissance. Until the time of the Renaissance, painters and sculptors were, in accordance with Greek traditions of art, considered artisans. That is, they were people who were viewed as being of lesser status because they worked with their hands. During the Renaissance, the role of View of the dome of Florence Cathedral . artists in society changed, as great artists came to be recognized as intellectual figures. Consequently, subtle. The transition from the later medieval period artists were accorded a special place in society. to the Renaissance provides a good example of this, as the styles from this period cannot be neatly identified An important event in the beginning of the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ as either Gothic or Renaissance, but rather involve Renaissance was a competition held in the city of a mix of the two. The artist most often mentioned Florence in 1401 for the design of the doors for the in connection with this transitional time period is a city’s new baptistery. The winner of that competition Florentine named Giotto di Bondone (1267–1336/37), was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381?–1455), who designed a who is best known for his frescoes. A key advance door panel that had figures harkening back to those visible in Giotto’s works is his use of a simple of classical Greece. Ghiberti’s panel design depicts perspective, achieved in large part by overlapping the sacrifice of Isaac, in which Isaac appears as a and modeling his figures in the round. This technique classical Greek figure. Soon after the doors were created the illusion of a stage for his figures, giving installed, Ghiberti was asked to make a second set the viewer a sense of looking into the event. Giotto’s for another entrance to the cathedral. This second set works were different from many Gothic works as took more than twenty-five years to complete. The he gave his figures powerful gestures and emotional doors were so magnificent that Michelangelo called expressions. To our eyes, his paintings may not look them the “Gates of Paradise,” and they have been entirely naturalistic, but his artistic innovations must referred to by that name ever since. have had quite an impact on viewers at the time, who were accustomed to the flat, unexpressive, and The second-place winner in the competition was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 18 Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). After losing the competition, he concentrated on architecture and won a competition to complete the dome of the cathedral in Florence, which had remained unfinished for many years because architects had not been able to construct the huge vault that was required to span the open space. Brunelleschi achieved this major engineering feat with the help of a double-shelled dome design that has been imitated by many later architects. Brunelleschi is also credited with developing linear (single vanishing point) perspective. Masaccio (1401–28), a Renaissance painter, is given credit for putting Brunelleschi’s theory into practice, as he used both linear and aerial perspective in his frescoes. The development of linear perspective had a tremendous and lasting influence on the world of art. Among the most remarkable of Renaissance artists was Donatello (1389?–1466), who is widely considered the founder of modern sculpture. The influence of classical antiquity on his sculpture was strong, as evidenced by his best-known work, a bronze statue of David (c. 1420s–60s). This work was the first known freestanding nude statue to have been cast since antiquity. Toward the end of his life, Donatello’s sculptures reflected a greater emphasis on naturalism and the expression of character and Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa . dramatic action. A generation later, the work of Botticelli (1444?– be viable models. Two of his paintings, The Last 1510), particularly his best-known painting, The Supper (c. 1495–98) and the Mona Lisa (c.1503–05), Birth of Venus (c. 1482), established an image of have become so well known that they are now icons Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ female beauty that has lasted through the centuries. of popular culture. Leonardo’s key innovation in His long-necked Venus with her languid pose and painting, which is readily apparent in the Mona Lisa, flowing hair was one of the first paintings of a full- is the use of sfumato. Sfumato, from the Italian word length nude female since antiquity. fumo, meaning smoke, is the use of mellowed colors and a blurred outline. Sfumato allows forms to blend The generation of artists that followed are often subtly into one another without perceptible transitions. referred to as High Renaissance artists. Two well- known artists of this time period, Leonardo da At the same time that Leonardo was working in Vinci (1452–1519) and Michelangelo (1475–1564), Florence, another artist, Michelangelo di Buonarotti, are the models for the term “Renaissance Man.” was at work on the piece that would establish his Leonardo da Vinci is well known as an inventor, but reputation as a sculptor. The city held a competition also is recognized as an architect, engineer, painter, to have a statue created from a massive piece of sculptor, scientist, and musician. His design for the marble that it had acquired, only to discover that locks that control movements along canals from one the marble was flawed. Taking this difficult piece, level to another is still used today, and his drawings which had a large crack in the middle, Michelangelo of submarines and helicopters have been found to turned it into his vision of David (1504). The statue is

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 19 A partial view of Matthias Grünewald’s Insenheim Altarpiece .

larger than life-sized, as it was originally meant to be cancellation of his work on the Pope’s tomb was one Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ placed high on the façade of the cathedral in Florence of the greatest disappointments of Michelangelo’s and would have been viewed from far below. The career, and he was bitter and hesitant when Pope beautiful carving, the smooth texture of the finished Julius II gave him another commission. This time, the marble, and the striking pose were seen as the very artist was asked to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine embodiment of the spirit of Florence as a republic. Chapel. It took Michelangelo four years, from 1508 to 1512, to cover the seven hundred square yards of Throughout his stormy career, Michelangelo created the ceiling, but the result was an astonishing tour de a large number of other important sculptures, but it force. The great masterpiece of the Sistine Ceiling is a painting that often comes to mind when people has received renewed attention in recent decades, as hear his name. In 1505, Pope Julius II commissioned restorers set about cleaning the great frescoes. The Michelangelo to design his tomb. Michelangelo began cleaning removed the collection of oil, wax, and grime sculpting great statues such as Moses (c. 1513–15), that had accumulated over the centuries, and the The Dying Slave (1513–16), and The Bound Slave colors have returned to their original brightness. Not (1513–16) to be included in the Pope’s colossal tomb. everyone was happy with the results of the cleaning, However, in the midst of this commission, the Pope however, and a controversy about this restoration, canceled the project for uncertain reasons. The as well as the restoration of artworks in general,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 20 continues within the art world. sixteenth century. Mannerist works are characterized by the distortion of certain elements such as One of the most influential painters of the High perspective or scale and are also recognizable by Renaissance was Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520). their use of acidic colors and the twisted positioning When he was a young painter, Raphael was of their subjects. Although Tintoretto used some brought to Rome, where Julius II gave him several Mannerist pictorial techniques, his color schemes commissions. During this period, Raphael learned differed from those of the Mannerists. Tintoretto much from Michelangelo, his older rival. Unlike presented his figures from dramatic angles—it Michelangelo, Raphael was not a loner, but is said that he used small figures as models and employed numerous assistants to help him cover arranged them and rearranged them until he had the Pope’s official chambers with large, sumptuous the most dramatic effect. He also used dramatic frescoes, notably the School of Athens (c. 1508–11), contrasts of light and dark, called chiaroscuro, an homage to the great Greek philosophers and to heighten the emotional impact of his subjects. scientists. Raphael is considered the most influential Tintoretto’s later works are marked by their spiritual painter of the Madonna. His masterworks, such as subject matter, and his use of sharp perspectives and the Sistine Madonna (c. 1513–14), created an image chiaroscuro anticipate the Baroque era. of the Virgin Mary that has endured in religious paintings throughout the centuries. One of the most important events impacting the history of sixteenth-century art was the Reformation. Rome and Florence were not the only locations to Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of witness an incredible flowering in the arts. Venice, the Catholic Church and called for its purification. For too, became a center of artistic creativity. Giorgione art, this meant a move away from the richly decorated (1477/78–1510) is credited with making innovations churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance. in the subject matter of landscapes, as he painted The Church reacted to the Protestant Reformation scenes not taken from the Bible or from classical or by launching a Counter-Reformation, which allegorical stories. Prior to Giorgione’s painting The emphasized, even more than before, lavish church Tempest (c. 1508), artists had generally begun with decoration and art of a highly dramatic and emotional the figures that were to be the subject matter of the nature. One of the artists most closely associated painting and then added the background. However, with the Counter-Reformation is Dominikos in The Tempest the landscape became the subject Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco. El Greco was of the painting—the figures depicted are of lesser strongly influenced by Tintoretto’s paintings, and importance than the storm that threatens them.

he worked for a period of time in Titian’s workshop Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Titian Vecelli (c. 1488–1576) was one of the most in Venice. In 1576, El Greco left Italy for Toledo, prolific of the Venetian painters. Titian is well Spain. El Greco is one of the most well-known of the known for his portraits of his patrons, and he is also Mannerist painters, and his dramatic use of elongated recognized as having been the greatest colorist of figures captured the religious fervor of the Counter- the Renaissance artists. Titian was an innovative Reformation. The works of both El Greco and portraitist. He used various elements of setting, Tintoretto can be seen as transitional works bridging such as a column or a curtain, as the backdrop the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the for his portraits instead of an atmospheric neutral Baroque period. background, as had been the custom. The influence of Titian’s use and arrangement of background THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN elements can be seen in portraiture up through the EUROPE twenty-first century. During the fifteenth century, the artworks being produced in northern Europe were smaller in scale Tintoretto (1518–94), another great Venetian than those of contemporaneous artists to the south. painter, is often linked with an artistic style called However, the work of northern artists displayed a Mannerism that grew in popularity in the late degree of realistic detail beyond what can be seen in

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 21 works of the south, primarily due to their use of new largely influenced by late Gothic works, but as the oil paints. While the Renaissance was occurring ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread northward in Italy, much of European art north of the Alps in the sixteenth century, Dürer’s work began to was still Gothic in style. The influence of classical reflect some of these new influences. Dürer aimed to antiquity was also much less of a factor in the north, achieve a style that combined the naturalistic detail as the northerners did not share Italy’s cultural favored by artists of the north with the theoretical connection with ancient Rome, nor did they have ideas developed by Italian artists. He traveled to Italy, the advantage of being in close proximity to ancient studied the work of his Italian contemporaries, and Roman works as did their Italian counterparts. brought his new knowledge back to Germany. Dürer wrote about theories of art and published many series The art of northern Europe in the sixteenth century of woodcuts and copper engravings, such as The Four demonstrates a far greater awareness of the Italian Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498). Renaissance than that of the fifteenth century. Many artists traveled to Italy to study the great Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) is another works of the Renaissance, and some Italian artists important artist of this era, and he is considered one brought these ideas with them when they traveled of the greatest Renaissance portraitists. Though born to the north. Engravers copied some of the more in Germany, Holbein is best known for his work in notable Italian works, and these engravings became England. He became court painter to King Henry available throughout Europe, thus spreading VIII of England, and his portrait of Henry VIII the ideas and styles of the Renaissance. Trade shows not only his talent for presenting details, but connections between upper-class German merchants also his ability to capture the psychological character and merchants in Venice, a center of trade and art, of his subjects. Holbein’s works became the model provided another avenue of influence. and standard for English painting up through the nineteenth century. Though the influence of the Italian masters was notable, not all northern artists embraced the ideals BAROQUE ART and innovative techniques of the Renaissance, as The term “Baroque” is generally used to refer to many maintained a more traditional approach. artworks produced from the late sixteenth century Moreover, though linear perspective and the colors through the mid-eighteenth century. Baroque styles used farther south did travel northward, the manner differed from those of the Renaissance in that Baroque in which they were used in the northern countries artworks tended to be less static than Renaissance was quite different. examples; the Baroque is characterized by a greater Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ sense of movement and energy. The political structure During the fifteenth century and into the early of Europe during the Baroque era also differed from decades of the sixteenth century, areas of southern that of the Renaissance. Whereas the Renaissance Germany witnessed a flowering of artistic witnessed wars between cities, the Baroque era saw production. Matthias Grünewald (1475?–1528) and conflicts between empires. During this time, the Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) are often considered Church was determined to preserve its dominance the greatest artists of the Renaissance in northern in Spain and Italy, and orders like the Jesuits were Europe. Although only ten of Grünewald’s works founded to convert the peoples of other areas. Baroque have survived, his influence has nonetheless been art appealed largely to the emotions, and thus, these notable. Grünewald is known for his religious artists, influenced by the Counter-Reformation, aimed scenes and his depiction of Christ’s crucifixion. The at dramatic and moving appeals to faith. Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510–15), a work consisting of nine panels mounted on two sets of folding wings, The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe is considered to be his greatest masterpiece. were a time when society was governed by a ruling class that viewed its power as a divine right. Some of Albrecht Dürer is perhaps the most famous artist of the most powerful sovereigns ever to rule are from Reformation Germany. Dürer’s early training was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 22 Rembrandt’s The Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch, known as The Night Watch . Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ this period. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, Peter As we might expect, the art of the Baroque period the Great and Catherine the Great of Russia, and moved away from the classic simplicity and calm King Louis XIV of France dominated the lives of the that was so characteristic of Renaissance works. The people of their countries. It was a time that saw the word “baroque” has come to represent the richness ongoing concentration of power and wealth into the of color and ornamentation that heightened the hands of a few, until the results eventually became energy and emotion that were characteristic of the intolerable for the majority of the people. While great works of art of this period. The emphasis was a small minority of the population lived in great on dynamic works that presented imagery in the luxury, the lives of ordinary people were generally most dramatic way possible. quite difficult, and eventually this disparity gave rise to protests like those found in the writings of Baroque painters made use of chiaroscuro, using Enlightenment authors, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in exaggerated contrasts between light and dark to particular. Ironically, however, it was the patronage create a theatrical kind of lighting that made the of the wealthy ruling class that gave rise to the great subject appear to be in a spotlight. Caravaggio works of art of the period. (1571–1610), an Italian Baroque painter, was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 23 renowned for his dramatic use of light and dark, of the best-known works from the Baroque period. and his technique influenced many artists who Rembrandt is recognized not only as a painter and followed. Caravaggio’s work is so important that printmaker, but also as one of the greatest draftsmen artworks using extremes of dark and light are often ever. Perhaps his best-known work is The Night Watch termed “caravaggesque.” Caravaggio’s work is also (1642), more properly known as Sortie of Captain notable for its provocative degree of naturalism. For Banning Cocq’s Company of the Civic Guard. Like example, Caravaggio portrayed the Virgin Mary and many other group portraits of the time, each member the apostles not as noble figures in classical garb as of the company depicted paid a certain sum to be they had traditionally been represented, but instead included in the painting. Rembrandt chose to break depicted them as poor and simple folks in threadbare with tradition and grouped the members of the garments. His use of actual lower-class individuals company in a way that gave more attention to some as models for his work helped him achieve this members than to others. This break with tradition, as effect. It is no wonder that several patrons of well as other problems in his life, ultimately caused Caravaggio’s canvases rejected them for this reason. the decline of his career. Though Rembrandt died in poverty, the self-portraits of his later years are With recent revisions of art history, a woman named considered to be some of the greatest studies of the Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?) has also joined inner life of the sitter ever to be painted. the ranks of important Baroque artists. Gentileschi, the daughter of a painter, had the unusual opportunity It might be argued that the Baroque period reached its to study in her father’s studio. She is particularly peak in France. There, Louis XIV had come to power, known for her remarkable adaptation of Carravaggio’s and his long reign was marked by a blossoming techniques. Her works include self-portraits and of French culture. Louis XIV united all of France paintings of Old Testament women. and built a lavish palace at Versailles beginning in 1669. The palace and its grounds covered about two The most important Baroque artist, Gianlorenzo thousand acres and included various grand chateaux Bernini (1598–1680), the son of a sculptor, was a child and gardens. There was a stable, capable of housing prodigy who received recognition from the Pope at hundreds of horses, and a grand orangerie, or age seventeen. Bernini did his most significant work greenhouse, for the king’s orange trees. Eventually in sculpture, but he was also a talented architect, there was also a zoo and a system of fountains and painter, and draftsman. He worked as a designer in the waterfalls that included a grand canal large enough theater, and many of his works reflect the influence for the staging of mock sea battles. The opulence of his theatrical background. His most important

and power of this “sun king,” around whom the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ masterpiece, the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–52), world of the court revolved, became a model that is set into the altar of the Cornaro Chapel. The space contemporaneous monarchs tried to emulate. includes a concealed stained-glass window that bathes the figure of the saint in dramatic gold lighting, as if An important feature of Louis XIV’s court that was to she were on a stage. Bernini treated his medium in influence art well into the nineteenth century was the a new way as well. He did not adhere to the classical system of choosing and supporting artists called the calm and natural flow of drapery around the figure Salon. This annual exhibition established a set of rules that had been used in the past. Instead, Bernini for judging art that is still influential in the art world pushed the use of marble to new limits and tried to today. It was also under the rule of Louis XIV that the make stone look like real fabric and even clouds. Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, often referred to simply as the “Academy,” was established, The importance of the Baroque style extended beyond and it soon came to be a means for imposing aesthetic Italy. In Flanders, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) standards and principles of taste. established a huge workshop and produced works of great energy and color that became models for many To the south, the Spanish court of King Philip IV of artists. In the mid-seventeenth century, Rembrandt Spain tried to emulate the court of France, and his van Rijn (1606–69), a Dutch artist, created some court painter, Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 24 Jacques Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii (1784) . a contemporary of Bernini. Velázquez’s method of and wit so valued by their aristocratic patrons are building his figures from patches of color, rather considered the greatest masters of the Rococo style. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ than starting from a drawing, became a model for Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) was the leader of many later artists. In fact, Velázquez’s work had an a new generation and the innovator of a new genre influence on the movement we call Impressionism. of painting called the fête galante. Paintings of this genre generally depicted members of the nobility in ROCOCO, NEOCLASSICISM, AND elegant contemporary dress enjoying leisure time ROMANTICISM in the countryside. François Boucher (1703–70) was While the Rococo style might be seen as an influenced by Watteau’s delicate style. He became extension of the Baroque period, it is quite different the favorite painter of Madame Pompadour, mistress in form and content. Whereas the Baroque aimed to Louis XV, and his works often transformed the to arouse grand emotions, Rococo works were characters of classical myth into scenes of courtly celebrations of gaiety, romance, and the frivolity gallantry, with an emphasis on nubile nudes. Jean- of the grand life at court, particularly the court Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) was also promoted at Versailles. The emphasis was on light-hearted by Madame Pompadour. Fragonard studied with decoration with the use of gold and pastel colors. Boucher, and his works strongly reflect Boucher’s influence. Three artists who excelled at capturing the elegance

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 25 The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era REALISM AND IMPRESSIONISM of great change throughout Europe, and the idea of In many ways, Realism was a reaction to a democratic republic ruled by and for the people Neoclassicism and Romanticism. The Realist style was reflected in the artwork of the time. In an was inspired by the idea that painting must illustrate attempt to hearken back to the democratic ideals of all the features of its subjects, including the negative the ancient world, art of this period demonstrated a ones. It was also obligated to show the lives of revival of interest in the art of classical Greece and ordinary people as subjects that were as important as Rome. This style, called Neoclassicism, emerged the historical and religious themes that dominated the in the decades leading up to the Revolution and art exhibitions of the day. The artist who represented was also influenced by Enlightenment philosophy. this movement most forcefully was Gustave Courbet The Neoclassical style, a direct challenge to the (1819–77), a flamboyant and outgoing personality Rococo and its associations with the aristocracy, who outraged conventional audiences by showing is epitomized in the work of Jacques Louis David a painting of ordinary workmen repairing a road at (1748–1825), whose paintings, such as the Oath of the official government-sponsored Salon. This work, the Horatii (1784), illustrated republican virtues. called The Stonebreakers (1849–50), also had political Following the Revolution, David joined members implications in the context of a wave of revolutions of the new government as the master of ceremonies that spread across Europe beginning in 1848. Realism for the grand revolutionary mass rallies. Later he can also be seen in the works of Honoré Daumier became a dedicated painter to Napoleon Bonaparte, (1808–79) and Jean François Millet (1814–75). and in this capacity he painted large propagandistic canvases that would seem to undermine his earlier Impressionism largely grew out of dissatisfaction revolutionary ideals. A closer investigation of his with the rigid rules that had come to dominate the work and his career reveals the complicated world of Salons held to recognize selected artists each year. an artist and his patrons. The work of David’s pupil, Édouard Manet (1832–83) is sometimes referred Jean Dominique Ingres (1780–1867), shows the sharp to as the first Impressionist. Although he refused outlines, unemotional figures, careful geometric to consider himself as one of the Impressionists, composition, and rational order that are hallmarks of Manet’s work, which showed light by juxtaposing the Neoclassical style. bright, contrasting colors, nonetheless greatly inspired and influenced the generation of artists Ingres’s rival, Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), was following him. Manet’s painting Le Dejéuner sur a proponent of Romanticism. This style hearkened L’he r b e (Luncheon on the Grass) (1863)—included

back to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque in the Salon des Refusés in 1863, an exhibit of works Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ and had similar characteristics, though the subject rejected by the “official” Salon—was singled out matter was different. Whereas Neoclassical works for ridicule. The scandal surrounding this work emphasized line, order, and a cool detachment, resulted from its violation of the unwritten rule that Romantic painting tended to be highly imaginative the only appropriate nudes in contemporary art were and was characterized by an emotional and dreamlike classical figures or women in suitably exotic settings. quality—the Romantics favored feeling over reason. In Luncheon on the Grass, Manet based his work Romantic works are also characterized by their on an engraving with a classical subject matter, but incorporation of exotic or melodramatic elements and he showed contemporary clothed men with a nude often took awe-inspiring natural wonders as their woman as part of the group. This caused an uproar. subject matter. Delacroix’s works are characteristic of the Romantic movement in that they centered on While Manet continued to submit his work to the exotic themes and included foreign settings, violence Salon, other artists who disagreed with the rigid involving animals, and historical subject matter. artistic standards espoused by the Académie des Théodore Gericault (1791–1824) and William Blake Beaux-Arts in Paris and favored by the Salon set (1757–1827) were also important Romantic artists. about establishing Impressionism as a new style. A work by Claude Monet (1840–1926) was the source

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 26 Gustave Courbet’s The Stonebreakers . of the movement’s name. Monet showed a work most influential of these artists was Paul Cézanne that he called Impression, Sunrise (1872), and the (1839–1906). Dissatisfied with the lack of solid form critics seized on this mere “impression” as a means in Impressionist works, Cézanne set about redefining by which to ridicule the movement. It was Monet art in terms of form. He suggested that a painting who urged his fellow artists to work outdoors, and could be structured as a series of planes with a these endeavors were aided by technical advances in clear foreground, middle ground, and background paint and brush production that made the medium and argued that the objects in the painting could all Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ more portable. Impressionist artists put their colors be reduced to their simplest underlying forms—a directly on the canvas with rapid strokes to capture cube, a sphere, or a cone. Here we should note the the rapidly changing light. Scientific studies of obvious influence that these ideas, presented first by vision and color led to the discovery that shadows Cézanne, later had on the development of Cubism in were not merely gray but that they reflected the the early twentieth century. complementary color of the object casting them. Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) and Alfred Sisley The ongoing search for more and more brilliant (1839–99) were two other Impressionists of note. color was a unifying feature for many of the Post- Impressionists. The work of Georges Seurat POST-IMPRESSIONISM AND OTHER (1859–91) placed an emphasis on the scientific rules LATE NINETEENTH-CENTURY of color. Seurat applied his colors in small dots of DEVELOPMENTS complementary colors that blended in the eye of the viewer in what is called optical mixing. The results The artists who followed Impressionism, though were vibrant, though the emphasis on technique also influenced by the earlier artists, took various features resulted in static compositions. of Impressionism in quite different directions. The

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 27 intense color and a more “unschooled” style, he went to Tahiti, where he painted works that depict the island’s lush, tropical setting and native people, as seen through the lens of colonialism. At this juncture, it is important to note the outside influences that were affecting the changing art world. The invention of the camera called into question the very need to capture ordinary reality in art. Some of the most important inventions may seem quite mundane. The invention of chemically based paints and the paint tube allowed the Impressionists to paint outdoors easily for the first time. This was also a time of global exploration and colonialism, and the objects brought back from around the world had a profound effect on the Impressionists and the artists who followed. Artists were intrigued by masks from Africa, and many collected the Japanese prints that were used as packing for shipments of goods from Japan. An Impressionist whose work exemplifies these new influences is Edgar Degas (1834–1917). Degas often combined the snapshot style of Georges Seurat, photographed in 1888 . photography with a Japanese-like perspective from slightly above his subject. As Seurat was attracting attention and Cézanne was formulating his rules for painting, a young Dutch In England, a group of artists dissatisfied with the painter named Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) was effects of the Industrial Revolution banded together studying art. Van Gogh, using theories of contrasting and became known as the Pre-Raphaelites. These color and very direct application of paint, set about artists created a style that attempted to return to capturing the bright light of southern France. His the simpler forms of pre-Renaissance art. The vigorous brushwork and twisting forms were designed Pre-Raphaelites created many quasi-religious to capture an intense response, and though his career works that often blended Romantic, archaic, and was short, many of his works have become very well moralistic elements. Their emphasis on nature and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ known. Van Gogh developed the idea that the artist’s sweeping curves paved the way for Art Nouveau. colors should not slavishly imitate the colors of the Art Nouveau, which became popular in the late natural world, but should be intensified to portray nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, was a style inner human emotions. The intense and jarring of decoration, architecture, and design that was yellows, greens, and reds in the poolroom of Van characterized by the depiction of leaves and flowers Gogh’s Night Café (1888), which van Gogh considered in flowing, sinuous lines. a place of vice, illustrate this very influential idea. THE EMERGENCE OF MODERNISM The search for intense light and clear color also As we move into the twentieth century, we see marks the work of Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), who artists who were continually striving to discover is perhaps known as much for the story of his life new ways of presenting their ideas. Furthering the as he is for his art. Though he was a successful attempts the Post-Impressionists had made to extend stockbroker, Gauguin left his wife and family while the boundaries of color, a group of artists led by in his forties to pursue his art career. He worked for Henri Matisse (1869–1954) used colors so intense a short time with van Gogh in southern France but that they violated the sensibilities of critics and the was still dissatisfied with his art. Searching for more public alike. Taking their cue from van Gogh, these

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 28 artists no longer thought their use of color needed to replicate color as seen in the real world. Their wild use of arbitrary color earned them the name of fauves, or “wild beasts.” Natural form was to be attacked with equal fervor, as can be seen in developments in Paris around 1908. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), in close collaboration with Georges Braque (1882–1963), was at work developing a whole new system of art. Picasso and Braque broke down and analyzed form in new ways in the style that came to be known as Cubism. Psychologists had explained that human experience is much richer than can be gathered from a traditional painting that shows a single view from a fixed vantage point. When we look at any given scene, we remember the scene as an overlay of visual impressions seen from different angles and moments in time. Picasso and Braque were familiar with these theories, as indicated by their habit of breaking figures up into multiple overlapping Pablo Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon . perspectives. The Cubists were also influenced by African art, which they imagined to be more intuitive are important because they mark the beginnings and closer to nature than intellectualized European of modern art in the United States. It was these art. Cubist works reacted against the naturalistic, beginnings, coupled with the effects of the First World often sentimental, artworks that were popular in War, that were partly responsible for the eventual the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The shift of the center of the art world from Paris to New Cubists favored abstract forms over lifelike figures. York. While the movements of modern art were In Germany, an art developed that emphasized sweeping Paris, the American scene remained largely emotional responses. A group of artists calling unaffected until 1913. TheArmory Show, arranged by the Barnes Foundation and held from February 17 themselves Die Brücke, which included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Emil Nolde through March 15, 1913, was the first major showing (1867–1956), took the brilliant arbitrary colors of of modern art in the U.S., and it caused a sensation. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ the Fauvists and combined them with the intense Artworks that were to become landmarks of various feelings found in the work of the Norwegian artist European art movements were a part of the Armory Edvard Munch (1863–1944). This highly charged Show, and they had a profound and lasting effect on attempt to make the inner workings of the mind American art. Marcel Duchamp’s (1887–1968) Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) and Picasso’s Les visible in art is known as Expressionism. Another Demoiselles d’ Avignon (1907) both shocked viewers Expressionist group in Germany, Der Blaue Reiter, was led by the Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky with their challenging approaches to the figure and (1866–1944), who around 1913 began to paint totally space. Brancusi’s (1876–1957) The Kiss, with its abstract pictures without any pictorial subject. Other abstracted, block-like figures, and Kandinsky’s non- objective paintings added to the outrage. pioneers of total abstraction were the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935) and the While the effects of the European works in the Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), whose De Armory Show rippled through the American art Stijl canvases, consisting of flat fields of primary world, there was also a quintessentially American color, have become a hallmark of modern art. movement underway. During the 1920s, Harlem The next events in our story of the history of art became a center for African-American creativity.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 29 Fueled by the popularity of jazz, writers and artists influence on the world of art. The Bauhaus made joined musicians in a flowering of the arts that is a bold attempt to reconcile industrial mass- called the Harlem Renaissance. Though the movement manufacture with aesthetic form. Taking the view lasted only a decade, it was an inspiration to many that form should follow function and should be true artists, including Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden, to the materials used, the faculty at the Bauhaus and other well-known artists of the next generation. designed a curriculum that continues to influence many contemporary schools of art. After the school During World War I and its aftermath, another was closed by the Nazis in 1933, many of the movement arose that challenged established ideas Bauhaus’ faculty, including Josef Albers (1888– about art. This movement, called Dada, originated 1976), a well-known painter, graphic artist, and among a group of disaffected intellectuals living in designer, came to the United States and continued to Zurich and grew out of the angst of artists who were teach. We can still recognize the Bauhaus influence disillusioned with the war. Dada was an art that in our contemporary society with its streamlined aimed to protest against everything in society and furnishings and buildings. to lampoon and ridicule accepted values and norms. Marcel Duchamp created two works that have come ABSTRACTION to represent this amusing and irreverent view of the During World War II, organized movements in art world. He added a mustache to a reproduction of the came to a virtual standstill. Art was produced, but Mona Lisa and gave it an insulting title (LHOOQ, attention was really on the war. Many artists did in 1919), and he also exhibited a common porcelain fact serve in the military, and often art was designed urinal (Fountain, 1917). to serve as propaganda in support of the war effort. When the war was over and Europe was recovering, Duchamp, in fact, invented a new category of a new center for the international art world emerged. artworks that he referred to as ready-mades. By The action had shifted to New York, and it would taking an ordinary object and giving it a new be decades before the artistic centers in England, context, Duchamp would create a work of art. In this France, Italy, and Germany would regain something way, Duchamp challenged traditional ideas about that approximated the prominence of New York. the way the artist functions—rather than physically making a work of art, an object became a work of art During the 1950s, the art scene in New York was merely through the artist’s choice. Picasso created dominated by the ideas and writings of critics such several works that may also be considered ready- as Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg. These mades. For example, in a famous work Picasso took critics had a tremendous influence on the development Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ an ordinary object—bicycle handlebars—and made of art styles. Greenberg chose to promote a particular them appear as bull horns when coupled with a view of art and was an advocate for artists who bicycle seat (Bull’s Head, 1943). were further developing abstraction. Beginning in the 1940s, Abstract Expressionist artists followed Some artists, influenced by the theories of Sigmund Kandinsky’s dictum that art, like music, could be free Freud, attempted to portray the inner workings of the from the limitations of pictorial subject matter. These mind in their artworks. This group of artists became artists aimed at the direct presentation of feeling known as the Surrealists and included artists such with an emphasis on dramatic colors and sweeping as Salvador Dalí (1904–89), René Magritte (1898– brushstrokes. The Abstract Expressionist movement, 1967), and Joan Miró (1893–1983). which included the artists Willem de Kooning (1904– One of the most influential events in the history of 97), Lee Krasner (1908–84), and Franz Kline (1910– art took place in Germany between the first and 62), reached its pinnacle with the work of Jackson second world wars. A school of design called the Pollock (1912–56). Pollock eventually abandoned even Bauhaus—a name that would become a byword the use of his paintbrush and instead dripped his paint of modern design—established standards for directly onto the canvas. architecture and design that would have a profound

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 30 art. Andy Warhol (1928–87), the icon of pop art, achieved the kind of popularity usually reserved for rock stars. His soup cans, Brillo boxes, and images of movie stars were created with a factory- like silkscreen approach that he used to mock the art world. Roy Lichtenstein (1923–97), another pop artist, adopted the imagery of comic books and recreated them on such a large scale that the pattern of dots used to print them was made massive. Robert Indiana (1928–2018) used stencils that had been originally used to produce commercial signs to create his own artistic messages. Minimalism sought to reduce art to its barest essentials, emphasizing simplification of form Robert Rauschenberg’s Monogram . and often featuring monochromatic palettes. The Abstract Expressionist works tended to fall into two invention of acrylic paint and the airbrush enabled types: Action Painting, which employed dramatic Minimalist painters to achieve very precise outlines, brushstrokes or Pollock’s innovative dripping which resulted in the term “hard-edge painting.” technique, or Color Field paintings, which featured The artist who is best known for these large, entirely broad areas of color and simple, often geometric non-objective paintings is Frank Stella (b. 1936). The forms. Mark Rothko and Josef Albers are two well- sculptors David Smith (1906–65), who used stainless known color field artists. steel, and Dan Flavin (1933–96), who used neon tubing, also created large pieces that reflected this In response to the non-objective style of Abstract abstract minimalist sensibility. Expressionism, other artists began to return to naturalism, producing works that, though they A Pop-inspired group of artists began to produce may appear in some ways similar to those of the works that aimed to create a kind of super-realism or abstractionists, focused on ordinary consumer what came to be called Photorealism. In these works, objects. Jasper Johns (b. 1930) created a series of a hyper-real quality results from the depiction of the works that featured common things such as flags, subject matter in sharp focus, as in a photograph. This technique offered a clear contrast to the use of numbers, maps, and letters. Robert Rauschenberg Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ (1925–2008) created sculptures from the cast-off sfumato, developed in the Renaissance, which had objects he found around him to create what he called added a haziness to the contour of painted objects. “combines.” He hung his own bedclothes on the wall Photorealist artists Chuck Close (b. 1940), with his like a canvas and painted them [Bed (1955)], and portraits, and Duane Hanson (1925–1996), with his one of his most famous works, Monogram (1959), witty sculptures of ordinary people, hearkened back consists of numerous “found” items, including a to the Realism promoted by Gustave Courbet. stuffed goat, a tire, a police barrier, the heel of a EARTHWORKS, INSTALLATIONS, shoe, a tennis ball, and paint. This use of everyday objects in artistic works had a decided influence on AND PERFORMANCE the next big movement in art—Pop Art. One intriguing development in the contemporary art world since the 1970s is that art is no longer limited POP ART, MINIMALISM, AND to gallery or museum spaces, and many important PHOTOREALISM works of art are departures from traditional formats. 1960s Pop Art, with its incorporation of images of Some artists have taken their work to a new scale mass culture, violated the traditional unspoken rules and have developed their artworks in new venues, regarding what was appropriate subject matter for often out of doors. In this way, artists also challenge

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 31 conventional ideas about art and its function. An dominated by white men. artist known by the single name Christo (b. 1935), working together with his partner Jeanne-Claude Postmodernist art arose in reaction to the modernist (1935–2009), is responsible for creating much styles, and not surprisingly, it takes many forms interest in these kinds of Earthworks (also known across a variety of media. Postmodern works tend as Land art or Environmental art). Beginning in to reintroduce traditional elements or to exaggerate Europe, Christo startled the world with the idea modernist techniques by using them to the extreme. that landscape or architecture is something that Postmodern works often return to earlier styles, can be packaged. He wrapped several well-known periods, and references and often question the mores monuments in fabric, built a twenty-four-mile-long and beliefs of contemporary society. A leading cloth fence in California, surrounded eleven Florida proponent of Postmodernism in architecture is islands with pink plastic, and set up orange fabric Philip Johnson (1906–2005), who at one time was gates on pathways throughout Central Park. These known as one of the leading modern architects of works, which require years and even decades of the International Style. For decades, architecture had preparation, are as much about the process as they largely been dominated by the Bauhaus idea of form are about the finished product, and it is for this following function, and sleek towers of steel sheathed reason that Christo’s partner, Jeanne-Claude, played in glass were the standard for large buildings. But, such an important role. While Christo designs in 1970, Johnson suggested the radical idea that one the projects, Jeanne-Claude handled many of the of the functions of art was decoration, and with the logistical details that must be addressed to carry AT&T Building (1984; now 550 Madison Avenue), he out the work. Their partnership raises important added a finial to the top of the standard office tower. questions about the concept of the individual genius Today, artists around the world work in an endless of the artist and how he or she works. Other artists variety of media and styles. One can no longer say associated with Earthworks are Michael Heizer (b. that any particular city, country, or even continent 1944) and Robert Smithson (1938–73). is the “center” of the art world. The next section of The growth of Performance Art is another this guide provides a brief overview of “nonwestern” development that allows artistic expression to art, but we should note that the categories of Western transcend traditional boundaries. Some artists work and nonwestern in the world of contemporary in conventional media such as photography and art are becoming obsolete with the emergence of painting, as well as in performance art. Performance transnational artists in an increasingly mobile and interconnected world. art is a combination of theater and art in which the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ artists themselves become the work. Such works exist in time, like music or theater, and are fleeting BRIEF OVERVIEW OF and transitory in nature. The point is to create a NONWESTERN ART real event in which the audience can participate, but The story of art that we have been studying thus far that does not result in a fixed, marketable artwork has been a traditional one and has been told over and for a museum or living room wall. Sometimes over again by countless writers since Giorgio Vasari’s performance art is socially conscious in its intent. time. It chronicles a history of Western European An example is the Guerrilla Girls, a group of New ideas that grew out of the concepts put forth by early York-based artists who began to work together in Greek philosophers. These ideas experienced a revival 1985. The individual identities of the artists in this during the Renaissance and were further refined in the all-female group are kept anonymous at all times. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Atomic power, The artists even wear gorilla masks when they the increasing pace of technological inventions, and appear in public to conceal their identities. The the electronic age further expanded and changed the artists use guerrilla-warfare tactics, such as pasting realm of art in the twentieth century. up posters and flyers, as well as giving public We should keep in mind that the history we have speeches, to challenge what they see as an art world

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 32 The terracotta army was buried with the First Emperor of Qin . chronicled thus far, though valuable, has clear ASIAN ART limitations. In recent decades, art history, like many Chinese Art other academic disciplines, has been challenged to include artists and works that were previously Civilization and art have been present in China for marginalized. The influence of feminist critics in thousands of years, and some archaeological finds Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ particular has led to major revisions, and there has in China rival those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. also been an increasing inclusion of the histories Remains of painted wares have been found that of art of other cultures. At this point, we will look date back to the fourth millennium bce. Perhaps at the arts of Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, the most famous work of ancient Chinese art is the and the art of Islam throughout the world. The art Great Wall, which was constructed over the course histories of these cultures are increasingly central to of centuries and covers thousands of miles. Of course the development of the discipline of art history. Of this wall, now considered an enduring work of art course, this brief survey covers only a tiny fraction and admired both for its engineering and aesthetic of the rich world of art beyond the boundaries of the appeal, originally had a utilitarian function. This is Western world. The works considered here might be an example of how meaning and function can change categorized as “traditional”; contemporary art from over time. In fact, many of the works we will examine Asia and Africa, thoroughly immersed in the global here were created for a specific purpose but are now art scene, is beyond the scope of this discussion, for seen as works of art in a different context. example. Illustrations of the works of art discussed The dynasties or kingdoms that ruled for long periods here can be found through basic Internet searches of time had an impact on the history of art in China. and in standard art historical textbooks.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 33 In many cases, these rulers left elaborate tombs the sensuous style of Indian sculptures has had an that contained many objects that have become great enduring impact on art over the centuries. Much treasures of art. One of the most amazing works Indian art reflects the tremendous influence of from the early period of Chinese art history is the Hinduism. This religion, with its many gods and monument to the first emperor to unite the kingdom— goddesses, gave rise to a lovely, lively, and sinuous the Emperor of Qin (c.210 bce). He had a full army of style. Images of Shiva, who dances gracefully with soldiers and their equipment, including their horses, his multiple arms, are particularly striking. created life-size in clay and buried as part of his tomb. The technical ability demonstrated in these sculptures Japanese Art and the life-like detail of the soldiers and their horses The island kingdom of Japan, though tiny in size, are quite astonishing. The dynasties succeeding Qin has had a great influence on the international art built grand walled cities with huge palaces and tombs. world. Japan was closed to the West for the majority These dynasties are noted for bronze statues and of its history, and this allowed Japanese art to ceremonial vessels. These vessels are covered with remain relatively consistent and traditional. As with intricate designs, and the methods of casting are still China, the history of Japan is one of succeeding not completely understood. dynasties, with each one leaving its mark in a series The introduction of Buddhism from India had a of succeeding styles. Also, as with China, Buddhism profound effect on Chinese arts and culture. During was imported to Japan and became an important the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 ce), often focus in the traditional arts. The strength of Japan’s referred to as China’s Golden Age, artists produced artistic traditions remained even when the country some of the greatest works of ceramic sculpture became more open to Western cultures. During the ever made. Traditional Chinese art also placed great rise of the Impressionist movement in Europe, Japan value on ink drawings. Many scrolls are meant for sent a group of artists to study in France. These artists contemplation, and this contemplative aspect is a returned to Japan and introduced the ideas they had feature often associated with Asian art. Chinese encountered in the West, and so, for a short time at traditions in writing, painting, and sculpture were the end of the nineteenth century, there was a group maintained over the centuries. With the communist of artists in Japan who used linear perspective and revolution that established the People’s Republic of the colors and subjects of Impressionism. However, China in 1949, art became suffused with political what is noteworthy is that the Japanese soon rejected ideas and was often an instrument of propaganda. these ideas and returned to the isometric perspective and flat areas of color favored by Japanese traditions. However, since the late 1970s, Chinese art has Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ gradually become less political. Although Japanese artists created excellent works in painting, architecture, crafts, and sculpture, it is for Indian Art their printmaking that Japanese artists are best known in the Western world. Japanese prints had a profound India is an extremely diverse nation in which more influence on Western art, as French artists began to than 1,600 different languages and dialects are imitate the prints that they began to collect in the currently spoken, and India is home to a variety late nineteenth century. The flat colors and overhead of religious and cultural traditions. India’s artistic viewpoint of these prints were adopted by many traditions are among the oldest in the world, and here French artists during this period. we will only be able to touch on one or two aspects of India’s rich artistic heritage. The influence of AFRICAN AND OCEANIC ART Buddhist traditions is strong, of course, but what often Some of the historic traditions of African art have astonishes people unfamiliar with the art of India is already been discussed in our survey of Western art. the influence of Greek art on the classical images of As a result of the relationships between Egypt and Buddha. India has ruins of great early civilizations the Mediterranean world, the ancient arts of northern that rival those of Egypt and Mesoamerica, and Africa are often incorporated into the history of

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 34 Western art. Usually the art of sub-Saharan Africa is treated separately from that of northern Africa because of the regions’ very different histories. A close look at all areas of the continent reveals that impressive art traditions emerged in west, central, east, and southern Africa quite early. Some of the oldest examples are cave paintings in what is now Namibia. In West Africa, the Nok civilization flourished from c. 900 bce to 200 ce. Located in what is present-day Nigeria, this impressive civilization produced fantastically life-like terracotta sculptures, many of which were probably portraits of political and religious leaders. It is possible that the early Nok civilization had an influence on later cultural groups such as the Yoruba. Another important historical tradition from Nigeria relates to the Benin Kingdom, which first emerged around 900 ce when the Edo people settled in the area. The kingdom became further consolidated with shifts in leadership in the eleventh century. Much of the remaining art from the Benin Kingdom was produced in association with a rich life at the royal court. Cast bronze portrait heads were intended for ancestral altars, and a variety of objects were made to reinforce the tremendous power of the oba, or Benin king. Countless treasures from the Benin Kingdom were destroyed or confiscated by the British in the 1897 raid on the royal palace. As a result, many more of these objects from historic Benin can be found in museums in Europe and the

United States than in Nigeria. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ While art objects in a variety of media have been created by many different African cultural groups, our study of them has been limited in many cases Fang mask used for the ngil ceremony, an inquisitorial by the lack of necessary conditions for preservation. search for sorcerers . Wood, Gabon, nineteenth century . While there are some objects in metal and clay, the use of fiber and wood, which are quite perishable, has resulted in relatively few artifacts being preserved were often collected as archaeological preserved. Unfortunately, much African art was also artifacts and, in most cases, important contextual destroyed by early European traders and colonial information was lost. It is only relatively recently settlers on the continent. Westerners often viewed that art historians have begun to explore the rich much of what they found in Africa as dangerous variety of artworks and aesthetic systems of African and threatening to the colonial pursuit, perceiving cultures. In many cases, traditional African arts artworks as pagan symbols that should be destroyed challenge the Western concept of art for art’s rather than preserved. Hence, a wealth of cultural sake—functional baskets, ceramics, and textiles, artifacts has been lost. The objects that were for example, are some of the most prized material

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 35 An image of the Dome of the Rock from Phillip Baldensperger’s “The Immovable East: Studies of the People and Customs of Palestine,” published in 1913 . objects for many African cultural groups. been lost to us due to the use of fragile materials in a sometimes hostile climate. In Polynesia, tattooing and When we look at African art in a museum, a great other body arts were important ways of expressing Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ deal of contextual information that is crucial to our social stature. Clearly these art forms are lost with the understanding of the object is lost. Many African death of the tattooed person and were preserved only cultural groups, such as the Dan and the Bwa, are through engravings made by visitors to the islands well-known for their impressive masks. Masks, prior to the invention of photography. though, are not meant to be seen in isolation as they are typically displayed when in art museums. Instead, Some of the most important art traditions of the masks are usually integrated into performance, Asmat cultural group of Melanesia relate to warfare. coupled with a full-body costume and accompanied Traditionally the Asmat engaged in head-hunting by music, dance, jokes, festivities, and a great meal practices, but these traditions have died out. shared with friends and family. It is difficult, of Enormous carved wooden shields decorated with course, to recreate all of this in a museum context! beautiful black, red, and white abstract patterns were traditionally used for protection in raids among Similar issues occur in relation to the arts of Oceania. groups throughout the area; today these shields are Oceania is the collective name for the thousands seen as cultural symbols, but they no longer serve of islands that constitute Polynesia, Melanesia, the same function in war. and Micronesia. As is the case with Africa, many perishable objects dating back for centuries have Carved masks were a central part of Melanesian

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 36 cultures. In many cases, these masks were used in and appreciation of the art of the first Americans, ceremonies that involved summoning the spirits and objects from these cultures are becoming more of ancestors to honor the dead. As is the case with and more common in the collections of art museums. African art traditions, much is lost when these Great civilizations grew and flourished in the objects are viewed in museum collections. Americas, including the Olmec, Toltec, Maya, Inca, and Aztec. Great pyramids, rivaling those of Egypt, Rich traditions continue to develop throughout rose as the central features of large cities, of which Oceania today, especially as groups such as the the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico is one of the best Maori of New Zealand seek cultural renewal by known. The decorative carvings on the Mayan ruins reviving old traditions in a new context. Many continue to amaze us, and in addition to architectural people from traditional cultural groups that have marvels, statues in clay and stone, as well as fine been threatened by colonization recognize that textiles and jewelry, remain as reminders of the art offers vibrant possibilities for expressing and glories of these civilizations. reinforcing cultural identity. While there is evidence of early people in many areas ISLAMIC ART of present-day Canada and the United States dating Today, Islam is a major religion that is not limited to back nearly 12,000 years, several of the conditions any one region of the world. However, historically that we identified earlier as being necessary for Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula following preservation were not present. As a result, the the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570– majority of artifacts from these cultures are only from 632). The revelations of Muhammad are recorded the last two thousand years. During the later centuries in Islam’s holy book, the Koran. This text plays a of the prehistoric period, the Native Americans of central role in the practice of Islam, and some of the Southwest demonstrated remarkable architectural the most valued art objects are beautifully produced skills in the building of pueblo complexes. These copies of the Koran or containers that hold the sacred dwellings often consisted of well over a hundred text. Following the Koran’s scriptures, Islamic art rooms laid out in multiple stories. is largely non-figurative. Abstract or calligraphic decoration can be found on most Islamic art objects, ELEMENTS OF ART including sacred architecture, which has a long FORMAL QUALITIES OF ART history in the Islamic tradition. The Dome of the While it is crucial to examine any given work of Rock in Jerusalem (687–692) is one of the oldest art in its historical context in order to arrive at an examples of Islamic architecture. Its position in understanding of its meaning, it is also important Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Jerusalem marks the presence of Islam in a city to focus intently on the formal qualities or the basic that is also sacred to Jews and Christians. The act visual components of a work of art. These include of prayer is central to the practice of Islam, and the line, shape, form, space, color, and texture, among mosque, with its qibla wall facing toward Mecca, other things. Formal analysis requires careful emerged as a site for communal prayer. Mosque observation and description, often using the special architecture can be found in a variety of forms vocabulary of art. throughout the world today. Line THE AMERICAS For many years art historians classified much of Line is the most basic of art elements. Any kind of the art of North and South America as products of mark-making tool—a finger, pencil, paint, etc.— simple craftsmanship. These artifacts were not truly can be used to create a line on a surface. The strict considered works of art and therefore were kept definition of a line is the path of a point moving solely in archeological and anthropological museums. through space. But beyond this technical definition, However, renewed interest and new studies of these lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, works have added considerably to our understanding width, and direction. Lines may appear hard or soft,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 37 bold or indistinct, uniform or varying in width. Space is an element of art related to the organization Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of objects and the areas around them. The objects, of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is create an implied line. Think of prints in the sand termed positive space. Sometimes these objects, or snow that imply the path of a person or animal. shapes, or forms may be called the figure. The area Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines. The around these objects, shapes, or forms represents corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line negative space. In three-dimensional forms, negative where two colors meet all provide examples of how space may surround the forms or may be created edges may be seen as lines. as a result of open spaces within the forms. Three- dimensional artworks include, among other forms, Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually. architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture. The two Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and primary types of sculpture are freestanding, or fully static feeling. Vertical lines cause the eye to move in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture upward. Medieval churches were created with very projects from a surface or background of which it high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the is a part. Such sculptures may be in high relief— people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of projecting boldly from the surface—or bas (low) spiritual awe. Horizontal lines, such as the line of the relief—projecting only slightly from the surface of horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility the sculpture. while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity. Though the use of lines is perhaps most Perspective essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artwork in The creation of perspective or the illusion of some way. depth is another important use of space in two- dimensional artworks. There are many effective Shape and Form techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimensionality. They may use shading and Shape and form are two elements of art that are highlighting on the contours—the visible borders— closely related to one another. Shape is what defines of objects to replicate the manner in which light the two-dimensional area of an object, whereas shining on objects lends those objects a sense of forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having volume and space. An artist can also create a sense length, width, and depth. For example, a square is of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures a shape, but a cube is a form. A triangle is a shape; lower on the picture plane to make them appear Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ a pyramid or a cone is a form. When one draws an closer to the viewer. Or, one can do the reverse and apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that place objects and figures higher on the plane to represents the apple. If one creates an apple out of make them appear farther away from the viewer. clay, that clay apple is a form. In a two-dimensional Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of create a sense of perspective—larger objects will form through the use of shading, foreshortening, appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. An perspective, and other techniques. artist can also have closer objects overlap objects Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/ that are farther away to indicate depth and distance. spheres and squares/cubes. These geometric shapes Moreover, the artist can make objects appear and forms can be defined mathematically and are closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail precise and regular. Some shapes and forms are than objects that are farther away—replicating the described as being “organic” since living things tend manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more to be freeform and irregular in shape or form. A detail in objects that are nearer to us. geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to perspective, is a technique that takes into account the express movement and rhythm.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 38 Pietro Perugino’s use of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome. ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are the appearance of things when they are viewed drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines—which we from a distance. When an artist uses this technique, know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge objects that are farther away will appear lighter and or come together in a systematic way as they recede more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color toward the back wall of the interior. or value. Color

Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ of the mathematical techniques that were developed Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a during the Renaissance which can be used to create compelling element in art. Hue is simply the name the illusion of space. Such techniques create what of the color. There are three primary colors—red, is called linear perspective because this perspective blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines produced. Secondary colors are formed from the recede into the distance, they appear to converge mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. We orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red may, for example, notice this effect when viewing make violet. There are six tertiary colors, made by highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch combining a primary and an adjacent secondary into the distance. In employing linear perspective, color: red and violet make red-violet; violet and blue the artist establishes one or more vanishing points make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. green and yellow make yellow-green; yellow and Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make and extremely realistic depiction of interior and red-orange. The organization of these hues into a exterior scenes. Thus, in drawing a black and white visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance from the eighteenth century, though the underlying

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 39 concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow. seventeenth century. The color wheel is a useful tool Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space for predicting the results of mixing hues. in artworks. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede. By Two important variables affecting color are the employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists amount of light that is reflected and the purity of can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes the color. The term “value” is often used when move over the surface of the artwork. discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray. Values in an artwork may be primarily dark Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical. Local color or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark refers to the “true” color of an object or area as to light. The artist’s use of value contributes to the seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects expressive quality of the artwork. In mixing colors, of distance or reflections from other objects. For artists create a lighter hue by adding white to the instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field color. Adding white to red, for example, makes a would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, lighter red or pink. Artists create darker hues by appear bluish from a distance. Optical color refers adding black to the color. Adding black to red, for to the effect that special lighting has on the color of example, makes a dark red. A few words about objects. Consider how colors change in moonlight, black and white are necessary at this point. Black at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting. and white are not hues; they are called neutrals. Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for When mixing black and white, artists can create a their emotional or aesthetic impact. In the twentieth continuum of grays. and twenty-first centuries, artists have come to use arbitrary color schemes more and more often. Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are Texture generally considered to be the most intense colors. If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense. Texture refers to how things feel or how we think Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its they would feel if touched. From a young age we intensity. Adding a color to its complement lowers the explore the surfaces of things and store away these intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tactile experiences in our memory. When we see tone. Equal parts of two complements, such as red and new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone. experiences to determine the quality of the surface texture. In the context of art, we make reference Artists often use specific color schemes to to two kinds of texture: actual and visual. Some Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ produce particular visual or emotional effects. In artists use actual textures in their art. For example, the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the a ceramic artist may create an actual texture on the relativity of color; they determined that a given surface of a pot or plate. In collages, assemblages, shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, less intense, depending on what other (similar or shells, and other natural or manufactured materials contrasting) colors are placed next to it. Thus, colors to create actual textural effects. Artists who work do not have a fixed or immutable character or value. in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm wood, metal, or some other substance. colors and cool colors. These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute. In Artists who work in two-dimensional media create the context of Western art, warm colors include visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface—in red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such their artwork. For example, an artist may wish to because we associate them with the warmth of the simulate the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late vase, or an orange. Textures may be created by using summer day. Cool colors—green, blue, and violet— patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 40 An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on side of the centerfold, then you have an example a surface to create a texture that appears rough. of symmetrical balance. Many formal styles of Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke architecture make use of symmetry with columns, a smooth texture. Shiny surfaces appear to reflect wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull. In the central entrance. Artworks in which the central addition to using the aforementioned techniques axis is horizontal and equal visual weight is placed to create visual texture, painters can create actual above and below that axis also exhibit symmetrical texture with their brushstrokes. balance. To avoid the rigidity and monotony that may accompany a symmetrical composition, many Composition artists employ approximate symmetry. In this kind of balance, shapes or objects are slightly varied on Composition refers to the artist’s organization either side of the central axis. The artist may also of the elements of art, whether in two- or three- include variations in the color, detail, or position of dimensional works. When speaking of a painting, the shapes to achieve this effect. the composition refers to the arrangement of these elements on the picture plane. In the case of Asymmetrical balance is a visual balance that is architecture, composition is a word used to describe achieved through the organization of unlike objects. the organization of these elements in space. Even though asymmetrical balance may appear to be more informal than symmetrical balance, it is actually Rhythm is the principle that we associate with a more complex compositional task. There are several movement or pattern. Artists create a sense of ways that asymmetrical balance can be achieved. movement or rhythm in their artwork through the The first is by the position of objects. Think of two repetition of elements such as line, shape, color, and people of unequal weight on a seesaw. To maintain a texture. The rhythm of a composition can cause the balance, the lighter person must sit far out on the end viewer’s eye to move rhythmically across and around of the seesaw while the heavier person must sit close the composition. Some rhythms flow smoothly, to the fulcrum. Similarly, an artist may create balance while others are more jarring. The artist directs the by placing the heavier, more solid object close to the movement of our eye through the use of repeated center of the artwork while placing smaller objects elements. farther away from the center. Motif and pattern are two aspects of repetition. A Contrast of color, value, shape, size, line, or texture motif is a single element of a pattern. For example, creates interest to the eye. An element that contrasts in a quilt design, one or more motifs are repeated Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ with the rest of a composition will create a to create an overall pattern. A pattern involves the focal point where the eye tends to rest. This focal point appears repetition of certain elements—color or line—or more dominant, more important than other parts of motifs within a work of art. Many patterns feature the composition. In this way, the artist may guide the regular repetition. Shapes or motifs may be repeated viewer to an understanding of meaning. in a number of ways to create regular patterns. Some kind of grid system will underlie a regular pattern. Proportion refers to the size relationships among Checkerboards offer an example of a regular pattern. the parts of a composition. Our sense of proportion is based upon our human scale. Scale refers to the Balance refers to the equal distribution of visual dimensional relation of the parts of a work to the weight in a work of art. There are a number of work in its entirety, and can refer to the overall size techniques that artists use to create balance. The of an artwork. Size attracts our interest. The vast easiest to comprehend is symmetrical balance—a scale of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel creates balance achieved when elements of the composition a sense of awe. The detail of a tiny painting or of are repeated exactly on both sides of the central illuminations in medieval manuscripts intrigues us. axis. If you fold a paper in half vertically and one Artists consider the purpose and place of their art side of the centerfold is a mirror image of the other when determining the appropriate scale for the work.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 41 Scale also refers to the relative size of elements photography, and some mixed media. Artworks within the artwork. In a naturalistic work, we expect that have depth as well as height and width and that that the relative sizes of the objects depicted will exist in space are three dimensional. This category appear as they actually are in life. In some cases, includes sculpture, other works in mixed media, and artists intentionally make one person or object in environmental art. their composition larger to draw our attention to that person or object. DRAWING Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes. When representing the human face and figure Most of us have been drawing since we could hold realistically, artists strive to use accurate proportions. some tool and make marks on a surface. The most The standards for the relationship of the various parts common drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, of the human face and body were established nearly charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens. Artists can 2,500 years ago during the Classical Period of Greek choose from a variety of surfaces upon which to sculpture. The Greeks believed that the human figure draw. Early artists used walls of rock, and though was the measure of all things. As a consequence, some artists today continue to draw on walls, all structures were designed in proportions relative most use some kind of paper—from the white to human proportions, and specific rules were paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of established. For example, the ideal human figure was manufactured and handmade papers. Papers may be determined to be seven and one-half heads high. smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors. The features of the human face could be correctly Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white. placed according to these rules: the corners of the eyes fall on a line halfway between the chin and the Drawing is primarily based on the use of line. Lines top of the head, the bottom of the nose falls halfway created by drawing media can vary dramatically between the chin and the corners of the eyes, and in quality. Hard pencils will make thin, light lines the bottom of the lips falls halfway between the chin while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may and the bottom of the nose. However, many artists at vary considerably in value from lighter to very dark. different times have altered these proportions to reflect Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used changing ideals of beauty. At other times, artists have will show through in places where the strokes are exaggerated or distorted proportions for an expressive applied lightly. Each drawing tool or medium has effect. its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an To truly understand how artists manipulate the understanding of their similarities and differences. elements of art and the principles of composition, it is Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ necessary to examine a great many artworks and to With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in analyze how artists create meaning in their artwork pressure will cause a change in value. More pressure through skillful choices and the application of these creates darker values; lighter pressure creates artistic concepts. Students should keep in mind that lighter values. Shading can also be used to change many of the elements discussed in the principles values. Artists use the techniques of hatching and of composition section of this guide are more often crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion found in traditional works than in modern artworks. of three-dimensionality. Hatching consists of placing The rejection of notions such as unity and balance is lines closely side by side. Crosshatching is a process often the very essence of much modern art. in which lines are crisscrossed to create shading. Many drawing media can be blended to change their PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES value and enhance shading. Another technique for Two-dimensional art processes and techniques shading is stippling. With this technique, the artist are those that are created on a flat plane. They creates different values by making a pattern of dots. have height and width, but not significant depth. The distance between the dots determines how dark These include drawing, printmaking, painting, the shading will be—the more densely clustered the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 42 This engraving, titled Veronica, by Albrecht Dürer features hatching (e g. ,. background) and cross-hatching in many darker areas . dots, the darker the shading. cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the When an artist uses ink as a drawing medium, the risk of smearing. Colored pencils are more durable Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ ink can be thinned to create a wash of lighter value in than pastels, but like pastels, they may be layered to which the paper shows through to lighten the effect. create blended colors. Undiluted ink is opaque; it is not transparent, and it completely covers the underlying paper. But water can PRINTMAKING be added to make the ink translucent. Printmaking refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use production of multiple original artworks. The of pastels or colored pencils. The same techniques principal printmaking processes include relief prints, used with black media are used with colored media. intaglio prints, lithographs, and screen prints. All The artist using color must consider the effects of these processes use some sort of printing plate of color and line in an artwork. Colored pastels (a “matrix”) on which an image is created. Ink is became popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of applied to the plate, and the image is transferred to color can be readily blended to create delicate tints paper or another material. and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. The major drawback of pastels is that In relief printmaking, the artist cuts away parts from they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be the surface of the plate. The matrix may be made of

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 43 wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph. of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface. Once Screen prints are familiar to most of us since this is the plate has been cut, the remaining parts will stand the process used to print most T-shirts. In the silk- out in relief. The relief sections may range from thin screening process, a photograph or other image is lines to broad fields, and it is these areas, when they transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric are inked, that will produce the image. Wherever part that has been stretched onto a frame. The image of the plate is removed, the original color of the paper serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the being printed upon remains. Ink is rolled over the permeable fabric. When ink is forced through the surface of the plate with a brayer, and paper is placed fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked over the inked plate. The plate and paper are then put by the stenciling, the image is transferred to the into a press or rubbed with a burnisher to force the paper or fabric beneath. ink onto the paper. Because multiple originals can be made through Intaglio printmaking works in the opposite manner printmaking processes, the cost of an individual from relief printmaking. In the intaglio process, lines print is considerably less than that of a painting. are incised on the wood or soft metal plate. Line is Printmaking techniques have been used in the print an essential element in the intaglio process. Carving industry for illustrating newspapers and books since tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the the development of the printing press in the fifteenth plate in a process called engraving. Another intaglio century. process is etching. In this process, the design is PAINTING incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and to the surface of a metal plate. After the incising, techniques. Paint is usually composed of three the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats different materials: pigments, binders, and solvents. away, the exposed metal. Leaving the plate in the Pigments are finely ground materials that may be acid for a shorter time will make faint lines in the natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include clays, plate, while leaving the plate in for a longer time gemstones, and minerals, as well as plant and insect will make deeper grooves. After the plate is etched, materials that make color when powdered. These the remaining wax or varnish is removed, and ink powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate. holds the grains of pigment together and allows the Then, the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped paint to adhere to a surface. Egg yolks, linseed oil, off, and finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ and wax can all be used as binders. passed through a heavy press. The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to A solvent such as water or oil can be added to the paper. In an etching, the printing process causes change the consistency of the paint or alter its the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of drying time. As with drawing, painters can apply the the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print. media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, and plaster walls. Paint can be applied to a is a process in which the image is drawn Lithography surface with many different tools. We usually think with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate, of paintbrushes as the tools used to apply paint, but which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum. The fingers, sticks, palette knives, and anything else that greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated an artist imagines will make the desired kind of with water. Then, ink is applied. The ink adheres only applicator may be used. to the greasy image since oil resists water. The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved One specialized technique of painting that has a long through a press. Lithography can be a complex and history is the fresco. The fresco technique is usually demanding process, but in contrast to woodcut and used to paint on walls or ceilings. In creating a fresco, engraving, it does not require special professional the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 44 and applies them to a wet plaster ground. The paint is markers have survived through the ages indicates the permanently bound in the plaster, so the artist must durability of the encaustic medium. Some painters plan carefully because he or she will not be able to today have returned to this ancient, traditional make changes after the fact. This kind of fresco is process. termed buon fresco (“true” fresco). If an artist uses the technique called fresco secco, he or she will Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is apply paints to dry rather than wet plaster. Frescoes similar to school-quality tempera, but of higher have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and in many quality. Gouache has more body and dries more medieval and Renaissance churches. Diego Rivera, slowly than watercolor. It is a good medium for the famous Mexican muralist of the early twentieth creating bright colors and meticulous details and is century, used this technique for his murals in Mexico often used for design and fine artwork. and the United States. The most common water-based paint is watercolor. When we think of painting, oil painting usually Watercolors are transparent, a quality that dictates comes to mind first. Oil paints were not widely used the manner in which they are used. The white of the until the 1400s, and prior to that time, tempera was paper upon which the artist paints is a major factor in the most commonly used paint. Tempera is a water- watercolor. White paint is rarely used in watercolors. based paint. Many of us remember using tempera Instead, to make tints, the artist adds more water to paint in elementary school. Traditional tempera the paint. The lightest colors are applied first, and paint, which uses egg as a binder, has been used by then the darker colors, working from background fine artists throughout history.Tempera painting to foreground, from broad areas to areas of detail. requires great skill, and there are limitations to this Watercolor is not forgiving of mistakes, so watercolor medium. Tempera colors dry quickly, and so they artists must plan carefully and practice diligently. cannot be blended once they are applied to a surface. A recent development in paint is acrylic paint. Tempera also has a narrow tonal range—colors Made from synthetic materials, plastics, and are either light or dark—and it cannot achieve the polymers, acrylics were developed after World War close imitation of natural effects that oil paints can. II. Acrylics are very versatile. They do not require Nonetheless, the positive qualities of tempera are the slow, careful building up of successive layers evidenced by the many ancient tempera paintings with long drying periods in between as do oils. that still retain their clear and brilliant colors. Acrylics are, however, unable to achieve some of Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera the subtleties of which oil paints are capable. For paints. Oil paints can be easily mixed, and they may artists who have developed allergies to oil paint and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ be thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes— turpentine, acrylics offer a valuable alternative. thin transparent or semi-transparent layers that PHOTOGRAPHY are applied over another color to alter it slightly. Photography was developed during the mid- The translucency of glazes permits, for instance, a nineteenth century, and it soon became a very crimson layer underneath to shine through a yellow popular way to document likenesses of people and layer on top and can thus create brilliant, luminous scenes. The development of photography had a effects that are impossible to achieve with tempera. decided impact on other genres of art. As the use Oils can be applied thickly or in heavy lumps to of photography grew, painters at first felt pressured make an surface. Since oils dry slowly, it is impasto to compete with the camera by achieving a higher possible for an artist to work on an oil painting over degree of realism. Ultimately, however, artists felt a long period of time—days or even weeks. less of a need to confine themselves to naturalistic In ancient Egypt, grave markers were painted with styles of painting and were encouraged to explore wax-based paints called encaustic. With encaustic, various forms of art that were entirely beyond the colored molten wax is fused with the surface via reach of photography. Although not originally the application of hot irons. The fact that Egyptian considered an art form, photography has gradually

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 45 Modeling is an additive process. A soft, workable material like clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mâché is formed by hand. Amounts of these materials can be added to the surface, and the surface can be shaped and decorated by hand or with simple tools. Sometimes an unfired clay or wax sculpture can become the basis for a cast form. In this process, the original form is encased in plaster. When the plaster hardens, it is removed from the original form and retained for use as a mold. The mold can then be filled and thus used to create one or more casts of the original object. Sculptures may be cast in plaster, metal, and more recently, synthetic materials like plastic or polyester resins. Some sculpture is constructed using a variety of Michelangelo’s Pieta is a freestanding sculpture . methods. Metal sculpture can be welded from sheet metal or bent from wire. Some artists use assumed a legitimacy within the art world that paper, board, or wood that is cut and glued, nailed, has only grown in the twentieth and twenty-first or joined together by some other means and then centuries. The medium of photography is in constant possibly painted. Sometimes found objects are flux as new technology becomes available. In combined to create a new sculpture. addition to still photography, film and video art are also used as art forms. Some sculptures can move or can have moving parts. For example, Alexander Calder (1898–1976) created SCULPTURE mobiles with forms suspended by wire which can Sculpture is created in four basic ways: carving, be moved by wind or air currents. Other artists have modeling, casting, and construction. We usually used a wide variety of motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, think of sculpture as being freestanding, like the or other mechanical means to introduce movement to Venus de Milo or Michelangelo’s Pieta, but some their sculptures. sculptures are attached to surfaces such as doors, sarcophagi, altars, or church walls. Such reliefs may Environmental art, also called Earthworks or Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ be carved into the stone or wood of the structure Land art, is a newer category of art form that itself, or they may be cast of metal and fixed to first emerged in the 1960s, and many works that the surface of the structure. High-relief sculpture fit in this category could be classified as sculpture. projects significantly from the carrier surface, while Environmental art is usually large in scale, is low-relief sculpture projects only slightly. Reliefs constructed on-site, and is usually not permanent. can only be seen from a limited range, whereas a Environmental art occupies space that may be freestanding sculpture can be seen from every angle. outside in the natural world or inside a gallery or museum. In either case, the artwork redefines Carving is a subtractive process in which some of the the space in which it is installed. Sometimes, original material is removed. For example, a stone or performance may be coupled with the actual wood sculpture can be made by chiseling and gouging installation, and often the viewer is, to some degree, away with chisels, hammers, and files to bring the drawn into and involved with the artwork. Often, an artist’s imagined form into physical existence. The essential part of the work of environmental artists scale of carved sculptures can range considerably, is the process of collaborating with the community from miniature figures that rest on the tip of a finger and governmental agencies to gain approval for to monumental forms carved of living rock. their proposed works. Environmental art is often

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 46 designed to be impermanent or to change over time. continue to explore new ideas, new materials, and Photographs provide us with a more long-lasting new processes to express their unique perspectives documentation of these projects that are often and ideas. Such creative works continually challenge designed to be fleeting in nature. us to reconsider our own conceptions and definitions of the term “art.” MIXED MEDIA Mixed media is the name given to a category of CRAFT AND FOLK ART artworks in which the artist uses several art media, Craft, folk art, and popular art are all debated terms sometimes in conjunction with found materials applied to a variety of art forms across cultures. In such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper, or many cases, these terms are used to discuss art forms children’s toys. Mixed media works can be either that are largely utilitarian. Through time and across two- or three-dimensional. Collage is a kind of mixed cultures, people have often sought to make the objects media in which artists combine various materials they use more distinctive or beautiful. Consequently, such as photographs, unusual papers, theater tickets, pottery, jewelry, fibers, and glass and wooden objects and virtually any other materials that can be adhered have come to be recognized as art forms even though to a surface. Artists will select materials for their they may have a utilitarian purpose. A discussion texture, color, or other aesthetic properties or for their of craft or folk art raises many questions about the symbolic meaning. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque nature of art and the aesthetic pursuit. are credited with introducing this medium to the high- art sphere around 1912. Pottery is a medium based upon the use of natural materials. Clay, dug from the ground, is the essential The artist Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) is well material. Many types of pots can be built using known for his mixed media pieces that combine hands and simple tools. A basic pot can be formed silkscreen images with paint. Some artists create from a ball of clay by punching the thumb into the assemblages using all found objects, both two- and center of the ball and pinching the clay between the three-dimensional, in their compositions. Joseph thumb and fingers. Clay can also be rolled out into Cornell (1903–72) was a twentieth-century artist coils with the palm of the hand, and these coils can who filled open boxes with a variety of objects that then be stacked up to form a clay vessel. Depending visually created symbolic and metaphoric statements. on the diameter of the coils, pots built in this way can be of enormous size or made on a tiny, dainty Among traditional and nonwestern cultural groups, scale. Slab-built pots are made by rolling out clay masks, ceremonial costumes, and other objects often and cutting carefully measured pieces, which are Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ employ mixed media. Masks may be carved of wood then assembled by applying liquid clay, called slip, and embellished with grasses, beads, and paint. to the edges that are to be joined. PERFORMANCE The potter’s wheel was used in many ancient cultures Performance art is art in which the artist engages in and continues to be used by artists today. Using the some kind of performance, sometimes involving the potter’s wheel, the potter forms the basic shapes of the viewers. Like environmental art, performance art pot by manipulating the ball of clay as it turns on the lacks the permanence of more traditional genres of wheel. When a potter uses a potter’s wheel to create art. Videos or photographs of the performance may pots, these pots are described as being “thrown.” be the only remaining documentation of the event. In Throwing allows for particularly thin-walled pots in a our world of canned, sterile, and constantly repeated wide variety of shapes. Many potters combine hand- media spectacles, performance art offers a means for built and thrown forms to create beautiful objects that recovering unique, unrepeatable human experiences. may or may not be functional. Since performances cannot be sold as objects, this art form has also been viewed by many as an escape Once the clay form has air-dried, the kiln, a from the increasing commercialization of art. True specialized oven, is loaded and fired. In the kiln, to the inventiveness of the artistic spirit, artists all remaining moisture is driven out of the clay, and

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 47 a chemical change takes place. The pots harden and geographic area have designed shelters that permanently. Then, glazes made of clay and minerals meet their needs for protection. As people have that provide color may be applied to the surface imagined structures for a variety of communal and of the pots, and the pots are fired once again. The personal uses, they have developed various methods glazes melt, forming a glassy, waterproof surface of construction to realize their ideas. Specialists on the pots that is both decorative and useful. The in designing structures have become known as surface of a ceramic piece can also be decorated architects. with applied clay designs or with decorations incised or carved into the surface of the piece. In early times, materials that could be found locally were used for building. Sticks, mud, grass, animal Fiber arts include both woven and nonwoven skins, ice, and wood were used in different climatic materials. Weaving has a long history in the areas. Later, brick and stone were also used. An production of materials for clothing and other important architectural development was the use of household needs. Some weaving techniques use a the post-and-lintel construction technique in which loom while others rely on simple braiding, knitting, or a long stone or wooden beam is placed horizontally crocheting. Quilting is another important craft form across upright posts. The famous Greek Parthenon that is practiced by popular as well as fine artists. is an example of post-and-lintel construction. This method is still commonly used today, with steel and Archaeological evidence indicates that glass was wood being the favored materials. first made in the Middle East in the third millennium bce. Glass is most often made of silica, which Other key developments in architecture include is derived from sand, flint, or quartz, combined the arch, the vault, and the dome. Each of these is with other raw materials. The introduction of a variation of the same concept that allowed for additional minerals adds color. The development of greater height and more interior open space inside glassblowing enabled the formation of glass vessels a building. The Romans were great engineers, and such as vases, drinking glasses, and perfume bottles. the Colosseum in Rome provides a fine example Stained glass became a dominant art form in the of vaulted construction. The Romans developed medieval period and was used to create the dramatic concrete as a building material, which they used in windows of cathedrals. By the end of the nineteenth building aqueducts, great baths, and other public century, stained glass had also become popular for works projects. lampshades and windows in residential homes. In the medieval period, a skeletal building style

Wood has been used to make functional objects such developed that alternated between strong buttresses Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ as furniture, boxes, boats, and homes. Northwest and thin walls with stained-glass windows, which Coast Indians carve boxes and house boards with admitted more light and color into the building. traditional designs. People all over the world Many medieval cathedrals provide classic examples have made wooden boats in varying practical and of this method. The addition of flying buttresses— aesthetic forms. Today, artists make all kinds of external arches that counterbalanced the outward objects from wood. Such objects may be functional, thrust of the high, vaulted ceilings—allowed for but first and foremost, they aim to be aesthetically even more height and window openings. pleasing. Functional objects like tables and chairs assume the status of art when the design is unique, During the Industrial Revolution, many new the craftsmanship superb, and the visual effect materials and processes for building were developed. beautiful. Sometimes these objects may no longer be In 1851 the Crystal Palace, so named because it functional, but become art for art’s sake. consisted mainly of glass walls that were held in place by a framework of slim, iron rods, was built for ARCHITECTURE the world’s fair in London. The Eiffel Tower in Paris, Architecture is the art and science of designing an amazing and beautiful monument, is primarily a and constructing buildings. People in every culture framework of wrought iron.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 48 Flying buttresses at Bath Abbey, Bath, England .

Antonio Gaudi (1852–1926) created ingenious SECTION I SUMMARY buildings of cut stone in Spain in the late 1800s ■■ Art history is an academic discipline that and early 1900s. Without any flat surfaces or seeks to reconstruct the social, cultural, straight lines, Gaudi’s buildings are very organic in and economic contexts in which an artwork appearance. While we usually think of buildings as was created. The basic goal of this work is Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ being more modular, having a regular and geometric to arrive at an understanding of art and its shape, many architects have challenged this notion meaning in its original historical context. and have searched for aesthetically interesting Art historians rely on a variety of documents designs and new materials to move beyond the and sources in order to conduct formal and idea of a building as merely being a box-shaped contextual analyses. construction. ■■ The history of Western art is often studied Steel and concrete have become the favored chronologically. This study begins with early materials for large public, commercial, and multi- cave paintings in southeastern France and family housing while wood and brick continue to takes us to contemporary art all over the be commonly used for residential homes. While world. many buildings are designed by builders using more ■■ Early civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. standardized plans, leading architects continue to Other ancient Western cultures important explore new and exciting designs and materials. for their art traditions include Egypt and Nubia, and the civilizations of the Aegean Islands, Greece, and Rome. The artworks that

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 49 have survived from ancient civilizations are States became a new center of progressive those made of durable materials. Often these artistic activity. artworks were preserved in places that were ■■ Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism relatively inaccessible. responded to a post-WWII industrial culture. ■■ Tremendous shifts occurred in the art of Installations, performance, and Environmental the medieval period with the emergence art (also known as Land art or Earthworks) all of Christianity as a major religion and the sought to challenge conventional ideas of art Church as a powerful patron of the arts. and its limitations. ■■ The Church remained an important patron ■■ In the past, areas of nonwestern art were not of art during the Renaissance and Baroque incorporated in the chronological study of periods; at the same time, there was also a rise Western art; distinct regions of the world have in secular artworks during these periods, in often been studied separately. Today, though, light of the Protestant Reformation and general many art historians are challenging this based societal and economic shifts throughout on the realization that art throughout the Europe. world is interconnected, especially in terms of ■■ Major innovations of the Renaissance include contemporary art. Art historians sometimes the use of linear perspective and a move rely on different methods to understand toward greater naturalism. Baroque art is nonwestern art. generally distinct from Renaissance art ■■ China, India, and Japan are among the major because of its greater sense of movement and cultures of Asia. All three countries have drama. ancient traditions and have produced art ■■ The Rococo style of art was closely tied to that relates to political power and religious the power of the French aristocracy prior practice. to the Revolution of 1789. The Neoclassical ■■ Ancient traditions can also be found in Africa. movement may in part be seen as a reaction Often the arts of Africa and Oceania were to the Rococo and a response to the political created for very different functions from art in and social revolution. Romanticism, in turn, the Western traditions; consequently, there are was a reaction to the classicizing tendencies tremendous formal differences as well. of Neoclassical art. Romanticism sought to ■■ Islam is a major world religion that has appeal to the emotions and the senses.

produced much art. Most Islamic art is non- Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ ■■ Realism and Impressionism both emerged in figurative. the second half of the nineteenth century. Both ■■ Ancient civilizations existed in the Americas movements were focused on everyday life as well. Archaeology is often used to learn as a subject matter, although Impressionism about these civilizations and their art. became increasingly concerned with ideas of  visual perception. ■■ In addition to understanding context, art historians seek to describe the formal qualities ■■ Other late nineteenth-century developments of artworks. Important terms used to discuss included Post-Impressionism and the Pre- the formal qualities of an artwork include: Raphaelites. line, shape and form, perspective, color, ■■ Modernism emerged in the early twentieth texture, and composition. century. Important modernist movements ■■ Artists throughout time have worked in include Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, a variety of media, including drawing, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism. printmaking, painting, photography, sculpture, ■■ The Armory Show in New York (1913) mixed media, performance, craft and folk art, marked a shift in the art world, as the United and architecture.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 50 Section II Art and the Plague

REPRESENTING THE BUBONIC PLAGUE IN EARLY MODERN EUROPE In art history, the era spanning from approximately the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries in Europe is typically classified as the Renaissance, an artistic period associated with the re-birth of classical ideas and the rise of Humanism. The era was accompanied by a greater interest in naturalism and the development of linear perspective. Economic prosperity and the rise of global trade helped foster the arts and spread aesthetic philosophies. But the Renaissance was also a tumultuous time for Europe, Nicolas Poussin, The Plague at Ashdod, 1630, Louvre, characterized by repeated outbreaks of pestilence, Paris . dating back to 1347 when the Black Death (likely the Bubonic Plague) was brought to Sicily on a Genoese with them to combat the contaminated air and avoid ship. illness. Wealthy Florentine citizens tucked sachets of fragrance into their clothing or tied perfume bottles The Plague’s spread was rapid and devastating. to their belts.4 Nicolas Poussin’s 1631 painting The By 1351, when the first wave of the disease began Plague at Ashdod shows a man holding his nose as to subside, anywhere from twenty-five to sixty

he crosses a street laden with the bodies of plague Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ percent of the population of Europe had perished, victims. Such efforts were fruitless in the face of the with thirty-three percent being the most common epidemic. In fact, it was rats carrying infected fleas 1 estimate. Scholarly accounts vary, but contemporary that spread the disease through trading vessels. The estimates suggest anywhere from 75 to 200 million fleas would jump from rats to human carriers. people died in Europe and Asia.2 Cities in particular, where people lived in close proximity and lacked It is thought that the outbreak began in Central modern sanitation protocols, became the focal points Asia and was brought westward through the trade of the pandemic.3 Outbreaks of plague continued to routes of the Silk Road. Because the initial impact recur into the early eighteenth century, and it took was so destructive and subsequent outbreaks were two centuries for the world population to recover to a regular occurrence for much of the Renaissance, its pre-1347 level. Europeans were constantly either coping with the affliction, recovering from it, or anticipating its During this period, little was known about how return. It should come as no surprise that the Black disease was spread. One popularly held belief was Death informed the cultural production of the time, that bad air or bad smells were to blame. This is now whether as a means of coming to terms with death or known as the miasma theory. Medical advice at the as an apotropaic symbol to ward off infection. time instructed people to carry pleasant fragrances

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 51 Death induced by plague was horrible. Most victims the deadliest wave of the plague when the deaths died within two to seven days of the appearance of of many prominent Florentine families left a power their initial symptoms. The illness typically began vacuum that the wealthy banking family was able to with fever and flu-like symptoms. Victims suffered fill. The Medicis would become the most powerful as swollen glands, pustules, abscesses, and boils art patrons of the era. Art commissions also rose erupted over their bodies. Some vomited blood or in the aftermath of the Black Death, as survivors developed rashes or black spots on the skin. The sought to either commemorate loved ones or buy Florentine author Boccaccio was an important protection from illness by commissioning artworks primary source for describing the outbreak as for their local churches. he witnessed it. In his book The Decameron, he imagines ten young people telling tales to one While representations of people in the midst of another as they attempt to escape the plague by suffering from the plague are relatively rare (and sheltering in a villa outside Florence. He wrote: some medieval illustrations once identified as plague victims are now thought to be suffering from Whether through the operation of the leprosy), paintings, prints, and murals that document heavenly bodies or because of our own the Black Death’s devastation by depicting the iniquities, which the just wrath of God dead are widespread. As early as 1348, there was a sought to correct, the plague had arisen published account of the plague’s impact in Tournai in the east some years before, causing the by Gilles li Muisis, which was accompanied by a death of countless human beings 5. painted miniature showing a crowd carrying coffins of all sizes for burial. Some saw the plague as a sort Some scholars suggest that the decimation of of divine punishment for humankind’s sins, and the Europe’s population led to greater social fluidity. Catholic Church (and Church-commissioned art) One notable example of this was the Medici family, placed an emphasis on repentance in anticipation of who moved from rural Tuscany to Florence after God’s final judgement.

SELECTED WORK: PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER, THE TRIUMPH OF DEATH, c.1562

PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER: BIOGRAPHY Pieter Bruegel the Elder was the best-known member of a prominent family of painters in the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Netherlands. Born around 1525, the artist died just seven years after he painted The Triumph of Death. He was likely born in Breda but later settled in Antwerp, a commercially vibrant city and center for publishing in what was then known as the Netherlands or Flanders but is now Belgium. At some point between 1551 and 1552, he became a master in the painters’ Guild of Saint Luke and shortly thereafter began travelling in Italy. By 1553 the artist reached Rome, where he studied with the miniaturist Giulio Clovio. He also visited Naples and spent time in the Alps before returning to Antwerp in 1554. The following year he began a business arrangement with the artist and publisher Hieronymous Cock, with Bruegel providing Cock with designs for prints.6 Bruegel remained in Antwerp, participating in the Humanist social scene there until 1563, at which point he married Mayken Coecke and moved to Brussels, where he lived until his death in 1569. His descendants, Pieter Brueghel the Younger and Jan Brueghel the Elder, were artists as well. While his sons used “Brueghel” as a surname, Bruegel dropped the “h” from his name in 1559 (possibly in an attempt to Latinize it, given his interest in Italy and Humanism) and signed all subsequent work as “Bruegel.” Bruegel acquired the nickname “peasant Bruegel” because so many of his works

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 52 focused on the lives of the common people of Flanders, a theme that was quite rare at the time. While he did some religious painting as well, Bruegel’s best-known works feature peasants and village life set within naturalistic landscapes. His work is distinguished by his eye for detail, attention to local settings, and thoughtfully composed arrangements of form. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Bruegel’s paintings often incorporate high horizon lines, as in The Harvesters, a large- scale painting that was part of a commissioned series depicting the changing seasons. In his presentation of a group of laborers taking a break from reaping the late summer harvest, he brings humanity to the individual workers while also giving attention to the rolling Netherlandish countryside. In contrast, The Triumph of Death employs a much darker tone. Here the same compositional technique of using a high horizon line enables the artist to Bruegel’s work The Painter and the Buyer (1565) is thought to be a self-portrait of the artist . produce a panoramic view of an apocalyptic deathscape. His painting emphasizes the indiscriminate nature of mortality. Death, whether as a result of illness, famine, or war, was ever present in this era. Most commissioned artworks in Bruegel’s time were religious in nature. Themes that encouraged viewers to repent because death was coming for all were extremely popular. In The Triumph of Death, morbid and nightmarish smoke and burning fires can be seen in the reddish-

ochre background while two shipwrecks are Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ visible in the distant sea. The foreground is littered with bodies, as a skeleton army indiscriminately attacks people from all stations of life—pilgrims and peasants, a king and a cardinal, noblemen and ladies—no one is immune. At center, a grim reaper skeleton wielding a scythe and riding a starved horse with visible ribs seems intent on plowing through the crowd; a slower-moving wagon, driven by a pale sickly horse, seems to be bringing up the rearguard and collecting the skulls of the deceased. This is reminiscent of the death carts that collected bodies in plague- Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Harvesters, 1565, stricken communities. Church bells were rung Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York . as a warning when someone died of the plague,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 53 and in this painting two skeletons can be seen ringing a bell above the ruins of a church or catacomb, while another pair buries a coffin nearby. The painting includes several symbols denoting the transience of life. The skeleton supporting the king’s body holds an hourglass in his hand while the woman in red lying in the path of the death wagon has a spindle. Both are traditional emblems of life’s passage. Games of chance— cards and backgammon—lie knocked down to the ground. A young couple is about to be interrupted by yet another skeleton, as if to suggest that even love cannot win over death. Material objects, including the king’s gold Triumph of Death, c 1446,. fresco, Palazzo Abatellis, and the pilgrim’s religious relics, are scattered Palermo . about on the ground. Neither wealth nor religion has any purchase here.7 Bruegel’s painting is part of a tradition of death-oriented subjects produced in the wake of the Black Death. The most direct antecedents for the painting were Triumph of Death frescoes produced in southern Italy, which also feature death riding a skinny horse and attacking people of all social classes. In the 1446 fresco from the Palazzo Abatellis in Palermo (which Bruegel likely saw during his trip to Italy), death shoots arrows at its victims, which can be understood as a metaphor for the random and brutal nature of the Black Death. One can also see the influence of Heironymous Bosch, who died ten years before Bruegel was born, and whose work Bruegel copied and engraved in the early part of his career when he worked for the printer Heironymous Cock. Like Bosch, who was known for his eccentric, crowded compositions of tiny figures, Bruegel fills his canvas with so many figures that the eye does not know where to rest. The piles of dead are reminiscent of Boccacio’s descriptions of the overwhelming abundance of plague victims in Florence. He recounted how that city’s citizens “dug for each graveyard a huge trench, in which they laid the corpses as they arrived by Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ hundreds at a time, piling them up tier upon tier as merchandise is stowed on a ship.”8 Such imagery finds its visual analogy in Bruegel’s nightmarish painting. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS The religious and social context for this work is integral to understanding its concerns. Bruegel’s career took place in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation, and the post-Reformation sensibility informs his depiction of human suffering. As mentioned, one can see references to Italian Triumph of Death frescoes in his work, but the image also partakes of the Northern European dance of death, or Danse Macabre, tradition. The visual representation of the Danse Macabre dates back to a now- lost French mural from the Holy Innocents Cemetery in Paris, painted in 1424, that depicted figures from all walks of life, from pauper to prince, parading their way to the grave. The movements of the skeletons’ dance may have been symbolic of the involuntary movements of plague sufferers as cell necrosis advanced prior to death.9 Throughout the fifteenth century, the motif was a popular subject for church and cemetery murals. Hans Holbein the Younger revived the late medieval allegory in a series of engravings called Dance of Death published in 1526. The popularity of this subject speaks to

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 54 concerns brought about by the persistent threat of sudden and painful death due to the plague. Bruegel’s interpretation of this theme is much more contentious than typical Danse Macabre scenes in which the dead accept their mortality. Bruegel represents a scene of struggle and resistance rather than passive acceptance of the inevitability of death. Art historian Peter Thon describes this as “almost a war of extermination waged by the dead against the living.”10 Thon sees this as a reference to the political situation in the Netherlands and the rising tensions between the Protestant Netherlands and the Catholic Spanish rule under the Hapsburgs. These tensions would lead to the Eighty Years War that began a few years after Bruegel’s The Triumph of Death is thought to have been painted. However, it is also possible to see the war waged by the dead against the living in terms of the spread of the plague, in which caring for one’s dying relatives could lead to one’s own demise. Scholars generally interpret the surge in this type of death iconography as a manifestation of the trauma that people suffered Hans Holbein the Younger, The Old Woman, Dance of during and in the aftermath of the cyclical Death, 1538 . plague epidemics.11

SELECTED WORK: JOSSE LIEFERINXE, ST. SEBASTIAN Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ INTERCEDING FOR THE PLAGUE STRICKEN, 1497–99 JOSSE LIEFERINXE: BIOGRAPHY Lieferinxe was a South Netherlandish painter who was also active in France. His date and place of birth are unknown. Given his surname, it is possible that he was born in Lieferinge (in present-day Belgium) though he was known to have lived in Hainaut, in the diocese of Cambrai, which was then under the rule of the Duke of Burgundy. He was living in Provence by 1493 and was considered a member of the Provencal school of painters. In 1503, he married Michelle Changenet, who was the daughter of Jean Changenet of Avignon, a prominent French painter of that period. It is possible Lieferinxe studied with or refined his style under Changenet. He died in 1508, five years after his marriage. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS The subject of this painting is St. Sebastian, a Christian martyr who lived during the Roman Empire. According to Catholic belief, he was an officer in the Roman military who rose to become commander of the Praetorian Guards. As a member of the Roman military, he worked to help imprisoned Christian martyrs until his own Christian faith was discovered by the Emperor Diocletian, around 288 ce.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 55 Sebastian was tied to a post or a tree and shot with arrows by his own soldiers. According to legend, he managed to survive this incident because he was rescued and healed by Irene of Rome. (Irene was the widow of another early Christian martyr, and she became a saint due to her care for Sebastian and her devotion to Christianity in the face of persecution.) Sebastian tried to appeal directly to Diocletian, asking him to convert to Christianity and repent for his sins, and was subsequently clubbed to death and thrown into the Cloaca Maxima, an open canal that was Rome’s early sewer system. Supposedly Sebastian then appeared to Saint Lucia in a dream; he told her where to find his corpse so that he could receive a proper burial. He was subsequently buried in a catacomb on the Appian Way, not far from the basilica that bears his name. As a result of an anecdote that appeared in the Golden Legend—a medieval collection of biographies of saints—Saint Sebastian was prayed to for protection against the plague.12 This source described a great plague that afflicted the Lombards in the seventh century. Apparently, a villager had a vision that the town should honor Saint Sebastian. In compliance with this vision, the townspeople erected an altar in honor of Sebastian in the Church of

Saint Peter in Pavia, Italy, and as a result the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ outbreak ended. Thereafter, Saint Sebastian was known as a protector from plague. Andrea Mantegna, St. Sebastian, c . 1480, Musée du The painting seen in your Art Reproductions Louvre, Paris . Booklet is one panel of a multi-panel altarpiece depicting different scenes from the life of Saint Sebastian. Many Renaissance altarpieces have been taken apart and removed from their original locations in churches, and their individual panels can now be found in museums all over the world, including this panel from the Walters Gallery in Baltimore. The altarpiece panel shows Saint Sebastian in the heavens pleading with God on behalf of the victims of the plague outbreak in seventh-century Pavia, even though the event took place centuries after the saint’s death. St. Sebastian’s iconography makes him easily identifiable in artworks; he is nearly always shown riddled with arrows to commemorate his initial victory over death and the sacrifices he made for his beliefs. During the Renaissance, St. Sebastian was commonly shown wearing only a loincloth, emphasizing his healthy, muscular body. He remains undefeated despite the arrows that puncture his skin as exemplified in Andrea Mantegna’s St. Sebastian of 1480. At a time when people were frightened about their own health

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 56 and the possibility of illness, Sebastian’s healthy body was a symbol of hope. Depictions of Saint Sebastian became popular during the Renaissance for largely two reasons: first, he was, as seen in this painting, a popular subject because of fears concerning the Black Death. He was known as a plague saint, someone who could intercede on your behalf, and thus patrons who were concerned about the pandemic commissioned artworks featuring him. A second reason for his popularity was that while discoveries of Greek and Roman sculpture led artists to embrace the classical nude as represented in Fresco in the former Abbey of Saint-André-de- the sculptures of Apollo and Venus that they Lavaudieu, France, fourteenth century . studied, religious commissions rarely allowed them to paint such subjects. Saint Sebastian, who was stripped down to a loincloth before he was shot with arrows, was a notable exception. Featuring this saint as their subject matter allowed artists to showcase their naturalism and skill in painting the human figure. In Lieferinxe’s painting, St. Sebastian is shown kneeling before God and pleading for the plague- ridden town while an angel and a demon face-off in the sky. The foreground shows a grave attendant being suddenly struck with illness while priests pray over the body of a plague victim. If you look closely at the fallen man, you can see a red bump on his neck. These swollen glands, called buboes, were a primary symptom of the bubonic plague. In the middle ground, two additional bodies can be seen awaiting their funerary rites. Mourners are presented on the left; one gestures toward the fallen man while a woman raises her arms in an expression of distress. The repetition of bodies, wrapped in white cloth and growing smaller as they recede into the distance (demonstrating the artist’s awareness of the principles of spatial recession), leads the eye to the death cart in the background, which is laden with still more bodies. It is being pulled through the city streets Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ by a pale horse. The clothing of the clergy and mourners does not reflect the seventh century, the period of plague that was being commemorated. Instead they wear contemporary dress, implying that the problems of the past are still present. Indeed, the reason this painting was commissioned for a church in Marseille was due to fears that a recent outbreak of plague nearby would spread to the city. The association of the plague with images of bodies riddled with arrows pre-dates this painting of Saint Sebastian. A fourteenth-century fresco in a French abbey depicted the plague as being personified by a faceless woman with a black hood, clutching arrows in each hand. She is flanked on either side by her victims, people felled by arrows. Many are pierced in the neck and armpits, representing the places where plague sufferers were often afflicted with pustules and buboes (swollen glands). The idea that epidemics were unleashed on the earth by a spray of arrows dates back to The Iliad, which features an incident where Apollo, angered by Agamemnon’s disrespect, unleashes plague-bearing arrows upon the Greeks for nine days.13 Saint Sebastian, who survived an arrow attack, thus becomes a fitting patron saint for the plague-stricken.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 57 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Lieferinxe never travelled in Italy, and so he based the appearance of Pavia on the French city of Avignon. This is why the architectural setting does not resemble a Roman city, but instead appears to be French Gothic in style. This feature, combined with the contemporary dress of the villagers, aligns the historic incident referenced in the panel with contemporaneous fears about the return of the plague. In 1497 the Confraternity of St. Sebastian commissioned Lieferinxe to paint an altarpiece dedicated to their patron saint in the church of Notre-Dame-des-Accoules in Marseille, France. The commission was the artist’s most prominent work. Before Lieferinxe was identified as the creator of this painting, it was said to be by the “Master of Saint Sebastian.” The church no longer stands, but the remaining panels from this altarpiece are now in the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Museo di Palazo Venezia in Rome, and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. The altarpiece showed scenes depicting the miracles of Saint Sebastian and Saint Roch (also known as Saint Rocco)—both of these saints were traditionally invoked as protectors against the plague.

THE AIDS CRISIS AND CONTEMPORARY ART AIDS first entered into broad public consciousness through a New York Times article dated July 3, 1981, which noted that a rare form of cancer, Kaposi’s sarcoma, had been identified in forty-one homosexual men, leading the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) to study the outbreak.14 The disease was mistakenly described as a “gay cancer” when it was first discovered. It was a year before scientists named the disease that was causing the Kaposi’s sarcoma as Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). It took three years from that first report before it was discovered that AIDS was itself caused by the virus known as HIV (human Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ immunodeficiency virus). By the year 2000, the CDC reported that nearly half a million people had died of AIDS, with the numbers escalating in the 1980s and peaking in the early 1990s.15 In 1995, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first protease inhibitor, marking a new era in treating what was once thought to be a deadly disease.16 With the development of highly effective antiretroviral drug therapies, patients can now live for decades without the disease progressing from Silence=Death Project, AIDS activism poster, 1986 . HIV into AIDS. Provided that one has access to Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York Public Library these drug therapies, what was once a fatal disease is now chronic and treatable (though not curable).

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 58 While the illness is manageable today, in the New York in the manner of street art, which had decade following its initial detection AIDS was risen to prominence in Manhattan in the 1980s. The considered fatal, and the circumstances surrounding pink triangle was a reference to World War II. Under its transmission were mysterious. As with the Black the Nazi regime, all homosexuals were required to Death, there was misinformation about how the wear a pink triangle sewn onto their clothing to mark illness passed from person to person, and those them, just as Jews were forced to identify themselves suffering from the disease often had their suffering with a yellow Star of David. compounded by prejudice and fear. In time, researchers learned that the virus could be transmitted By equating the Nazi campaign to exterminate from transfusions, shared drug needles, and sexual homosexuals with the lack of attention given to contact. The gay community was among the first and the AIDS crisis (leading to the deaths of tens of the hardest hit by the pandemic, and members of the thousands of gay men), the Silence=Death Project community found that when they sought help, they articulated the stakes in a direct and unflinching were often met with moral judgment. manner and took ownership of a symbol that had previously been used to propagate hate. They The AIDS crisis became especially visible in urban even created a neon version of the sign, which centers like New York and San Francisco, where was displayed in the storefront window of the artists, actors, musicians, and designers found their New Museum in New York. Several members of communities being decimated by the deadly disease. the group went on to participate in Gran Fury, yet Within the visual arts, Keith Haring, Felix Gonzalez- another arts collective that splintered off from the Torres, Robert Mapplethorpe, David Wojnarowicz, political activist group ACT UP, which was an Peter Hujar, and Herb Ritts all succumbed to the acronym for AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power. disease, to list a few prominent examples. As the art world continued to lose more and more young people Gran Fury decided to channel the anger of its to the outbreak, artists began to consider what they participants into public art statements, using their could do to bring visibility to a disease that too graphic design skills to produce political posters many people appeared to be ignoring. One art critic and public art projects that supported ACT UP’s wrote in 1989, “art has confronted AIDS the way message. In a 1989 campaign designed to combat people confront AIDS—with fear, anger, sorrow, misconceptions about how the disease was spread, they created a series of advertisements showing

defiance, and confusion. In a country that idolizes Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ youth and health, AIDS has struck at the very heart couples of all races and sexes kissing. The posters of the American self-image.”17 were designed to resemble the popular multicultural Benneton ads of the era, but instead of a brand Famously, then President Ronald Reagan never name, the posters featured the tagline “Kissing said the word “AIDS” until the epidemic had been doesn’t kill, greed and indifference do.” The posters underway for seven years. In 1986, a group of were then displayed on buses and subway platforms six activists and artists in New York formed the in Washington, D.C., Chicago, New York, and San Silence=Death Project. One of their most effective Francisco. Activists used their creative backgrounds, designs consisted of a pink triangle on a black knowledge of advertising and mass media, as well as background, with the words “silence = death” an element of street theatre to bring an awareness of underneath the image. They put the graphic on the growing health crisis to a larger audience. stickers and posters, which were plastered all over

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 59 SELECTED WORK: KEITH HARING, ALTARPIECE, 1990/1996, CATHEDRAL OF SAINT JOHN THE DIVINE KEITH HARING: BIOGRAPHY Keith Haring was an artist most commonly associated with Pop art and the graffiti art scene in New York City in the 1980s. He was a political activist as well as an artist, and he tried to bring more visibility to the AIDS crisis and the tragic toll it was taking on the gay community. Born in 1958 in Reading, Pennsylvania, Keith Allen Haring was raised in Kutztown. Haring’s father was an engineer and amateur cartoonist who encouraged his son’s early love of drawing. As a child, Haring emulated the work of Disney, Looney Tunes, Dr. Seuss, and Charles Schulz. He grew up in a church-going home with three younger sisters. As a teenager he joined the Jesus Movement, which was a youth-oriented charismatic evangelical group that rose to popularity in the 1970s. After graduating from high school in 1976, Haring embraced the counterculture, abandoned his religious background, and hitchhiked across the country, selling Grateful Dead and Anti-Nixon t-shirts to make ends meet. Keith Haring, photographed painting a mural at the Upon his return to Pennsylvania, Haring Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, 1986 . enrolled in the Ivy School of Professional Art Photo © Nationaal Archief in Pittsburgh. He quickly decided that training Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ in commercial and technical art was not for him. Inspired by the early-twentieth-century urban realist Robert Henri’s 1923 text The Art Spirit, Haring decided to pursue his own creative path. He took a job as a maintenance worker at the Pittsburgh Center for the Arts, and while there he began a self-taught education in contemporary art. He was able to see firsthand the work of abstract, gestural artists like Jean Dubuffet, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Tobey. Aretrospective exhibition of the work of Pierre Alechinsky and a lecture by the sculptor Christo were two formative influences for Haring. Haring was inspired by Alechinsky’s calligraphic style and Christo’s approach to engaging the audience in direct and public ways. Haring was eventually able to launch his first one-man show at the Pittsburgh Center for the Arts, which helped to launch his career. Haring moved to New York in 1978, with dreams of taking his career to the next level. Once there he began studying painting at the School of Visual Arts, where he was exposed to the experimental, associative writing of William S. Burroughs. He also studied semiotics with the conceptual artist Bill Beckley and explored the theoretical meaning of signs and symbols. In the evenings, Haring worked as a busboy at Danceteria, which was the center of the downtown art

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 60 and music scene in New York from the late 1970s into the early 1980s. There he met up-and-coming artists as well as established figures like Andy Warhol. Haring, alongside other artists he knew from the club scene, like Jean-Michel Basquiat and Futura 2000, used the urban landscape as a laboratory for creating art and attracting attention. Basquiat and Futura 2000 turned graffiti into art; Haring preferred chalk to spray paint and created chalk drawings on the unused, advertisement blackboards found in subway stations. Soon the artists were mounting their own exhibitions in unconventional spaces like Club 57. As each street artist developed his own style and tags, Haring became associated with the “radiant baby” an outline of a baby of indeterminate sex, with energy lines emanating from its crawling form. He began receiving commissions for public murals and even painted a section of the Berlin Wall. In 1986 he opened the Pop Shop, a storefront that allowed him to reach a wider audience by selling t-shirts, tote bags, and posters adorned with his iconic, deceptively simple drawings. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Haring’s altarpiece that is featured in your Art Reproductions Booklet was his last work—he finished the clay model for the cast sculpture just two weeks before he died. Sam Havadtoy, Haring’s friend, fellow artist, and a gallerist, described Haring’s creative process, saying, “the images came directly from his head…He never stopped to rethink the line; he never edited himself and never made corrections. The lines he carved in the clay were seamless, flawless.”18 Sculpture was not Haring’s preferred medium, and he was not used to working with clay. Regardless, he wielded the loop knife as though it were a writing implement, carving out his signature line drawings in large slabs of clay. The line work is crisp and clear and is immediately identifiable as invoking Haring’s style, though the subject of the triptych is ambiguous. Haring’s iconic baby imagery is transformed here into the infant Christ in the center panel. He is supine in the lap of a figure with many outstretched arms below a cross and a radiating heart. Images of the baby Jesus in his mother’s lap abound in Italian Renaissance altarpieces; Michelangelo even referenced the tradition in his renowned sculpture of the Pieta, wherein the Virgin Mary holds the adult body of her son in her lap, like an infant, after he has been deposed from the cross. Less straightforward are the multiple arms extending from the body, which are possibly a reference to Christ’s holy and earthly families, Mary and Joseph on Earth and God and the Holy Spirit in Heaven. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Or perhaps this is a reference to Hindu deities, who are depicted with many arms as a means of expressing their power, particularly when battling cosmic forces. On each side panel there are two angel figures; three of the four figures appear to be ascending; the bottom angel on the left panel looks to be diving or falling toward the earth. The center panel shows a sun in the background of the left side; the panels in the middle and on the right sides feature large rain drops that can also be read as tears. A crowd of figures with raised arms sweeps across the bottom half of the entire triptych. While some of the figures extend their arms outward, as if in an open-armed embrace, others appear to be raising their arms with fists clenched. It is as if some in the crowd greet the arrival of Christ with joy while others are angered, perhaps in reference to the role of religion as an instigating factor in warfare throughout history. Religious symbols abound in Haring’s work, especially crosses, angels, and devils, though their meaning is often ambiguous. While Haring considered himself a spiritual person, he did not subscribe to one particular religion as an adult. Given that Haring worked on this altarpiece at a time when he was confronting his own mortality, it seems likely that the allusion to the Italian Renaissance, another time when disease cast a pall over the world

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 61 and inspired artworks, was intentional. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS There are nine versions of this triptych, each cast in bronze and covered in white gold. The version shown in your Art Reproductions Booklet is located in the Chapel of St. Columbia within the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in Manhattan. The altarpiece was given to the church by Haring’s estate. It is a free-standing sculpture, standing almost five feet tall and nearly six feet wide. Due to the materials, it weighs more than six hundred pounds. The cathedral, located in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, is the largest Episcopal cathedral in the world and is known for its diversity and acceptance of interfaith traditions. Beyond religious worship, the cathedral hosts modern art exhibitions, performances, and community workshops, and thus it was seen as a fitting venue for Haring’s final artistic statement.

SELECTED WORK: DAVID WOJNAROWICZ, UNTITLED (FALLING BUFFALOS), 1988–89

DAVID WOJNAROWICZ: BIOGRAPHY David Wojnarowicz was a member of New York’s avant-garde scene in the 1970s and became known for his work as an artist, writer, and AIDS activist. Wojnarowicz was born in Red Bank, New Jersey, in 1954. His father left the family when David was two, and the artist grew up mostly in New York City with his mother. He had a transient childhood and spent time in abusive homes. Wojnarowicz attended an arts high school, which was the extent of his formal education. He was largely self-taught, building his artistic reputation on several projects, including a series of photographs titled “Arthur Rimbaud in New York” (1978–79) and street art stencils of burning houses that he pasted on the sides of buildings in the East Village. In the late 1970s, Wojnarowicz began exhibiting his work in East Village galleries like Civilian Warfare and Gracie Mansions. He became part of a circle of artists that included Kiki Smith and Nan Goldin.

In 1987 Wojnarowicz’s longtime mentor and lover, the photographer Peter Hujar, died of AIDS, and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Wojnarowicz himself learned that he was HIV-positive. This loss moved Wojnarowicz to engage in more explicit activism and political content regarding the AIDS epidemic.19 As he described it, “realizing that I have nothing left to lose in my actions I let my hands become weapons, my teeth become weapons, every bone and muscle and fibre and ounce of blood become weapons, and I feel prepared for the rest of my life.”20 He wrote and made contributions to multiple books and in 1991 published an autobiography titled Close to the Knives: A Memoir of Disintegration. Wojnarowicz died in 1992 from AIDS-related complications at the age of thirty-seven. In 2010, nearly twenty years after his death, his work managed to incite controversy when a clip of his experimental Super 8 film from 1986–87, “A Fire in My Belly,” was shown in the exhibition “Hide/ Seek: Difference and Desire in American Portraiture” at the Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. Politicians and religious leaders objected to the video because a scene featured a crucifix on the ground, covered with ants. The image suggests the artist’s complicated feelings about the Catholic Church and its limitations in terms of fighting the AIDS crisis. It also suggests that Wojnarowicz, like Haring, used religious imagery because of its associations with death and with the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 62 question of redemption in a time of plague. Members of Congress threatened to curtail the Smithsonian’s federal funding, and the film was removed from the exhibition, an act that angered members of the arts community who thought the museum bowed to political pressure and did not adequately defend the artist’s use of the imagery. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS The photograph Untitled (Falling Buffalos) shows a herd of buffaloes as they are charging off a cliff and falling to their deaths. What is not explicit from the picture is that this is not a depiction of actual buffalos. Instead, it is a photograph of a diorama from the Smithsonian’s Museum of Natural History that depicted an early Native American hunting technique. A historian described such buffalo The artist David Wojnarowicz . jumps as follows: The ‘buffalo runners’ were sent out to locate the herd and begin driving the bison toward the jump. Disguising themselves in buffalo hides and wolf robes, the runners passed near the herds, mostly females, cautiously luring the game toward the cliffs. One specially trained buffalo runner tried to entice the herd to follow him by imitating the bleating of a lost calf. Several days might be required to position the animals for the kill 21. In photographing the diorama, the artist transforms it into a haunting metaphor, linking the hopeless fate of the buffalo and the mass slaughter of the animal during the nineteenth century to the negligent public health policies of the 1980s and 1990s, which led to the deaths of thousands of people from AIDS and HIV-related illnesses. Just as Albert Bierstadt’s 1888 painting The Last of the Buffalo uses an aesthetic Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ fiction (Bierstadt’s composite landscape is not painted from life) to draw attention to the buffalo’s near extinction from massive over-hunting, Wojnarowicz uses a dramatic, yet artificial tableau to comment on a very real crisis within his community. The powerful metaphor of a marginalized group being driven to the edge of extinction is rendered with subtle beauty in the photograph. The artist crops the diorama image in such a way as to create a majestic, elegiac image. As the result of a shallow depth of field, the buffalo remain in sharp focus, creating a slow-moving diagonal across the image, while the near foreground and background are in soft focus. The result is desperate and tragic and surprisingly moving. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS This photograph is a gelatin silver print made with a print process that has been in wide use since the late 1880s and produces a smooth, even image surface. The process is prized for its ability to produce a rich and subtle tonal range. In 1989 the band U2 used Wojnarowicz’s photograph as cover art for its single titled “One.” This single and the subsequent album became multi-platinum over the next few years, and the band donated a large portion of its earnings to AIDS charities and paid off the artist’s medical expenses.22 The artist also selected this photograph as the cover of his autobiography, suggesting that it was a work of singular personal importance to him.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 63 SECTION II SUMMARY ■■ His painting The Triumph of Death Representing the Bubonic Plague in Early emphasizes the indiscriminate nature of Modern Europe mortality. Death, whether as a result of illness, famine, or war, was ever present ■■ The Renaissance in Europe is associated in this era. Most commissioned artworks with the re-birth of classical ideas, enhanced were religious in nature, and themes that naturalism, and the rise of Humanism. encouraged viewers to repent because death Economic prosperity and the rise of global was coming for all were extremely popular. trade helped foster the arts and spread ■■ Bruegel’s painting is part of a lineage of aesthetic philosophies. plague-era death-oriented subjects. There ■■ However, the Renaissance was also a are references to Italian Triumph of Death tumultuous time for Europe because it was frescoes in his work as well as suggestions accompanied by repeated outbreaks of of the Northern European dance of death, or plague, dating back to 1347 when the Black Danse Macabre, tradition. Death was brought to Sicily on a merchant ■■ Hieronymous Bosch, whose art Bruegel had ship. By the time the outbreaks abated in the copied while working for a Flemish printer, eighteenth century, 75 million to 200 million was an influence on the painting as well. people had died in Europe and Asia. Bosch was known for his eccentric, crowded ■■ During this period, little was known about compositions of tiny figures, and Bruegel how disease was spread; one popularly similarly fills his canvas with so many figures held belief was that bad air or bad smells that the eye does not know where to rest. were to blame—a belief that is now known Selected Work: Josse Lieferinxe, St. as miasma theory. It is thought that rats Sebastian Interceding for the Plague carrying infected fleas spread the disease through merchant ships. Stricken, 1497–99 ■■ The Black Death informed the cultural ■■ Saint Sebastian was a plague saint and thus a production of its time. Art was used as a common subject of Church commissions in means of coming to terms with death and as areas that hoped to stave off the plague. This an apotropaic symbol to ward off infection. panel was from an altarpiece painted for a Some scholars suggest that the decimation of church in Marseille, France. ■■ Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ the population led to greater social fluidity. ■■ Saint Sebastian was a Christian martyr Art commissions increased in the aftermath during the Roman Empire under the reign of of the Black Death as survivors sought to Diocletian. According to legend, he survived either commemorate loved ones or buy being shot with arrows by the Roman protection from illness by commissioning army but was eventually beaten to death artworks for their local churches. for refusing to give up his religious beliefs. Selected Work: Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Arrows were associated with the plague dating back to The Iliad, and Sebastian’s Triumph of Death, c 1562. survival of the arrow attack made him a ■■ Pieter Bruegel the Elder was the best-known potent apotropaic symbol. member of a prominent family of painters ■■ The panel from the altarpiece commemorates in the Netherlands. He was called “peasant an incident when the town of Pavia, Italy, Bruegel” because so many of his works suffered from an outbreak of plague. A focused on the lives of the common people of villager had a vision that the disease would Flanders, a theme that was quite rare at the abate if the town erected an altar in honor of time. Saint Sebastian. The painting shows Saint

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 64 Sebastian kneeling in the heavens, riddled Selected Work: Keith Haring, Altarpiece, with arrows and pleading with God on behalf 1990/1996, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine of the townspeople. Keith Haring was an artist associated with Because the artist never visited Italy, he based ■■ ■■ Pop art and the graffiti art scene in New York the appearance of Pavia on that of his home City in the 1980s. city of Avignon. This is why the architectural setting doesn’t resemble a Roman city, but ■■ This altarpiece was Haring’s last work; he instead appears to be French Gothic in style. finished the clay model for the cast sculpture This, combined with the contemporary dress just two weeks before he died of AIDS at the of the villagers, aligns the historic incident age of thirty-one. referenced in the panel with contemporaneous ■■ Haring’s iconic radiant baby imagery is fears about the return of the plague. transformed here into the infant Christ in the The AIDS Crisis and Contemporary Art center panel of the triptych, which is cast in bronze and covered in white gold. AIDS first entered into broad public ■■ ■■ Given that the altarpiece was created just as consciousness through a New York Times Haring was confronting his own mortality, article, dated July 3, 1981. By 2000, nearly it seems likely that the allusion to the Italian half a million people had died of the disease. Renaissance in terms of both its subject and ■■ While the illness is manageable today, in form was a deliberate reference to another the decade following its initial detection the time when disease cast a pall over the world disease was fatal, and the circumstances and inspired artworks. surrounding its transmission were mysterious. As with the Black Death, there Selected Work: David Wojnarowicz, Untitled was misinformation about how the illness (Falling Buffalos), 1988–89 passed from person to person, and those ■■ David Wojnarowicz was a member of New suffering from the disease often had their York’s avant-garde scene in the 1970s and suffering compounded by prejudice and fear. became known for his work as an artist, ■■ The AIDS crisis of the 1980s became writer, and AIDS activist. especially visible in urban centers like New ■■ This photograph shows a herd of buffalo as York and San Francisco, where artists, they are charging off a cliff and falling to Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ actors, musicians, and designers found their their deaths. communities being decimated by the deadly disease. ■■ The buffalo in the photo are not real; it is a photograph of a diorama from the ■■ In 1986 the Silence=Death Project began Smithsonian’s Museum of Natural History covering New York with posters featuring that depicted an early Native American a pink triangle on a black background with hunting technique. the words “Silence=Death” in white below it. In Nazi Germany, gay men and lesbians had ■■ The photograph’s haunting power lies in been forced to wear pink triangles on their the subtle linkage of the hopeless fate of the clothing. The poster effectively equated the buffalo—nearly driven to mass extinction by Nazi campaign to exterminate homosexuals careless overhunting during the nineteenth with the lack of attention given to the AIDS century—to the negligent public health crisis, while also taking ownership of a policies of the 1980s and 1990s, which led to symbol that had previously been used to the deaths of thousands of people from AIDS propagate hate. and HIV-related illnesses.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 65 Section III The Rise of Modern Medicine

THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF MEDICAL PRACTICE FROM THE RENAISSANCE THROUGH THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Archaeology and ancient texts suggest that hospitals were attached to Buddhist monasteries in India and Sri Lanka as early as the fourth century bce. Medical schools date even earlier, to Greece in the sixth century bce. Hippocrates developed a collection of medical teachings now known as the Hippocratic Corpus sometime between 460 and 370 bce. Most scholars agree that the first teaching Monks and nuns tending to sick patients at the Hotel hospital with visiting physicians and scholars was Dieu, Paris, in the 1500s . founded at Gondishapur in present-day Iran in 300 typically sought care in such wards. Wealthy citizens 23 ce. In Europe, the development of hospitals from were able to receive private medical care through the Renaissance era through the Enlightenment is home visits from physicians. linked to the history of science and the practice of modern medicine, as these hospitals became Health care in monastic sick wards tended to be critical sites for the practice of clinical research and palliative rather than treatment-oriented. The professional training. The professionalization of configuration of these wards was often cross-shaped, medicine in the eighteenth century was a tangible designed with an altar at the center that could be Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ expression of the Enlightenment’s commitment to seen by patients from their beds lining each wing. rationality and progress.24 Patients’ ability to see the altar while they prayed in their beds was thought to be a key component of Prior to the Enlightenment, during the Middle Ages their care. This centralized plan, which was thought and Renaissance, caring for the sick in Europe fell to have originated in Florence, is still in use today, under the purview of the Catholic Church. The with the nurses’ station at center replacing the altar, Church’s program of public outreach and charitable and wings lined with patients radiating out from that works included caring for the sick, feeding the focal point. The transition from a central altar to a hungry, assisting widows and orphans, clothing the nurses’ station elucidates the shift from a model that poor, and offering hospitality to strangers. Dating emphasized comfort and prayer to one that placed back to the fifth and sixth centuries, monasteries medical treatment as the utmost priority. and convents opened sick wards; such institutional care expanded rapidly with the rise of the Black By the thirteenth century, universities in Italy Death in the fourteenth century. These sick wards and Germany were training physicians and housed multiple beds, allowing hospitals to treat standardizing medical instruction. As scientific many patients at the same time. The poor and infirm knowledge expanded during the Renaissance and

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 66 Enlightenment, physicians strove to raise the profile and urbanization in the nineteenth century, with of their profession by disassociating themselves advances in anesthesia and the introduction with self-trained healers, apothecaries, midwives, of antiseptic operating theaters leading to vast and barber-surgeons. The professionalization of improvements in medical outcomes. medicine rose exponentially with industrialization

SELECTED WORK: FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, OSPEDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI, c.1419, FLORENCE, ITALY

FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI: BIOGRAPHY Born in Florence in 1377, Brunelleschi was a sculptor, architect, and engineer who is credited with codifying linear perspective. He had originally trained as a goldsmith by enrolling in the silk merchants’ guild. The guild was among the most prominent in Florence and, despite its name, was also comprised of goldsmiths and metal and bronze workers. Brunelleschi became a master goldsmith in 1398. According to Antonio Manetti, Brunelleschi’s first biographer, the artist turned to architecture after losing the public competition to decorate the doors of the Florence Baptistry to Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1401.25 Brunelleschi’s horizons expanded between 1402 and 1404 when he travelled to Rome

with his friend and fellow goldsmith Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Donatello. There, against a backdrop of rising humanist thought, the two young men studied ancient sculpture and architectural ruins. Brunelleschi’s desire to make accurate drawings of the Roman monuments led him to use geometry to create a system for rendering linear perspective. His most notable contribution to Florence’s urban fabric was his monumental design for the doumo, or dome, that tops the Florence Cathedral. The Sculpture of Filippo Brunelleschi, shown gazing at his commission for this dome was determined by Duomo . yet another competition featuring Ghiberti and Brunelleschi as rivals, this time with Brunelleschi’s plan prevailing.26 The architect won by designing a self-buttressed dome that was a triumph of engineering and construction.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 67 BUILDING COMMISSION AND VISUAL ANALYSIS The Ospedale degli Innocenti was the first public institution of its kind in modern Europe, a formal structure for providing care and shelter to infants and children in need. Previously, orphaned children were provided for by extended family, neighbors, or the Church. As urban populations rose in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and the plague decimated families, a need arose to care for increasing numbers of abandoned and ill children. In 1419 the Guild of Silk Manufacturers, of which Brunelleschi was a member, commissioned the prominent young architect to design the foundling hospital for Florence. It was built on the Piazza della Santissima Annunziata, next to the Church of the Santissima Annunziata (“Holiest Annunciation”), a well-known destination for pilgrims. The building was a public symbol of the guild’s good works and its commitment to Florence’s civic life. As guilds rose in power and prominence, they took on greater roles in public life and government, using their resources to contribute to the betterment of the city. Brunelleschi’s building was considered the first prominent example of the new Renaissance style of architecture which revived classical forms. The facade features an arcade—a series of arches carried by columns—that presents an elegant reinterpretation of Corinthian columns. Whereas traditional Corinthian columns are fluted, Brunelleschi used rounded columns topped with acanthus leaves, producing a twist on the classical order. The arcade creates a sheltered portico, a covered porch that protects from the sun and rain, thereby providing a safe harbor for any babies and children left at the doors of the orphanage. Each bay of the arcade creates a space that is defined by twenty-foot-tall (ten- braccia, to use the period measurement) columns that are twenty feet away from the building, creating a perfect cube. Each bay is topped by a pendentive dome that is half the height of the columns. The bays on each end of the facade are slightly larger, thereby framing the expanse. The perfect geometric order of the building celebrates the rationality of classical architecture. The color scheme is austere and understated, featuring white stucco walls and grey pietra serena (serene stone) columns and moldings. The building emphasizes horizontality, balance, and symmetry. The height and elegance of the columns provide an airy counterbalance to the wide expanse of the facade. The building’s style would influence the architecture of the palaces of the Medici and Rucellai families. The hospital opened its doors in 1445 and admitted sixty-two infants.27 It provided care for

infants and children continuously for more than four centuries until the hospital closed in 1875. The Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ building’s emphasis on rationality and balance provided a serene atmosphere, while also speaking to the need for growing city-states like Florence to take on active roles in health and child services, responsibilities that were once the sole province of the Church. ANALYSIS OF “THE BAMBINI” SCULPTURAL DECORATIONS BY ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA The exterior sculptural medallions created by Andrea della Robbia contributed a unique element to the foundling hospital’s facade by incorporating decorations that reinforced the building’s mission. Andrea della Robbia was the nephew of Luca della Robbia, who popularized the use of polychrome glazed terracotta and passed the technique on to his nephew and great-nephews. While Brunelleschi is credited with re-introducing terracotta to Florence in the early fifteenth century, it was a fragile medium that was difficult to use for architectural decoration because it was vulnerable to the elements. Luca della Robbia solved this problem by coating the terracotta in a glaze that created a hard enamel surface. The glazed surface was far more durable than untreated terracotta. His technique drew upon existing maiolica techniques that had been in use in Italy for two centuries, having been imported to

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 68 Europe from the Islamic world.28 Luca della Robbia, however, created his own formula for the tin- based glaze, which became a closely held family secret. Andrea della Robbia created the ten glazed terracotta medallions that decorate the span of the building’s facade, positioned in the spandrels of the arches. The medallions were added in 1487, about four decades after Brunelleschi’s death. The babies are painted in white tin glaze and are set off against the della Robbia blue background. With their arms extended, they appear to float in space like angels. Their supplicant gesture also conveys their vulnerability. Each is wrapped in swaddling clothing—swaddling being a traditional means of comforting newborns and providing a feeling of security. Each figure is individualized, with no two babies appearing exactly alike. The imagery connects to the hospital’s name, which was meant to evoke the innocent baby boys martyred by King Herod in the Biblical Massacre of the Innocents. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Herod learned of the birth of the prophesied “king of the Jews” from the travelling magi, and in response, fearing that the child would challenge his throne, demanded that all newborn boys in the vicinity of Bethlehem be slaughtered.

SELECTED WORK: REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, THE ANATOMY LESSON OF DR. NICOLAES TULP, 1632

REMBRANDT VAN RIJN: BIOGRAPHY Considered among the most important figures of the Golden Age of seventeenth-century Dutch art, Rembrandt van Rijn was a prolific master of painting, drawing, and etching. Born in Leiden in 1606 to a miller and his wife, Rembrandt was one of nine children. He briefly attended the University of Leiden before dropping out to study painting as an artist’s Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ apprentice. He briefly studied with the history painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam in 1624. He returned to Leiden for the next eight years before permanently relocating to Amsterdam in 1632. The Anatomy Lesson of Dr . Nicolaes Tulp, painted when Rembrandt was only twenty-five, was his first major commission there. Rembrandt first established himself as a portraitist but painted a variety of genres, including religious and mythological subjects. Rembrandt’s handling of light and dark, as well as his mastery of a comprehensive range of tonalities and contrasts, distinguished Rembrandt van Rijn Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned- him from the large market of seventeenth- Up Collar, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D C. .

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 69 century Dutch painters. His treatment of light and dark imbued his work with a sense of drama and psychological intensity that became a defining characteristic of Baroque art. As Rembrandt’s success grew, he established a large, bustling studio with several students and assistants. His pupils included Gerrit Dou, Govert Flinck, Ferdinand Bol, Nicolaes Maes, and Carel Fabritius. Rembrandt also collected art and antiquities, some of which served as inspiration for his work. Unfortunately, his profligate spending would haunt him for the entirety of his career. Rembrandt’s paintings, with their distinctive, suffuse golden glow and impasto technique, are well known, but the artist made significant contributions to the field of printmaking as well. He explored the expressive possibilities of etchings and drypoint, embracing all aspects of the process from preparing and inking the plates to pulling the prints himself. Rembrandt’s prints were responsible for the rise of his reputation internationally. Prints were affordable to the growing art market since—unlike a singular painting—they were created in editions. Prints were smaller and lighter and thus easier to transport across Europe than paintings. As a result of the circulation of his prints, Rembrandt’s talent as an etcher and his sensitive command of light were widely respected throughout Europe. Despite his success, Rembrandt was not adept at handling his finances and struggled with financial solvency throughout his life until his death in 1669, when he was buried as a pauper in an unmarked grave. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS A key aspect of Rembrandt’s brilliance lay in his ability to turn a group portrait into a compelling composition by introducing a narrative element into the scene through his lighting and figure arrangement. He first demonstrated this skill in The Anatomy Lesson of Dr . Nicolaes Tulp, though it reached its pinnacle with his complex masterpiece The Night Watch. In The Anatomy Lesson, we can see Dr. Tulp, the head of the surgeon’s guild, at center right, surrounded by a group of physicians who are gathered to see the famous anatomist work on a cadaver. The Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ viewer is brought close to the picture plane as though we too are present in the operating theater. This type of visceral intimacy is an attribute of Baroque art. Dr. Tulp is distinguished from the other gentlemen by his dark hat. He has a surgical tool in his right hand and is displaying the Chalk portrait of Caravaggio by Ottavio Leoni, c 1621. . musculature in the cadaver’s arm. There is Rembrandt’s works reflect the influence of Caravaggio’s a duality between the exposed hand of the tenebrism . cadaver and the gesturing hand of Dr. Tulp. The doctor’s hand is flexed and engaged, as if he is demonstrating to the assembled group how the muscles and tendons in the hand work.29 His active hand presents a contrast with the inert hand of the cadaver. Rembrandt’s hand is present in the painting as well in terms of the visible brushwork. The observing physicians are positioned in such a way that they form a pyramid, the hallmark of

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 70 Renaissance compositions. However, the pyramid here is off center, counter to the harmony and balance prized in Renaissance painting. The body on which the doctor is working extends at a diagonal across the bottom of the picture plane. At his feet a large anatomy text can be seen propped open on a bookstand in the right corner. Prior to this moment, group portraits typically showed figures evenly aligned, with a uniform light source. The variation of the poses and the selective lighting in Rembrandt’s composition add energy and tension to the scene. Each of the physicians is individualized; their facial features are distinct from one another, and each is focused on different aspects of Andrea Mantegna, Dead Christ, c . 1480, Pinacoteca di the scene.30 Some look at Dr. Tulp while Brera, Milan . others look at the anatomy book or down at the incision. The man standing in the back, at the top of the pyramid, looks out at the viewer. The different reactions of the doctors suggest their differing levels of engagement. Rembrandt conveys a range of emotional responses, from respect and concentration to detachment. The names of the men portrayed in the picture are listed on the piece of paper held by the man at the back. While Rembrandt never travelled to Italy himself, the influence of Caravaggio’s tenebrism made its way to him through his teacher Pieter Lastman, who spent several years there. Tenebrism, another distinctive feature of Baroque art, is characterized by the use of darkness contrasted with dramatic spotlighting. Here the figures emerge from darkness, with raking light falling across their heads and the corpse, creating a diagonal line between the doctors, the body, and the anatomy text. The book is thought to be De humani corporis fabrica, which was Andreas Vesalius’ landmark study of human anatomy. Published in 1543, it was the first book of anatomical illustration. In the painting, light is used symbolically, suggesting the illumination of knowledge brought about by scientific analysis. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Rembrandt’s anatomical portrait departed from the conventional group portrait genre by including a full-length corpse in the center of the image. The graphic depiction of the dissection is not idealized; this unflinching realism was a hallmark of the Netherlandish painting tradition. The dead man’s exposed body, covered only by a loincloth, calls to mind images of the deposed body of Christ in Renaissance art. The foreshortening of the body laid out on the exam table is reminiscent of Mantagna’s Dead Christ, a foreshortened image of Christ on a marble slab being mourned by the Virgin Mary. In Rembrandt’s painting, the artist uses dramatic lighting, composition, and iconographic Christian allusions, as if to suggest that science has replaced the spiritual element. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS This painting was commissioned by the Guild of Surgeons and intended for their boardroom. The Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century was a Protestant nation, a fact that had important repercussions in terms of patronage and the art market. Whereas the Catholic Church was a significant patron throughout the Renaissance (and remained an important source of commissions during the Baroque era in Catholic regions like Italy and Spain), the Protestant Reformation rejected the elaborate religious art of the past as idolatrous, and artworks were systematically removed from churches in

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 71 Northern Europe. Without the Church as a major source of patronage, artists in the Dutch Republic turned to the rising merchant class. Large- scale religious subjects declined in popularity while landscapes, genre scenes, and portraits became highly sought after. Economic prosperity created a booming market for artists. Large-scale paintings were still too costly and impractical for most private citizens. However, guilds—professional organizations that played a crucial role in the economy—were well positioned to Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman (1656), commission ambitious artworks to decorate Amsterdam Museum . their Guild Halls. Such commissions, which often took the form of group portraits, functioned to broadcast the power and influence of the company that commissioned the work. This painting was occasioned by the anatomy lesson that Dr. Tulp gave in January 1632. There was one public autopsy each year, conducted on the body of an executed criminal. The man depicted here was Adriaan Adriaans (alias Aris Kindt), who had been convicted of robbery and assault and sentenced to hang. The anatomy lesson seen here was held on the same day that the man was executed. The ethics of dissecting the bodies of criminals without prior consent was not questioned. Kindt’s crime was theft, and yet here he is represented being robbed of his bodily integrity on canvas. Autopsies were not permitted in Catholic Europe because of the Church tenet that bodies be interred in a state of wholeness. This was why Leonardo da Vinci conducted his anatomy investigations in secret during the Renaissance. However, in Protestant Holland no restrictions on human dissection were in place. On the contrary, such lessons were a social event in the Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century, taking place in lecture rooms that were actual theatres with upwards of six 31 hundred attendees, who were permitted to attend upon payment of an entrance fee. These autopsies Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ were held in the winter because the stench of the body would have been unbearable at any other time. Rembrandt’s painting fictionalizes the scene in several key ways.32 Dr. Tulp, who here is shown demonstrating how the muscles of the arm are attached, would not have performed the autopsy himself. Instead, he would have directed another surgeon in the task. In a typical anatomy lesson, the surgeon would begin by opening the chest cavity and thorax because the internal organs there decay most rapidly. Rembrandt took liberties with the scene in the interest of creating a more compelling composition. The men included in the portrait would have paid a certain amount of money to be included in the work, and Dr. Tulp likely paid more, perhaps even twice as much. The care and attention Rembrandt gave to painting the distinct starched white collars of each man was a way of marking their wealth and class. Such collars were a sign of elevated status. Rembrandt went on to paint another anatomy lesson directed by Tulp’s successor, Dr. Deijman, in 1656. The two paintings were intended to be displayed side by side, but The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman was damaged in a fire in 1723, and only a central fragment of the painting remains.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 72 SELECTED WORK: THOMAS EAKINS, PORTRAIT OF DR. SAMUEL D. GROSS (THE GROSS CLINIC), 1875 THOMAS EAKINS: BIOGRAPHY Thomas Eakins was born in Philadelphia in 1844, and, aside from spending three years studying art in Europe, Eakins resided in Philadelphia until his death in 1916. Upon graduating from high school, Eakins studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts while also pursuing anatomy instruction at Jefferson Medical College. As was common practice among nineteenth-century American artists, Eakins travelled to France and Spain to expand his artistic knowledge. There his exposure to the work of Léon Bonnat and Diego Velázquez proved to have a lasting impact on his approach to painting. Beginning in 1866, Eakins lived in Paris, where he primarily studied under the direction of Jean- Leon Gérôme. Eakins believed firmly in the importance of studying from live models and boycotted class on days when the group drew from antique casts rather than life. Eakins was particularly interested in the human body—how Thomas Eakins, Self-Portrait (1902), National Academy of Design, New York . it functioned and how it moved through space— which led him to the dissection room on the one hand and the photography studio on the other.33 Upon his return to Philadelphia, he focused on painting portraits and genre scenes that revealed his expertise in painting the human figure.

Among Eakins’ best-known paintings are several frankly realistic yet psychologically gripping Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ portraits depicting men who combine intellect and physical skill. In 1871, not long after his return from Europe, Eakins painted The Champion Single Sculls (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull) to commemorate the victory of Max Schmitt in a race on the Schuylkill River in October 1870. Schmitt was an attorney and skilled rower; Eakins himself rowed and was thus familiar with the sport. Sculling requires self-discipline, concentration, and a machine-like technique, which Eakins conveys in his painting. He paints Max Schmitt framed by the geometry of his scull and oars reflected upon the water, creating perfectly parallel lines in the river that are perpendicular to the oars, suggesting the mathematical precision required to row efficiently. While nature dominates the foreground, a railroad bridge with an approaching train can be seen in the background, along with a puff of smoke indicating a factory in the distance. In the late nineteenth century, physical activity was seen as a way to stave off the deleterious effects of industrialization. Eakins includes himself in the scene, rowing in the mid- distance with his name signed on the hull of his boat, making a link between sculling and painting as physically and mentally demanding pursuits. Eakins’ scientific interest in the body and its mechanics led him to the work of photographer Eadweard

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 73 Muybridge, who in the 1870s developed stop motion photography as a method for capturing animals and humans in motion. Eakins played a role in arranging for Muybridge to continue his photographic experiments at the University of Pennsylvania. Once Muybridge was in Philadelphia, Eakins was able to study his methods. Eakins developed his own photographic motion studies, which involved a series of movements superimposed upon one negative (as opposed to Muybridge’s technique, which isolated movement into individual frames). Eakins used these figural motion Thomas Eakins, The Champion Single Sculls (Max studies as source material for paintings. Schmitt in a Single Scull), 1871, Metropolitan Museum of Art . Eakins was also fervent in his belief that figure study was the key to educating future generations of American artists. He taught figure drawing at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts from 1876 until 1886 and in the process transformed the provincial art school into a nationally recognized art academy. Eakins’ career at PAFA came to an infamous end when he removed a male model’s loincloth in a mixed class of both male and female art students. The board of directors gave Eakins an ultimatum: he needed to either change his teaching methods or resign. Eakins chose to resign. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS In 1875 Eakins took a break from his rowing paintings, turning over a canvas of sculling studies and using the other side to begin an ambitious portrait of a local doctor. Portrait of Dr . Samuel D . Gross (The Gross Clinic) depicts a well-known Philadelphia surgeon within his professional element, in the surgical amphitheater operating on a patient suffering from a bone infection known as osteomyelitis. The patient’s sex is not obvious, but the patient is thought to be a teenage boy. Gross is assisted by four physicians, one of whom is administering anesthesia. The patient’s mother sits at the bottom left of the scene, shielding her eyes from the gruesome procedure. This figure dramatizes the pain of witnessing the operation as she curls her fingers and turns away from the scene.34 There is a Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ triangulation between the mother, the exposed patient, and Dr. Gross.35 While the mother embodies emotion, Dr. Gross is the standard bearer for detached rationalism. The painting’s realism marked Eakins’ commitment to scientific investigation and objective knowledge. Eakins saw himself as a professional, like Gross, devoted to dispassionate observation of the natural world. Eakins includes himself in the composition, as he did in The Champion Single Sculls. He can be seen sketching in the audience, on the left side of the painting. This sense of the seriousness of his profession and dedication to the craft was what led Eakins to the scandalous use of the nude model in his PAFA class; he firmly believed it was the duty of the artist to understand the human body with precision and accuracy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, surgeons and physicians began to form their own associations, developing standards and codes of conduct to distinguish themselves from the world of amateur healers, medicine men, and midwives. Both Gross and Eakins were invested in uplifting their respective professions. The uncompromising realism of the painting has several historical precedents, including The Anatomy Lesson of Dr . Nicolaes Tulp by Rembrandt. Rembrandt’s directness and his dramatic

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 74 spotlighting are features that Eakins incorporated into his composition. Eakins’ painting is large in scale, at eight feet in height and about six and a half feet in width. Its monumentality contributes to the heroizing narrative. Eakins compresses the picture plane, thereby bringing the audience even closer to the action. Lighting is used here as a dramatic tool, in the vein of Rembrandt, symbolizing the enlightenment brought about by scientific and medical discoveries. Gross stands in the path of a raking, diagonal light that illuminates the doctor’s forehead and hand, before shining on the exposed thigh and buttock of the patient. The light falling on Dr. Gross’ head and hands points to the work of surgery as being both mental and physical, like that of an artist. Eakins paints Dr. Gross holding the bloody scalpel as if it were a paintbrush, pointing again to the connection that Eakins sees between his profession and that of Dr. Gross. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Eakins was thirty years old when he began this painting, hoping to exhibit it at the 1876 Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia. The painting was rejected for exhibition in the art galleries for being too graphic. It appeared instead in the Centennial’s medical exhibition hall. There it was displayed not among other artworks, but alongside medical texts and displays about the latest in medical care. Purchased by the Jefferson Medical College, the painting was placed on view in New York as part of the Society of American Artists exhibition in 1879. It received a violent reaction from critics who admired its technical execution and visual power but were appalled by the subject. The painting features Dr. Gross, who was Professor of Surgery at Jefferson Medical College, removing a piece of dead bone from a young man’s thigh, in front of an audience of onlookers that included fellow surgeons and the artist himself. Medicine still held associations with quackery in nineteenth-century America. Eakins and Gross were both engaged in the shared project of bringing legitimacy and gravitas to the profession. While doctors were part of the newly emerging professional middle class, the patients who were operated on in the public clinics were from the lower class. Poor men and women were offered medical care in exchange for allowing their bodies to be used for medical instruction. Prior to the development of this surgery, the common treatment for osteomyelitis was amputation of the limb from above the point of infection. Gross was an advocate of “conservative” surgery, which meant removing the infection when at all possible, rather than removing the entire limb. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Two schools of surgical training were common in nineteenth-century America: the French practice and the British practice. The British model of instruction involved assigning students to work directly with an individual surgeon, whereas the French practice relied on clinics like the one seen in Eakins’ painting. The British practice was understood as more elitist, with medical school entrance governed more by personal connections than individual talent. The French approach was seen as egalitarian. Medical clinics and lectures in nineteenth-century Paris were free, and when the Jefferson Medical College was founded in Philadelphia in 1825, it likewise offered equal access to medical education by way of the clinical method of education. Dr. Gross took pride in his role as a teacher as much as in his surgical prowess. The Gross Clinic celebrates not just the individual doctor, but the democratic method of instruction favored by the Medical College. Fourteen years after Eakins depicted Dr. Samuel Gross performing surgery for students at Thomas Jefferson Medical College, the artist returned to the surgical amphitheater and portrayed Dr. Agnew performing a mastectomy for students in the University of Pennsylvania’s Medical Department. The painting was commissioned by Agnew’s students in honor of his retirement. The students paid $750 for a single portrait, and Eakins included the other figures at no additional charge.36 Like Rembrandt, Eakins

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 75 instinctively understood how to transform a conventional portrait into a compelling scene. During the intervening period between the creation of The Gross Clinic and The Agnew Clinic, Joseph Lister’s discoveries had led to the promotion of antiseptic surgery by Agnew and others, which contributed to clear artistic differences between the two paintings. Whereas Dr. Gross had performed surgery in his street clothes with minor help from his assistants, by 1889 Eakins depicted Agnew and his team of doctors as wearing clean white gowns, using Thomas Eakins, The Agnew Clinic, 1889, the University sterilized instruments in a covered case, and of Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia Museum of Art . benefiting from the services of a nurse.37 The emphasis on hygiene led to the lighter color palette in the Agnew Clinic painting, while the advent of artificial lighting resulted in brighter and more evenly dispersed light. The emotional mother is absent from the later scene while the professional, dispassionate nurse spoke to the ways in which women were entering the medical profession. The greater involvement of the assisting medical staff influenced the switch from the vertical format of the Gross Clinic painting to a horizontal format for the Agnew Clinic canvas. The horizontal format favors the collaborative nature of the medical procedure, shifting the painting’s emphasis to focus on the documentation of a procedure rather than an aggrandizing portrayal of a hero.

SELECTED WORK: KADIR NELSON, HENRIETTA LACKS (HELA): THE MOTHER OF MODERN MEDICINE, 2017 KADIR NELSON: BIOGRAPHY Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Born in Little Rock, Arkansas, Kadir Nelson is a contemporary African-American artist, illustrator, and author. His uncle is Michael Morris, an artist and art instructor, who taught Nelson from an early age. After winning several art competitions as a teenager, Nelson was awarded a scholarship to study painting at the Pratt Institute in New York. His work has been exhibited at the Museum of Tolerance and the Society of Illustrators. He has designed postage stamps honoring the Negro Baseball League and Wilt Chamberlain. In 2008, Nelson won a Caldecott Honor for his illustrations for Henry’s Freedom Box. Written by Ellen Levine, this book is based on the life story of Henry “Box” Brown, who mailed himself from Richmond, Virginia, to Philadelphia in 1849 to escape enslavement. Nelson incorporated the cross-hatching of a nineteenth-century lithograph with his own style to represent the gripping historical narrative. Nelson has described his artistic approach, saying: I feel that art’s highest function is that of a mirror, reflecting the innermost beauty and divinity of the human spirit; and is most effective when it calls the viewer to remember one’s highest self . I choose subject matter that has emotional and spiritual resonance and focuses on the journey of the hero as it relates to the personal and collective stories of people 38.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 76 Nelson has indicated that the visual storytelling of Norman Rockwell and N.C. Wyeth were formative influences on his work, as was nineteenth-century artist (and pupil of Thomas Eakins) Henry Ossawa Tanner’s command of realism and handling of light and dark. HENRIETTA LACKS: BIOGRAPHY Born in Virginia in 1920, Henrietta Lacks was the great-great-granddaughter of an enslaved woman. Raised by her grandfather in a log cabin that was once slave quarters, she worked on a tobacco farm from a young age. She married a cousin and moved to Baltimore County, Maryland. After giving birth to her fifth child, Lacks learned that she was suffering from cervical cancer. Treatments failed, and Lacks died at the age of thirty-one. Lacks had sought medical care for her tumors at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore, which was the only nearby hospital Kadir Nelson photographed at the 2017 Texas Book that treated African-Americans at the time. Festival . Larry D. Moore CC BY-SA 4.0. After Lacks died, tissue samples collected

as a part of her radiation treatment proved surprisingly robust in the lab. Unlike typical cells that died soon after being removed from their host, Lacks’s cells were able to replicate in the lab setting. As the cells continued to replicate over a span of years, they were

dubbed the “HeLa” immortal cell line, in Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ honor of their source. To this day it is the most widely used human cell line in biology. HeLa cells were used by Jonas Salk to develop the polio vaccine.39 Scientists performing research on cancer, HIV, cloning, gene mapping, and in vitro fertilization have all used HeLa cells. Yet it never occurred to medical researchers to contact the living descendants of Henrietta Lacks or ask permission for her cells to be used in medical research. It wasn’t until 1973 that family members learned about the cell line from a family friend’s husband, who was a cancer researcher. One of Kadir Nelson’s illustrations from Henry’s Freedom Box: A True Story from the Underground This type of unethical medical transgression Railroad (Scholastic Press, 2007) . in the name of scientific advancement was

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 77 not new—as Rembrandt’s portrait of Dr. Tulp reveals, criminals and the poor have long been subject to medical research without their knowledge or permission. There is a particularly egregious history in the United States of medical professionals using African- Americans as unwitting subjects of medical research. For forty years, between 1932 and 1972, the United States Public Health Service studied the progression of untreated syphilis in rural African-American men in Alabama, without informing them of the circumstances of the experiment. Even after penicillin was discovered to be an effective treatment for the disease in 1947, the government withheld treatment from the men who were participants in this study, known as the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, so that they could continue to study the long-term effects of the disease.40 A whistleblower brought the situation to light in 1972, and U.S. laws now mandate informed consent for all participants in clinical studies.41 VISUAL ANALYSIS Nelson’s portrait shows Henrietta Lacks smiling and looking vibrant in a red floral print dress. Her pale-yellow straw hat features a circular pattern and sits back on her head at such an angle as to resemble the gold-leaf, circular halos found in paintings of Byzantine icons. Her hands overlap one another and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ grasp a Bible. The composition is reminiscent of John Singer Sargent’s portrait of Isabella Stewart Gardner, who is similarly posed with her hands clasped, and with a pattern resembling a flat halo behind her head. Sargent referenced religious iconography to John Singer Sargent, Isabella Stewart Gardner, 1888, suggest that Gardner was an angel of the arts, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum . whose work as a benefactress was worthy of honor. Nelson’s Henrietta Lacks is given a similarly saintly presentation. Nelson described the painting’s symbolism, saying: I elected to paint a prideful and glowing portrait of Henrietta Lacks, who is often referred to as, “The Mother of Modern Medicine,” visually juxtaposing art and science. She stands with her beautifully manicured hands crossed, covering her womb (the birthplace of the immortal cell line) while cradling her beloved Bible (a symbol of her strong faith) . Her deep red dress is

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 78 covered with a vibrant floral pattern that recalls images of cell structure and division.42 The wallpaper backdrop features a pattern of overlapping circles that is sometimes called a “flower of life” and symbolizes regeneration and exponential growth. The sequence of patterns and repetition speaks to the endless replication of Henrietta’s cells and the immortality of her continuing legacy in the field of medical research. Lacks’ pearl necklace is a reference to a comment found in her medical records where a doctor wrote of small white tumors covering some organs: “It looked as if the inside of her body was studded with pearls.”43 Two buttons are missing from her dress in a subtle allusion to the fact that her cells were taken from her without permission. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS The HeLa cell line’s connection to Henrietta Lacks was first brought to popular attention in March 1976 with a pair of articles in the Detroit Free Press and Rolling Stone.44 In 1996, Morehouse School of Medicine held its first HeLa Women’s Health Conference. The annual conference honors Henrietta Lacks, her cell line, and “the valuable contribution made by African Americans to medical research and clinical practice.” A best-selling book written by Rebecca Skloot titled The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks45 brought the story to a mass audience in 2010. Nelson’s painting was commissioned by HBO, which aired a film about Henrietta Lacks in 2017 that was produced by and starred Oprah Winfrey. The portrait was acquired as a joint-gift to the Smithsonian Institution’s National Portrait Gallery and the National Museum of African American History and Culture, who will share in displaying the artwork. The painting commemorates Lacks’ long hidden contributions to medical science, while also drawing attention to the ethical issues raised by the use of HeLa cells.

SELECTED WORK: HOK WITH JACK TRAVIS, HARLEM HOSPITAL PAVILION FACADE, 2005–12, NEW YORK

THE HISTORY OF HARLEM HOSPITAL CENTER Harlem Hospital, now known as Harlem Hospital Center, was established in 1887. Its original location, Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ which housed fifty-four beds, was in a Victorian mansion near the East River at East 120th Street.46 As demand for health services increased, the hospital expanded and opened a new 150-bed facility in its present-day location on Lenox Avenue between 136th and 137th Streets. Harlem Hospital has historically been a critical training facility for African-American doctors and nurses. In 1919, the facility was the first hospital in New York to a hire an African-American doctor; Dr. Louis T. Wright went on to pioneer an intradermal method for smallpox vaccination.47 In response to the refusal of city hospitals to accept black nurses, the Harlem Hospital School of Nursing was opened in 1923. Today, the Harlem Hospital Center has 272 beds and is a public teaching hospital affiliated with Columbia University. The hospital has embarked upon a series of expansion and modernization projects over the years, with the most recent project by the architectural firm HOK having been completed in 2012. The expansion of the hospital’s campus necessitated the demolition of two buildings that housed depression-era WPA murals of historical and cultural significance. HOK, the architectural firm, and Harlem-based architect Jack Travis were tasked with the challenge of both preserving the murals and creating a new face for the hospital that foregrounded its connections to the local community and African-American history.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 79 THE HISTORY OF HARLEM HOSPITAL AND THE WPA MURALS The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was a federal public works initiative established in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, which was an array of programs designed to combat the disastrous effects of the Great Depression.48 The WPA employed 8.5 million Americans in all manner of public works projects, from building roads and dams, to painting murals and designing posters. The Federal Art Project (FAP) was a subset of the WPA that operated for nine years and employed visual artists to produce art, teach, and conduct research. Under the leadership of Holger Cahill, more than 10,000 artists were employed in this work. They made artworks for public buildings, created art community centers, and documented design history, resulting in the Index of American Design.49 As sculptor Robert Cronbach described the experience, “for the creative artist the WPA- FAP marked perhaps the first time in American history when a great number of artists were Charles Alston was the Federal Art Project’s first employed continuously to produce art. It was an African-American supervisor, and he was tasked with unequaled opportunity for a serious artist to work overseeing a mural project at Harlem Hospital . as steadily and intensely as possible.”50 Charles Alston was the FAP’s first African-American supervisor, and he was tasked with overseeing a mural project at Harlem Hospital. Alston employed twenty-five African-American artists at the site and oversaw the creation of a series of murals for the nurses’ dormitory and the children’s ward of 51 the hospital. Alston himself painted murals titled Magic in Medicine and Modern Medicine, which Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ lined the walls of the 136th Street entrance lobby. Alston was a mentor to Jacob Lawrence, who later recalled that when he was a precocious teenage artist, he had helped Alston by transferring Alston’s cartoons onto the walls.52 The two murals represent traditional African healing practices, as embodied by Alston’s depiction of a Fang reliquary statue from Gabon, and Western modern advances, represented by a microscope and portraits of Louis Pasteur and Dr. Louis T. Wright. As the hospital’s executive director noted, “The artist wanted to share the importance of African American and white physicians working together toward a common goal.”53 Myra Logan, an intern at the hospital at the time, modeled as a nurse holding a newborn baby in the painting. Logan went on to marry Alston, and she became a surgeon. The two murals are in dialogue with one another, with each approach to medicine given respect and placed on equal footing. The artists supervised by Alston included Selma Day, Elba Lightfoot, Sara Murrell, Vertis Hayes, and Georgette Seabrooke. Some of the artists had already established reputations prior to the commission. Prior to the Harlem Hospital commission, Vertis Hayes had worked with muralist Jean Charlot, who

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 80 was a part of artist Diego Rivera’s circle. Seabrooke was a stand-out pupil at Cooper Union, where she had studied with renowned muralist John Steuart Curry. MURALS AND CONTROVERSY Though the murals were approved by WPA officials and the Municipal Arts Committee, they hit a stumbling block when the designs were sent to the Hospital’s superintendent, Lawrence T. Dermody. Dermody opined that the murals contained, “too much Negro subject matter,” and further asserted that, “Harlem hospital is not a Negro hospital,” and “Negroes may not form the greater part of this community twenty-five years hence.”54 The artistic community rallied to the defense of the WPA artists. The Harlem Artists Guild issued a statement with the Artists Union in support of the project, crafting a statement that said the Superintendent’s criticism implied a “definite discriminatory policy against Negroes,” and that Dermody was “eminently unqualified to act either as a judge of the morals or as a spokesman for the Harlem community.”55 The statement was then sent to Mayor Fiorello Harlem-based architect Jack Travis took on the H. La Guardia and President Roosevelt. challenge of preserving the WPA murals while also Dr. Wright, whose portrait was included in creating a new face for Harlem Hospital . Alston’s design, financially backed the protest efforts. As a result of the uproar, the hospital decided to appoint a citizens group to examine the issue, and they subsequently approved the mural designs, allowing the project to move forward as planned. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ VISUAL AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Over the years the WPA murals began to deteriorate. After many years of renovations to the hospital’s spaces, some were essentially hidden from view and were only rediscovered in 2004. When the architecture firm HOK was brought in to revitalize the hospital’s campus, the architects were also assigned the responsibility of relocating the murals housed in buildings scheduled for demolition. Four million dollars in private funds was raised to restore and protect the murals. They were not only moved and restored; they became the focal point of the design of the new building facade. Three of the WPA panels are replicated on the front of a high-performance curtain wall that faces the street.56 The facade, which faces Lenox Avenue, is five stories high and spans the length of a city block. The images are not being projected onto the curtain wall; they are actual images of the murals printed with ceramic ink upon transparent glass scrims that drape over each window panel of the structure. Backlighting illuminates the images, lighting up the entire block with art. The three panels reproduced on the front of the building all come from “The Pursuit of Happiness,” which was a series of eight murals by Vertis Hayes about the African diaspora. The full series,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 81 originally installed in the nurses’ dormitory, begins with scenes of eighteenth-century life in an African village, before transitioning to scenes of slavery in the American South and the great migration to the industrialized North.57 Other restored, relocated murals that were rarely seen by the general public are now visible from the street in the hospital’s new public gallery. Patients inside the light-filled atrium can now see the original artworks from nearby waiting rooms and hallways. Known as the Mural Pavilion, the newly designed structure is a 192,000-square-foot building that connects two of the hospital’s existing campus buildings while providing a new emergency department along with new diagnostic and treatment facilities. The entire project cost $325 million dollars. In 2005, the design of the campus expansion won an award from the New York chapter of the American Institute of Architects. Interestingly, the HOK group made the connection between art and health explicit in their public comments about the project. Chuck Siconolfi, HOK’s senior principal for health care, described the significance of the murals thusly: “This was not only a cultural device but a therapeutic device. They are as much a tool in the delivery of care as any radiological device or any scalpel.”58 The architects were ultimately able to achieve a technologically advanced and sophisticated modern health center that unites the hospital’s past and future by embracing its cultural heritage and historical significance within the African-American community.

SECTION III SUMMARY profile of their profession by disassociating themselves with self-trained healers. The Professionalization of Medical Practice ■■ Esteem for the medical profession rose in the from the Renaissance through the Twentieth nineteenth century as advances in anesthesia Century and the introduction of antiseptic operating theaters led to vast improvements in medical ■■ During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, outcomes. caring for the sick in Europe fell to the Catholic Church, which attached sick wards Selected Work: Filippo Brunelleschi, to monasteries and convents. Treatment was Ospedale degli Innocenti, c 1419,. Florence,

largely palliative and prayer-based. Italy Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Monastic wards were cross-shaped, with ■■ Brunelleschi was an early Italian Renaissance an altar at the center that could be seen by ■■ sculptor, architect, and engineer who is patients from their beds lining each wing. credited with codifying linear perspective. This centralized plan, thought to have originated in Florence, is still in use today, ■■ Brunelleschi was commissioned by a guild to with the nurses’ station at center replacing design Florence’s Ospedale degli Innocenti, the altar. The shift from an altar to a nurses’ a formal structure for providing care and station epitomizes the shift from a model that shelter to infants and children in need that emphasized comfort and prayer to one that was the first public institution of its kind in places medical treatment at its core. modern Europe. ■■ Universities began training physicians in the ■■ The foundling hospital building was the first thirteenth century in Italy and Germany. prominent example of the new Renaissance style of architecture, which revived classical As scientific knowledge expanded and ■■ forms. The facade features an arcade of developed from the Renaissance through the columns that reinterprets the Corinthian Enlightenment, physicians strove to raise the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 82 order, while its portico provided a safe haven frankly realistic yet psychologically gripping for abandoned infants. portraits depicting men who combine ■■ The exterior sculptural medallions, featuring intellect and physical skill. swaddled babies created by Andrea della ■■ The Gross Clinic depicts a well-known Robbia, contribute a unique element to the Philadelphia physician and medical instructor foundling hospital’s façade by incorporating as he operates in a surgical amphitheater on a decorations that reinforce the building’s patient suffering from a bone infection. mission. ■■ The painting was rejected for display in the Selected Work: Rembrandt van Rijn, The art galleries of the 1876 Centennial exhibition Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632 in Philadelphia for being too graphic. It appeared instead in the Centennial’s medical ■■ Considered among the most important figures exhibition hall. of the Golden Age of seventeenth-century ■■ Eakins saw himself as a professional, like Dutch art, Rembrandt van Rijn was a prolific Gross, committed to the dispassionate master of painting, drawing, and etching. observation of the natural world. He painted ■■ Rembrandt’s brilliance lay in his ability Gross holding the bloody scalpel as if it were to turn a standard group portrait into an a paintbrush, pointing to the connection that engaging composition by introducing a Eakins saw between the two professions. The narrative element into the scene through light falling on Dr. Gross’ head and hands dramatic lighting and compelling figure points to the work of surgery as being both arrangements. mental and physical, like that of an artist. ■■ Rembrandt’s anatomical portrait departed ■■ In this work, as in Rembrandt’s Anatomy from the conventional group portrait genre Lesson, lighting is used as a dramatic tool, by including a full-length corpse in the center symbolizing the enlightenment brought about of the image. The graphic depiction of the by scientific and medical discoveries. dissection is not idealized; this unflinching Selected Work: Kadir Nelson, Henrietta realism was a hallmark of the Netherlandish painting tradition. Lacks (HeLa): The Mother of Modern Medicine, 2017 ■■ This painting was commissioned by the

Guild of Surgeons. The Dutch Republic of ■■ Kadir Nelson is a contemporary African- Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ the seventeenth century was a Protestant American illustrator and visual storyteller, nation. Without the Catholic Church as a who works in the artistic tradition of Norman major source of patronage, artists in Holland Rockwell and N.C. Wyeth. turned to the rising merchant class. ■■ His commissioned portrait of Henrietta ■■ Guilds used group portraits to establish Lacks for the Smithsonian Institution their prestige and professionalism. This celebrates the life of a woman whose cellular Guild of Surgeons portrait came at a time tissue, known as the HeLa immortal cell line, when physicians still sought to distinguish has been replicated countless times. To this themselves from barber-surgeons and other day it is the most widely used human cell line self-trained healers. in biology. HeLa cells were used by Jonas Selected Work: Thomas Eakins, Portrait of Dr. Salk to develop the polio vaccine, and they Samuel D. Gross (The Gross Clinic), 1875 have been used in medical research involving cancer, HIV, cloning, gene mapping, and in ■■ Thomas Eakins, a nineteenth-century vitro fertilization. American artist, is best known for his ■■ The painting brings attention to Lacks’ long

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 83 hidden contributions to medical science while new face for the hospital that foregrounded also alluding to the ethical issues raised by its connections to the local community and the unauthorized usage of her cells. African-American history. ■■ Two buttons are missing from Lacks’ dress in ■■ The Federal Art Project (FAP) was a subset a subtle allusion to the fact that her cells were of the WPA that operated for nine years taken from her body without permission. and employed visual artists to produce art, Selected Work: HOK with Jack Travis, teach, and conduct research during the Great Depression. Charles Alston was the FAP’s Harlem Hospital Pavilion Facade, 2005–12, first African-American supervisor, and he New York was tasked with overseeing a mural project at Harlem Hospital. Alston employed twenty- Harlem Hospital, now known as Harlem ■■ five African-American artists at the site and Hospital Center, was established in 1887. oversaw the creation of a series of murals for Harlem Hospital has historically been the nurses’ dormitory and the children’s ward a critical training facility for African- of the hospital. American doctors and nurses. When the architecture firm HOK was The hospital has embarked upon a series ■■ ■■ brought in to revitalize the hospital’s of expansion and modernization projects campus, the architects were also assigned the over the years, with the most recent project responsibility of relocating the murals housed by the architectural firm HOK having in buildings scheduled for demolition. The been completed in 2012. The expansion murals were not only moved and restored, of the Hospital’s campus necessitated the they became the focal point of the design demolition of two buildings that housed of the new building façade. Three of the depression-era WPA murals of historical WPA panels are replicated on the front of and cultural significance. The architectural a high-performance curtain wall that faces firm HOK and Harlem-based architect Jack the street, thus exposing the murals to a far Travis were tasked with the challenge of larger audience. both preserving the murals and creating a Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 84 Section IV Women, Sickness, and Portraiture

THE IDEAL AND THE REAL from soap advertisements to state capitol sculptural decorations.59 These women were not specific—they FEMALE BODY AS A SUBJECT were typically symbolic representations of attributes IN NINETEENTH- AND such as liberty or poetry. TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART Bouguereau and Cabanel’s approach to art was, During the nineteenth century, the idealized female however, rejected by the generation of avant-garde form was a prevalent subject among academically artists emerging in the late nineteenth century, trained artists in Europe and the United States. who moved away from frothy ideal forms in search In the ateliers of artists like Jean-Léon Gérôme of deeper truths. Academic classicism began to and Alexandre Cabanel, the female nude was the seem stilted as artists like James Abbott McNeill cornerstone of art instruction and was a commonplace Whistler turned inward, away from representation subject in salons and Royal Academy exhibitions. and toward a more profound reflection upon mood Such artists were themselves following in a tradition and subjectivity. So too did the subjects of art shift established by academician Jean-Auguste-Dominique radically from the ideal toward the real. Frida Kahlo Ingres, who had successfully supplanted the heroic continued the modernist trajectory in the twentieth male nude—popularized in the eighteenth century by century, casting aside the flawless images of women Jacques-Louis David—with a soft, feminine model. that had dominated the late nineteenth century in William-Adolphe Bouguereau, who taught at the favor of showing the lived experiences of women. popular and influential Académie Julian art school, In her career, Kahlo reclaimed the female body was renowned by the art establishment for classicizing by relishing its flaws. In powerful and, at times, nudes such as The Birth of Venus . The painting won disturbing works, she laid bare the ravages that the Grand Prix de Rome and was purchased by the Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ injury and illness can wreak upon the flesh. French government . For a generation of American artists who travelled to Europe for training in the era after the Civil War, creating figure studies from live models was a revelation. Art instruction in the United States relied on drawing lessons using plaster casts of antique sculpture as subjects. Following sojourns in Paris, artists such as Kenyon Cox and Elihu Vedder returned to the United States eager to demonstrate their new-found knowledge, only to find a residual cultural squeamishness about public displays of naked bodies. By cloaking their nudes in allegory, they created an appropriate context for viewing the unclothed form. Idealized women began decorating all corners of American culture,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 85 SELECTED WORK: JAMES ABBOTT MCNEILL WHISTLER, MAUD READING IN BED, 1883–84 JAMES ABBOTT MCNEILL WHISTLER: BIOGRAPHY James Abbott McNeill Whistler was American by birth though he spent the bulk of his career in London. Whistler was an advocate for “art for art’s sake.” He developed a style that challenged the Victorian taste for narrative pictures. His own works of art favored evocative suggestions of people and places rather than detailed descriptions. His works prioritized the arrangement of understated color and form over subject matter. They provided a new approach to portraiture and paintings of modern life. Whistler’s formal art education began when he was a young boy, living with his family abroad. Though Whistler was born in Lowell, Massachusetts in 1834, a lucrative contract with the Russian railroad prompted Whistler’s father, George Washington Whistler, to move the family to St. Petersburg in 1843. Initially taught by a private tutor, Whistler was enrolled in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts when he was eleven. His older half-sister, Deborah, who was married to the surgeon Arrangement in Gray: Portrait of the Painter (James Abbott McNeill Whistler Self-Portrait, c 1872),. Detroit and etcher Francis Seymour Haden, hosted Institute of Arts . the young Whistler in their London home at Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ various points during his teens and further encouraged his interest in art. It was Haden who gave Whistler his first watercolor set and later circulated Whistler’s early etchings among collectors in London. By the time he was fifteen, Whistler was professing his desire to become an artist.60 Tragedy struck when Whistler’s father died of cholera in 1849. The family returned from their sojourn abroad to his mother’s hometown of Pomfret, Connecticut. Whistler enrolled in the United States Military Academy at West Point, which his father had attended, but the structure and rigor of West Point was not a good fit. After dropping out of West Point, Whistler was briefly employed in Washington, D.C., as a mapmaker for the United States Coast Survey, a position where he first learned etching techniques. Whistler became convinced that art was his true calling and moved to Paris, where he joined the atelier of Swiss artist Charles Gleyre. From 1855 until 1858, Whistler lived in the Latin Quarter and immersed himself in the burgeoning art scene. For the next several years, he moved between Paris and London, working on etchings and developing his aesthetic philosophy. Whistler’s first brush with fame came in 1863 when his painting of his mistress holding a lily and

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 86 dressed in white while standing upon an animal skin rug was displayed at the Paris Salon. Whistler’s submission was not as shocking as some submissions, such as Édouard Manet’s Luncheon on the Grass. It nevertheless attracted critics who were confounded by the painting and its ambiguous subject matter. Whistler titled the work Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl. The title places an emphasis on the interplay of the color white, rather than on the subject matter. Indeed, Whistler wanted the audience to focus on the subtle arrangement of tones and forms on canvas rather than the subject matter. This approach gave rise to the Aesthetic movement that was grounded in the idea of James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Arrangement in Grey “art for art’s sake,” which sought to divorce art and Black No.1, 1871, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. from all ties to morality and narrative in favor of an emphasis on surface beauty. In Whistler’s composition he uses the color white in a variety of both warm and cool tones, in the model’s dress, skin, and backdrop. This allows the viewer to see the white paint in all its complexity and range. As Whistler developed his philosophy of art, he began to give his paintings titles with musical associations–the terms “nocturne,” “arrangement,” “symphony,” and “note” can all be found in the titles of Whistler’s works. He borrowed the names of musical formats, but in his titles Whistler substituted color where the musical titles would include the musical key. By linking his paintings to music, Whistler implied that the visual arts, like musical arts, have an elusive, abstract, ethereal quality that could inspire the viewer emotionally and intellectually.61 During the latter half of the nineteenth century, changes in the world of music paralleled those in the art world; at this time, composers were moving away from narrative compositions to more abstract, emotive works that were

meant to be interpreted individually by the listener. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Whistler would eventually publish a book titled The Ten O’Clock Lecture that outlined his perspectives on art, declaring that art was not about moral instruction or storytelling.62 Whistler felt that art should be about art, not the world. Despite his assertions to the contrary, Whistler’s most famous composition is colloquially known by its subject: Whistler’s mother. However, the title he gave the 1871 work, Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1, foregrounds the color and composition rather than the subject. Whistler insisted that this famous painting was a composition of shapes and color and that the figure was inconsequential. Anna McNeill Whistler posed for the painting while living in London with her son. Several unverifiable stories surround the making of the painting itself; one is that Anna Whistler acted as a replacement for another model who could not make the appointment.63 Another is that Whistler originally envisioned painting the model standing up, but that his mother was too uncomfortable to pose standing for an extended period. The composition itself is a study in formal perfection. It features flat areas of black and gray, with the shape of the picture frame echoed in the framed print on the wall. There is a carefully balanced contrast between the delicate patterning of the curtain and the stark simplicity of the gown.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 87 Whistler’s notoriety also drew the attention of some prominent critics. One of the artist’s nearly abstract paintings titled Nocturne in Black and Gold, the Falling Rocket, produced in 1875, attracted the outrage of the noted Victorian art critic John Ruskin. The painting depicts a fireworks display in the night sky over Battersea Bridge, in an industrial London city park. The dark composition is splattered with gold flecks indicating the fireworks lighting up the night sky. The artist was more interested in conveying an atmosphere and mood rather than reality. Ruskin criticized the painting harshly, saying: The ill-educated conceit of the artist . . approached the aspect of willful imposture . . I have seen, and heard, much of Cockney impudence before now; but never expected to hear a coxcomb ask two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public’s face.64 In response to the criticism, Whistler sued Ruskin for libel. Whistler won the suit but was awarded only trivial damages. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS While Whistler decried narrative content, this did not prevent him from exploring certain Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ subjects over and over. One subject that Whistler turned to repeatedly in the 1880s was his mistress, Maud Franklin, lying sick in bed. Born in 1857 to working-class parents, Mary “Maud” Franklin began modeling for Whistler when she was a teenager.65 She eventually became his mistress. They were together for James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Arrangement in White more than a decade, but they never legally and Black, c . 1876, Freer Sackler Gallery of Art . married due to their differences in social class. While Maud acted as a hostess at Whistler’s Tite Street studio, Whistler understood that she would not be welcome in polite society, and so he did not bring her into the drawing rooms of potential patrons. (Whistler unceremoniously abandoned Maud to marry Beatrice Godwin, the widow of architect E. W. Godwin and a social peer, in 1888.) In addition to helping manage the artist’s career, Maud studied art alongside Mortimer Menpes, Walter Sickert, and other Whistler followers, and she even displayed her own work at the Grosvenor Gallery

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 88 and the Society of British Artists. She exhibited portraits and flower paintings and in correspondence described her experiments with etchings.66 Maud was the subject of more than sixty works by Whistler, including the dynamic and assertive Arrangement in White and Black. In this full-length studio work from 1876, Maud looks confident and vivacious. Maud experienced two pregnancies not long after the painting was completed, giving birth to Ione McNeill Whistler Franklin in 1877 and Maud McNeill Whistler Franklin in 1879, though only Ione survived childhood. By the following decade, Maud was still Whistler’s primary model, but she experienced several bouts of illness that kept her in bed. The cause of Maud’s illness is unknown, though we know that she was ill often enough that Whistler resorted to hiring another model, named Milly Finch, for his studio work because Maud was not well enough to pose for him. Thus, his paintings documenting Maud’s illness may have been born out of practicality: Whistler needed subjects to paint, and since his favorite model was lying in bed, he painted her in their home instead of painting her in the studio. There are at least six watercolor paintings of Maud in her bedroom, either sleeping, resting, or perusing a book. Each is small in scale, around ten inches by seven inches, which contributes to their intimate nature. In the watercolor from Dartmouth University’s Hood Museum of Art shown in your Art Reproductions Booklet, Maud is shown reading in bed. Watercolor is a medium associated with painting outdoors, en plein air. Here Whistler instead uses the thin washes and fleeting quality of the paint to capture a mood of restful contemplation. Maud’s body is partially covered by bedding; she wears a pale pink nightgown and is reading a book, unconcerned with the artist who is capturing her image. Her facial features and signature copper hair are only loosely defined. While her 1876 portrait exposes more in terms of showing off Maud’s figure and facial features, the smaller image feels more personal and revelatory. White and orange dishes sit on a tray on the side table, indicating that she is taking her meals in bed as well. Maud’s dark pinkish-rose coat hangs entangled with Whistler’s black overcoat on a coat rack on the left side of the composition, subtly indicating their relationship. Whistler further inserts himself into the scene with the inclusion of his butterfly signature, rendered in the same rose color as Maud’s coat and placed above the headboard, hovering over Maud’s head. Whistler was inspired by the potter’s marks he had seen in Asian ceramics to create his own abstract monogram for use in place of a traditional signature. His monogram, which evolved over time, features a stylized butterfly with

a stinger, combining Whistler’s dedication to beauty with his sharp edge. Viewers of this painting are Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ made to feel as though they are bearing witness to the intimate details of Maud’s life in the Whistler home. Maud Franklin shows scant awareness that she is being observed, thus forcing the viewer into the uncomfortable but also intriguing position of voyeur. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Whistler was an artist who publicly courted controversy. However, his small, intimate watercolors of his mistress in her sick bed show a seldom seen aspect of the artist’s inner life. He created these works during an especially difficult time in his life. The expense of the Ruskin trial was financially crippling, and Whistler began producing a series of small-scale watercolors in the 1880s as a way to expand his audience and sell his art in greater quantities. Among this grouping of watercolors, the series of paintings of his mistress and favorite model, Maud Franklin, are notable. Images of women reading or in other thoughtful, contemplative poses became popular in the late nineteenth century, reflecting the ideology of separate spheres in which men were aligned with public life while women were fixed within the domestic sphere. Whistler’s small, intimate depictions of convalescent Maud are a deliberate counterpoint to the idealized nudes favored by nineteenth-century academic painters.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 89 SELECTED WORK: FRIDA KAHLO, WITHOUT HOPE (SIN ESPERANZA), 1945 FRIDA KAHLO: BIOGRAPHY Frida Kahlo was born in 1907 in Coyoacán, Mexico. She often claimed 1910, the year when the Mexican Revolution began, as her birth year because she felt such a personal connection to the event. The Mexican Revolution, which was sparked by the campaign to overthrow the thirty-five-year dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz, began in 1910 but lasted more than a decade and sought to establish Mexico as a constitutional republic while improving the social conditions of Mexico’s poor and working classes. Kahlo’s Mexican heritage was a point of pride throughout her life, and she made her identity visible in both her artwork and her personal appearance. Kahlo’s father was a German photographer who emigrated to Mexico. He married Matilde Calderon, who was of Spanish and Amerindian descent. The marriage was unhappy, and both parents were often sick when Kahlo was growing up. She herself contracted polio when she was six, and as a result her right leg was shorter and thinner than her left leg, and she walked with a limp. She grew close to her father when she was recovering from the disease, and he introduced her to photography along Frida Kahlo, photographed by her father, Guillermo Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ with literature and philosophy. She became Kahlo, 1932 . a voracious reader and excelled in school. In 1922, she was admitted to the selective National Preparatory School. The school had only recently begun admitting women, and she was one of only thirty-five girls in a class of 2000. She was especially interested in science and dreamed of becoming a doctor. The school encouraged indigenismo, which was the celebration of Mexico’s indigenous heritage that developed in the aftermath of the revolution as Mexico asserted its identity independent of its connection to European colonialism. Kahlo embraced her heritage by wearing traditional Tehuana costumes.67 Kahlo’s dreams of medical school came to a halt when she was involved in a traumatic accident in 1925 at the age of eighteen. She was riding the bus with a boyfriend when it collided with a street car. Several people died, and Kahlo was impaled by an iron handrail. As a result of the near fatal crash, she experienced fractures in her spine, pelvis, ribs, and right leg. She spent months recovering, spending much of that time in bed on her back. While she was recuperating, she discovered painting. She had a specially made easel that enabled her to paint in bed, and a mirror was placed above it, so she could see herself.68 The damage to her body proved to be lifelong. She would spend the rest of

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 90 her life seeking treatments in Mexico and abroad for chronic back and leg problems. Her biographer estimates Kahlo underwent at least thirty-two operations on her spine and right foot.69 By late 1927, Kahlo had recovered enough to begin socializing again. She renewed connections with old school friends and joined the Mexican Communist Party. It was through this circle of political activists and artists that she met the muralist Diego Rivera, who at forty-two was more than twenty years her senior. They were married less than two years later. The marriage was emotionally turbulent, and Rivera was chronically unfaithful. Kahlo had several affairs herself, including a relationship with Leon Trotsky. Rivera and Kahlo separated and divorced in 1939, only to remarry in 1940. Rivera was part of the Mexican Muralist movement along with José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Backed by the government, they aimed to produce monumental public murals that mined the country’s national history and identity. Rivera had an international reputation in the art world, and he introduced Kahlo to countless artists, including Alfred Stieglitz and Georgia O’Keeffe. In 1938, she had her first one-woman show at the Surrealist-oriented Julien Levy Gallery in New York. As a result, her work was reproduced in the pages of Vogue and Life, exposing her to a wider audience. In 1939 her work was exhibited at a show organized by Marcel Duchamp and André Breton in Paris, and the Louvre acquired one of her paintings, making her the first Mexican artist to be included in their collection. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Without Hope (Sin Esperanza), like many of Kahlo’s works, is a self-portrait. Kahlo’s self-portraits are not conventional portraits, rather they explore both the physical suffering that she endured and the emotional distress produced by her tempestuous relationship with Rivera. Filtered through a visual language that recalls surrealism, the artist uses her own highly personal iconography to explore identity and pain. “They thought I was a Surrealist,” she said, “but I wasn’t. I never painted dreams. I painted my own reality.”70 In the aftermath of yet another surgery, in 1944 Kahlo was prescribed complete bed rest and was made to wear a steel corset. Confined to her bed and in tremendous pain, she had no appetite. However, as her weight dropped, she was ordered to eat pureed food every two hours. Her family started feeding her with

a funnel to ensure that she was getting the correct caloric intake. Small in scale at 28 by 36 centimeters, Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Without Hope (Sin Esperanza) shows a barren landscape featuring both a sun and a moon. Kahlo is lying in bed with her head propped by a pillow. In her mouth is a monstrous-sized funnel, overflowing with dead animals and fish, and resting on top is a skull made from sugar and inscribed with her name.71 The sugar skull refers to Mexican Day of the Dead celebrations when family members bring gifts and sweets to the graves of deceased relatives. The funnel is so large that it has to be supported by a wooden frame, similar to the easel that Kahlo used when painting in bed. Kahlo’s face looks thin, and her bare shoulders and loose hair (which she typically wore in braids atop her head) make her look younger and more vulnerable than usual. Tears can be seen falling from her eyes, which look pleadingly at the viewer. The reverse side of the painting is inscribed with the words, “Not the least hope remains to me... Everything moves in time with what the belly contains.” Even the pattern on Kahlo’s bed cover is suggestive, with its circular patterns resembling cells as seen through a microscope. The painting encompasses the universe from the solar system to the microscopic. Kahlo’s diary suggests her interest in Alfonso Toro’s La Familia Carvajal, a book about the persecution of Jews during the Inquisition in sixteenth-century Mexico.72 It includes scenes of people undergoing water torture by funnel. Her work is a grotesque take on the “horn of plenty,” which it

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 91 shows to be full of dead, rotting creatures.73 The funnel looks like an image from a Hieronymous Bosch painting, while the barren landscape calls to mind the work of artists Salvador Dalí and Giorgio de Chirico. The microscopic pattern on the quilt recalls Kahlo’s dreams of studying science and the life that was derailed by the bus crash. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS As a consequence of her chronic injuries, Kahlo was often immobilized in a cast in her bed or confined to a hospital room, where she painted her intensely personal compositions. About a third of her entire body of work—about fifty-five paintings—consists of self-portraits. She had her first solo exhibition in Mexico in 1953, shortly before her death in 1954 at the age of forty-seven.74 Kahlo was mainly known as Rivera’s wife until the late 1970s, when her work was rediscovered by art historians and political activists. Her paintings were small in scale, especially in comparison with her partner Diego Rivera’s large wall murals. Yet they are gripping in terms of their explorations of both physical and psychological pain. They also served to enlarge and complicate standards of beauty, beyond the classicizing European nudes of the previous century. In describing Kahlo’s work, Rivera once said, “I recommend her to you, not as a husband but as an enthusiastic admirer of her work, acid and tender, hard as steel and delicate and fine as a butterfly’s wing, loveable as a beautiful smile, and profound and cruel as the bitterness of life.”75

SECTION IV SUMMARY embrace of realism and subjectivity over the The Ideal and the Real Female Body as ideal. a Subject in Nineteenth- and Twentieth- ■■ Artists like James Abbott McNeill Whistler Century Art turned inward, away from representation and toward a more profound reflection upon ■■ During the nineteenth century, the idealized mood and subjectivity. female form was a prevalent subject among ■■ Frida Kahlo continued the modernist academically trained artists in Europe and trajectory in the twentieth century, casting the United States. In the ateliers of artists like aside the perfect images of women that Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel, dominated the late nineteenth century in favor Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ the female nude was the cornerstone of art of showing their lived experiences, reclaiming instruction as well as a commonplace subject the female body by relishing its flaws. in salons and Royal Academy exhibitions. Selected Work: James Abbott McNeill ■■ Following the Civil War, increasing numbers of American artists travelled to Paris to study Whistler, Maud Reading in Bed, 1883–84 art. As they returned home, they brought ■■ James Abbott McNeill Whistler developed their knowledge of the body with them, a style that challenged Victorian tastes by and idealized women began decorating all favoring evocative suggestions of people corners of American culture, from soap and places rather than detailed descriptions. advertisements to state capitol sculptural Whistler’s works prioritized the arrangement decorations. These women were not specific— of understated color and form over subject they were typically symbolic representations matter. As such, they offered a new approach of attributes such as liberty or poetry. to portraiture and paintings of modern life. ■■ The rise of modernism was accompanied by ■■ Whistler’s emphasis on form and his a rejection of academic classicism and an advocacy for “art for art’s sake” gave rise

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 92 to the Aesthetic movement in England and life, and she made her identity visible in both America. her artwork and her personal appearance. ■■ Whistler was an artist who publicly courted ■■ Without Hope (Sin Esperanza), like the vast controversy. However, his small, intimate majority of Kahlo’s work, is a self-portrait. watercolors of his mistress in her sick bed It uses a fantastical visual language to depict show a seldom seen aspect of the artist’s an incident from 1944 when Kahlo was private life. prescribed complete bed rest and made to ■■ While Whistler’s 1876 standing portrait of wear a steel corset. Confined to her bed and Maud Franklin details her figure and facial in tremendous pain, she had no appetite. features, the watercolor of Maud Reading in However, as her weight dropped, she was Bed is more personal and revelatory. ordered to eat pureed food every two hours. Her family started feeding her with a funnel ■■ Maud’s dark pinkish-rose coat hangs to ensure that she was getting the correct entangled with Whistler’s black overcoat on a caloric intake. coat rack on the left side of the composition, subtly indicating their relationship. Whistler ■■ In the painting Kahlo is lying in bed with further inserts himself into the scene with the her head propped by a pillow. In her mouth inclusion of his butterfly signature, rendered is a monstrous-sized funnel, overflowing in the same rose color as Maud’s coat and with dead animals, and resting on top is a placed above the headboard, hovering over skull made from sugar and inscribed with Maud’s head. her name. The sugar skull refers to Mexican Day of the Dead celebrations, when family ■■ Images of women reading or in other members bring gifts and sweets to the graves thoughtful, contemplative poses became of deceased relatives. The funnel is so large popular in the late nineteenth century. Such that it has to be supported by a wooden images reflected the ideology of separate frame, similar to the easel that Kahlo used spheres based on sex—men were aligned when painting in bed. Her face looks thin, with public life while women were fixed and her bare shoulders and loose hair make within the domestic sphere. her look younger and more vulnerable than Selected Work: Frida Kahlo, Without Hope usual. Tears can be seen falling from her (Sin Esperanza), 1945 eyes, which look pleadingly at the viewer. ■■ Her paintings were small in scale, especially Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ ■■ Frida Kahlo was born in 1907 in Coyoacán, in comparison with her partner Diego Mexico, though she liked to claim 1910 as her Rivera’s large wall murals, yet they are birth year because it marked the beginning gripping in terms of their exploration of both of the Mexican Revolution. Kahlo’s Mexican physical and psychological pain. heritage was a point of pride throughout her

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 93 Section V Neurasthenia and Vitality in Turn of the Century Art

NEURASTHENIA AND THE NEW WOMAN IN AMERICAN ART AT THE TURN OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Neurasthenia was brought to public attention in 1869 by George Miller Beard as a disorder of the central nervous system. As Beard described it, “the chief and primary cause of this development and very rapid increase of nervousness is modern civilization.”76 This view held that illness was a direct consequence of modern life. The theory posited that the human body was like an electrical machine, powered by energy distributed through the nervous system. Rapid urbanization and industrialization was thought to cause people to spend too much “nervous energy,” and once it was depleted, they became sick with what was called neurasthenia.77 Among the modern advances that caused this overexertion of nervous energy, as detailed by Beard, were “steam power, the periodical press, the telegraph, the sciences, and the mental Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ activity of women.”78 Physician Silas Weir Mitchell developed “rest cures” as In the decades that followed Beard’s identification of a treatment for neurasthenic women . the disorder, nervous maladies received widespread attention in both the scientific and popular press. fatigue following civilization and the Between 1870 and 1900, more than three hundred intense and competitive life of struggle 80. articles on the subject appeared in American medical journals.79 According to G. Stanley Hall, The cluster of symptoms and pathologies that fell neurasthenia was characterized by the following: under the catchall title of neurasthenia could likely be identified with more specificity by modern …morbid irritability, depression, physicians as chronic fatigue, anorexia, multiple weakness, introspection, apprehension, sclerosis, severe anemia, thyroid disease, and anxiety and inattention, in which often the sense of disorders. Psychologist William James, who himself fatigue is itself fatigued so that the victims suffered from neurasthenia, called the disease of it constantly overdo, because this usual “Americanitis,” citing specific social conditions in check is gone . It is a kind of pathological the United States as giving rise to the disease.81

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 94 The illness was thought to be especially common and ranch hands, he returned to Philadelphia with a among upper-class women and men, though renewed sense of vitality and vigor.82 the therapeutic treatment options varied widely depending on the sex of the patient. Women were The gendered approaches to health care reflected diagnosed with neurasthenia in far greater numbers the ideology of separate spheres that came to than men, and the prescribed treatment plan for dominate Western society in the aftermath of the women consisted of rest and sedatives. “Rest cures,” Industrial Revolution—men held sway over public as developed by physician Silas Weir Mitchell, often life while women were confined to the domestic required bed rest for four to six weeks or longer, sphere. A related phenomenon was the Cult of True and neurasthenic women were ordered to avoid both Womanhood, which was a Victorian ideal widely physical and mental activity, including reading, held in American society among the middle and upper classes. It preached four cardinal virtues for writing, and socializing. They were spoon fed milk 83 and soup and given massages to keep their muscles women: piety, purity, submission, and domesticity. from atrophying. The rest cure is most famously The treatments for neurasthenia affirmed these described by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in her short virtues, while implying that the changing status of story “The Yellow Wallpaper” (1892), in which the women, and their increasing influence outside the narrator is slowly driven mad by the experience of home in the pursuit of higher education, professional enforced confinement. fulfillment, and political equality led to activities and mental stresses that caused their sickness and needed Fewer men were diagnosed with neurasthenia, and to be immediately curtailed. their treatment plan was vigorous activity rather than rest. Theodore Roosevelt, for example, was diagnosed Neurasthenia fell out of favor as a diagnosis in with asthma and neurasthenia and received a “West the United States following World War I though it cure.” He was sent to the Dakotas, where outdoor was not dropped from the American Psychiatric activity, including cattle roping, hunting, and rough- Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of riding, were thought to replenish his energy stores. Mental Disorders until 1980. Both rest cures and West Others who partook of the West cure included the cures fell by the wayside as Freudian psychoanalysis poet Walt Whitman and the painter Thomas Eakins. and talk therapy rose in popularity. Shinkei-suijaku is a related diagnosis that is still in common usage in Eakins spent the summer of 1887 at a ranch in the 84 Badlands after falling into a depression when he was Japan, while in China it is called shenjing shuairuo. fired from his position at the Pennsylvania Academy Both disorders are now considered to be, like neurasthenia, a culture-bound syndrome. of Fine Arts. After a summer spent with cowboys Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

SELECTED WORK: THOMAS WILMER DEWING, A READING, 1897 THOMAS WILMER DEWING: BIOGRAPHY The painter Thomas Wilmer Dewing was known for his harmonious paintings of women in domestic interiors. Dewing was born in Boston in 1851. He served as a lithographic apprentice and studied art informally in Boston. Dewing began exhibiting paintings in New York in 1878 with the newly founded Society of American Artists; he moved there two years later to teach at the Art Students League. He married an established still life and portrait painter, Maria Richards Oakey, in 1881. Between 1885 and 1905, the couple spent their summers at the Cornish Art Colony in New Hampshire, which had been founded by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. In 1887, Dewing went to Paris and enrolled at the Académie Julian. He was part of a generation of American artists who sought training and cosmopolitan credentials in France, joining the ateliers of academic painters like William-Adolphe Bougereau and Jean-Léon Gérôme. Nineteenth-century French academic training revolved around the human figure and

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 95 the feminine ideal of beauty as expressed in the classicizing female nude. Dewing began to focus on images of non- specific idealized women in the late nineteenth century. The Dewings became leaders in the American aesthetic movement, whose ideal of decorative harmony, influenced by American expatriate painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler and contemporary English artists and writers, elevated color and form over narrative content. Dewing’s women were not named or intended to be identifiable, though their dress and comportment suggests that they are upper class. They were softly painted in accordance with the colors of their surroundings to create a mood. The emphasis of Dewing’s work lay in formal unity and harmony; his figures were typically depicted in a state of repose, turning inward. Dewing’s subjects and aestheticizing approach to modern themes allied him with the progressive artists’ group Ten American Painters. By 1920, Dewing had retired from painting; he spent much of his later years living in Cornish. His wife, Maria Oakey Dewing, died in 1927, and Thomas Dewing passed away in 1938 at the age of eighty-seven.

SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL The artist Thomas Wilmer Dewing as a young man . ANALYSIS Dewing’s paintings typically depicted aristocratic, introspective women in moody interiors. Painted in 1897, A Reading shows two elegant Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ women sitting at a square, polished mahogany table, which is angled away from the picture plane. The painting appeared in a retrospective of the artist’s work in 1900, at which time Dewing wrote to his close friend, architect Stanford White, “Did you notice the one with two girls at a big table, I think it the best thing that I ever did.”85 The woman in yellow on the left holds a flower in her hand while the other woman in a burnished greenish-gold gown sits at the far end of the table with an open book in front of her. The domestic interior is sparsely decorated, with a single mirror with a Baroque frame hanging on the wall and a Chinese vase on the table. The vase, holding just a few drooping stems that mimic the posture of the ladies, breaks up the empty space between the two women. Two vertical wall moldings also serve to divide the composition, isolating and segmenting the women still further. The paint surface consists of atmospheric veils of color. This style came to be known as tonalism and was ascribed to the generation of American artists who followed Whistler’s painterly tradition. Such compositions represent a shift from the moralistic, didactic mode toward an aesthetic orientation, where narrative is secondary or nonexistent. The juxtapositions of colors and forms focus on mood, valuing the principles of spirituality, quietness, and grace.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 96 The attenuated figures don’t direct their gazes at the viewer (one is physically turned away) and hardly acknowledge one another; they are in their own worlds. The desultory women in Dewing’s pictures can be understood as embodying neurasthenia. Both women are marked by their languid posture and tired expressions. John Singer Sargent criticized the bloodless quality of Dewing’s women, describing them as “angelic, far-away, and thin, the real flesh and blood thing, rustical thing not being good enough for them.”86 They are situated within a melancholic, still space. The table constrains the women in place, its solidity contrasting with the ethereal and waif-like appearance of the women. The elongated vase visually matches their long necks and arms. Though they are living, breathing women, the scene is as inert as a still life. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS The subtle, languid figures that populate Dewing’s Gilded Age portraits of women are intended to create a mood of aesthetic contemplation in the tradition of Dewing’s mentor, James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Both artists found inspiration in the flatness and asymmetry of Edo-period Japanese woodblock prints. Beyond the formal aspects of Dewing’s work, it is difficult to divest his still and dreamy women from the discourse on neurasthenia and “rest cures” that had become so prevalent in upper class circles during the late nineteenth century.

SELECTED WORK: JOHN SINGER SARGENT, MR. AND MRS. I. N. PHELPS STOKES, 1897

THE RISE OF THE NEW WOMAN In some regards, the preoccupation with neurasthenia and its attendant “rest cure” can be understood as a direct response to women’s creeping independence in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Beard himself pinned the blame for the illness on “the mental activity of women” among other causes. The term “New Woman” was first coined by writer Charles Reade in his novel A Woman Hater, which was originally serialized in Blackwood’s Magazine in 1877.87 The common usage of the term typically referred to middle- and upper-middle-class women in the last quarter of the nineteenth century who Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ challenged social conventions and expanded women’s participation in public life. Women who embraced the label “New Woman” were moving from the home into the public sphere and experiencing greater opportunities for education and public involvement, either through work or through crusades for social changes, such as the fight for suffrage, campaigns for better living conditions and child care, and issues related to reproductive rights.88 The concept of the New Woman took many forms in the popular press, from the suffragist to the woman’s club member, from the department store shopper to the intrepid bicyclist in bloomers. Commercial artists played a pivotal role in disseminating the image of the New Woman in periodicals, which were read by a largely female audience. About 11,000 periodicals and magazines were published in the United States between 1885 and 1905, and 88 percent of the subscribers were women.89 Charles Dana Gibson’s Gibson Girl came to espouse the tenets of independence associated with the New Woman. For twenty years, between 1890 and 1910, Dana published images of an athletic and emancipated New Woman. The multi-faceted Gibson Girl appeared in illustrations in Life and Scribner’s, playing golf and tennis, riding horseback, drawing, playing musical instruments, and even

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 97 participating in jury duty. With her distinctive profile featuring a voluminous chignon and wearing a crisp yet casual shirtwaist and skirt, she appeared healthy and buxom, although with a tiny waist. The Gibson Girl successfully marketed women’s independence in an appealing, non-threatening package. Physically she was the antithesis of Dewing’s listless neurasthenics; she was represented as confident, active in the world, and energetic. JOHN SINGER SARGENT: BIOGRAPHY John Singer Sargent was born in Florence, Italy, to expatriate American parents. The couple had been living in Philadelphia, but left the United States for Europe in 1854, after the death of their firstborn child. John was born in Florence in January 1856. The Sargents’ stay in Europe was meant to be temporary, but Mary Singer begged her husband Fitzwilliam Sargent to stay abroad. They were based in Paris but travelled constantly, spending winters in Italy and summers in the Alps.90 From an early age, Sargent loved to draw. He was encouraged in this pursuit by his mother, who was an amateur artist, and his father, who in addition to being trained as an eye surgeon, Charles Dana Gibson’s Gibson Girl on the cover of the was a skilled medical illustrator. In the 1870s, June 1895 edition of Scribner’s . Sargent studied at the atelier of Carolus-Duran, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ and in 1874 he passed the rigorous entrance examination for the École des Beaux-Arts on his first attempt. There he took classes in anatomy and perspective and earned a silver prize. He also spent a great deal of time in museums, studying the work of established artists. He shared a studio with the American artist James Carroll Beckwith, who introduced Sargent to other American artists. At age twenty-three, Sargent painted an engaging portrait of his teacher, Carolus-Duran, which was displayed at the Paris Salon of 1879. The painting drew accolades when it was exhibited in France and over the next few years when it was shown both in England and America. Sargent represented his mentor with a sophisticated ease in a freely brushed style, elements that would become hallmarks of his mature portraits. The painting became a calling card, serving to advertise Sargent’s talents as a portraitist to an international audience. After leaving the atelier of Carolus-Duran, Sargent travelled to Spain. There he was profoundly influenced by the Spanish masters Diego Velazquez, El Greco, and Francisco Goya. Drawing inspiration from Édouard Manet’s reworking of their motifs, Sargent created El Jaleo (1882), a dramatic large-scale painting of a Spanish dancer in mid-performance, with a line of musicians playing in the background.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 98 Upon his return to Paris, Sargent found that he was in demand as a portrait painter. His painting skills, cosmopolitan charm, and language skills (he was fluent in French, English, Italian, and German) made him broadly appealing. It was not long before he produced the most controversial painting of his career, his Portrait of Madame Virginie Gautreau (Madame X), (1883–84). The sitter was the American-born wife of a French banker in Paris, known for her dramatic appearance. Sargent knew her socially and asked her to sit for him. He deliberately created a sensational portrait with a suggestive pose. Virginie’s head is turned in sharp profile, emphasizing her nose. Her right arm is twisted, and her shoulders are exposed. The artist would later declare, “I suppose it is the best thing I have done.”91 However, the painting caused a scandal upon its debut at the Paris Salon of 1884. The adverse criticism of the finished portrait so damaged Sargent’s reputation that the following year he moved to live permanently in Britain. His later portraits were never so adventurous in terms of challenging ideas about propriety and Photograph of John Singer Sargent by James E . Purdy, femininity. 1903 . Madame X is a portrait of a striking, redheaded woman with powdered white skin and wearing a jet-black gown. The gown originally had one jeweled strap slipping off her shoulder. Sargent attempted to dampen the controversy by painting over the disheveled strap, moving it back into its expected position. But the gesture was not enough to quell the controversy. Though the scandal caused Sargent to Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ relocate, he continued to keep the painting on view in his studio, where it remained until 1916, when he sold the painting to the Metropolitan Museum of Art a few months after Gautreau’s death.92 SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Sargent painted the double portrait of Mr . and Mrs . I . N . Phelps Stokes in 1897. At the time, Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes was an architecture student in Paris. He later became known as an architect and author. His wife, Edith Minturn Stokes, was born in West Brighton, Staten Island, daughter of the heir to a shipping fortune.93 The Stokeses were married on August 25, 1895, and the portrait by Sargent was a wedding gift from James A. Scrimser. Edith was the subject of several portraits and even served as Daniel French’s model for the face of his sculpture The Republic, which was a centerpiece of the Court of Honor of the Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago.94 Sargent’s was the most successful image at capturing the woman’s energy and vivacity. Sargent’s original intention was to paint a single portrait of Edith during the summer of 1897 in Venice. Edith initially wore a blue evening gown for her sitting. But after five weeks, Sargent wasn’t satisfied with the painting, so he scrapped it. It wasn’t until Edith and her husband showed up at Sargent’s studio

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 99 in Chelsea in London after walking across the city that he knew how he wanted to paint her: in everyday clothing rather than an evening gown.95 Sargent decided to depict Edith as if she were just returning from a brisk walk outdoors, with a Great Dane at her side. After Edith’s portion of the portrait was finished, however, the dog was no longer available, and Isaac Phelps Stokes suggested that he stand in for the dog. Sargent agreed, and the single portrait became a double portrait of the couple. Edith was already centered on the canvas, and so her husband had to be painted into the background. While the composition was born of necessity, it successfully conveys the dynamism of Edith in relation to her more taciturn husband. Isaac Stokes stands with his face half-shadowed and his arms crossed. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Resembling an aristocratic Gibson Girl, Edith Phelps Stokes is a picture of health and vivacity. Her pose, expression, and dress combine to create an image that is athletic and charming, with a magnetic smile and rosy cheeks. Glowing with health and energy, she stands with a slight smile, holding a straw boater (taken from menswear) in one hand while her other arm is akimbo, resting on her hip. She looks ready to take on the world, in marked contrast to her

husband who recedes into the background. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Edith’s casual outfit caused a stir among the upper classes. Her simple shirtwaist and skirt, with her masculine jacket and tie, combined with the straw boater sitting on her hip, was a look not typically seen in formal portraits. It John Singer Sargent, Portrait of Madame Virginie suggested that she was a modern, active woman. Gautreau (Madame X), (1883–84) Metropolitan Museum The collar and bow tie combination is worn by of Art, NY . both the husband and wife, visually suggesting an equanimity between the sexes. Edith Phelps Stokes was by all accounts lively and active in her community. She was the President of the New York Kindergarten Association and ran a sewing school for immigrant women in addition to being a benefactor of her Church.96 Her husband was also involved with Progressive-era causes, employing his architectural background to become involved with the housing reform movement. He joined the New York State Tenement House Commission, where he co-authored the Tenement House

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 100 Law of 1901.97 The Stokeses adopted a three-year-old daughter in 1908. Edith suffered from a series of strokes later in life and died in New York in 1937. I. N. Phelps would outlive his wife by seven years. He spent those years involved in the art community as the head of the New York City Arts Commission where he oversaw the city’s WPA mural program.

SELECTED WORK: FRANCIS PICABIA, AGNES MEYER, 1915

FRANCIS PICABIA: BIOGRAPHY Picabia was born in Paris in 1879 to a French mother and Cuban father. His mother died when he was seven, and he was raised by his father. In the 1890s, Picabia attended the École des Arts Decoratifs, where he studied with the painter Fernand Cormon. Picabia’s early work was inspired by the Impressionism and Neoimpressionism of Alfred Sisley and Paul Signac, respectively. His style changed dramatically when he encountered cubism in 1909. Two years later, he joined the Puteaux Group, also known as Section d’Or or the Golden Section. The group was a collective of artists, critics, and poets who were interested in cubism and orphism. Centered in the Parisian suburbs, they often met in the home of the Duchamp brothers (Jacques Villon and Marcel Duchamp) in Puteaux or at Albert Gleizes’ The artist Francis Picabia, photographed in 1919 studio in Courbevoie. Other group members inside his work Danse de Saint-Guy, Centre Georges included Guillaume Apollinaire, Fernand Pompidou, Musée National d’Art Moderne. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Léger, and Jean Metzinger. Around this time Picabia married the art critic and writer Gabrielle Buffet. In 1913 Francis Picabia travelled to New York to attend the Armory Show, which was the first large- scale exhibition to introduce European modernist art to an American audience. As the only European artist to attend the Armory Show, Picabia became an instant celebrity upon his arrival in New York. The press heralded him as a representative of the French avant-garde. He met Alfred Stieglitz and his circle and was given a solo exhibition at Stieglitz’s gallery 291 two days after the Armory Show closed. Picabia’s experience of New York immediately impacted his artistic practice. He began creating cubist cityscapes, evoking the energy and architecture of the urban landscape. Picabia would return to New York in June of 1915 while on a layover for a business trip to Cuba that he subsequently abandoned, choosing instead to remain in the city. On this second trip another aspect of the American experience captivated him. He said: The machine has become more than a mere adjunct of life . It is really a part of human life—perhaps the very soul . In seeking forms through which to interpret ideas or by which

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 101 to expose human characteristics I have come at length upon the form which appears most brilliantly plastic and fraught with symbolism . I have enlisted the machinery of the modern world, and introduced it into my studio 98. It was fitting that Picabia would develop his mechanical style upon his return to New York, where he had first encountered a modern, machine-age city two years prior. In the aftermath of the Armory Show, Paul Haviland, Agnes Ernst Meyer, and Marius de Zayas discussed creating a new magazine to promote the cause of modern art in America. They secured the support of Alfred Stieglitz and named the journal 291 after his gallery at 291 Fifth Avenue. At that moment Stieglitz had nearly closed the space and thought that the magazine might “bring new life into ‘291’ (the gallery).” The first issue appeared in March of 1915 and was followed by eleven more, each focusing on modern art, satire, and criticism. The issue of 291 from July/August 1915 published fivemechanomorphic portraits by Picabia that caricature the editorial board of the magazine. In an act denying the artist as original creator, the five non-representational portraits lifted their imagery directly from advertisements and mechanical drawings. As such they explore the boundaries between art and anti-art, prefiguring the incipient Dada movement. The portraits are frontal, precise, and highly simplified. Picabia may have been influenced by the technology of print production. Looking at diagrams and advertisements in books and catalogues, he became aware that the work that communicated most effectively when reproduced consisted of hard lines and sharp contrasts. He demonstrated his sense of absurdist humor when he assigned identities (through inscriptions) to these inert, generic objects. This effectively denies the individuality of both the artist and his subjects. These machine portraits can be read as advertisements for 291’s project, the promotion of a modern, American art. Picabia consciously chose advertising as source material, recognizing the media’s ability to communicate with the public in a direct manner. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS The inscription in French above Picabia’s portrait translates as “Portrait of a Young American Girl in the State of Nudity,” which is an elaborate title for a print that simply shows a sparkplug inscribed with the words For-Ever. The verticality of the plug, with its contrasting bars of exposed paper and black ink, suggests heft and contained power, while at the same time the form balances precariously upon two wires. One wire is straight, and the other is bent, as if to resemble a dancer’s pose. A critic for the New York Evening Sun thought that the work “intended to show the young American girl is Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ a hard, unchangeable creature without possibilities.”99 Yet according to Gabrielle Buffet-Picabia, the artist’s first wife, the young American girl is depicted as a perpetual “kindler of flame.”100 Though the subject is not identified by name, most scholars read the image as a portrait of Agnes Ernst Meyer, referring to her as “the spark that ignited the new energies within the Stieglitz group,” just as the sparkplug was invented to ignite a motorcar’s engine.101 Picabia had a passion for automobiles, one that he shared with Meyer, who was known for driving “an automobile up and down Fifth Avenue at a time when women were not identified with ‘motoring’.”102 Picabia’s other four prints refer to Paul Haviland, Marius de Zayas, Alfred Stieglitz, and Picabia himself. With the exception of Picabia, the others were all members of the 291 editorial board. By process of elimination this remaining print should depict Meyer. However, there was never any specific confirmation from Picabia that this was indeed the case, and some scholars suggest that the image conflates several American women who inspired Picabia, including Katherine Nash Rhoades, Gertrude Stein, and Mabel Dodge. This sexing of the machine as female within modernism is often understood as an expression of anxiety on the part of the male artist about the changing roles of women and the indomitable forces

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 102 of technology, or masculinity threatened by industrial capitalism. This particular construct doesn’t prove to be useful in this case. Instead, we see how the new machine aesthetic was accompanied by a blurring of gender distinctions in the era of the New Woman, resulting in a breakdown of distinctions between both human and machine and male and female. Picabia specifically refers to the image as being in the state of nudity. Yet he prevents the girl’s body from being fetishized through the substitution of a machine part for the body. Furthermore, the spark plug is not a conventionally feminine or seductive object.103 Picabia seems to underscore the liberating aspects of the machine and its ability to de- stabilize gender. Picabia likely modeled this work on a Redhead spark plug advertisement while the French phrases found in these Francis Picabia, Udnie (Jeune fille américaine; danse), portraits were lifted from the “pink pages” of 1913, Centre Pompidou, Musée National d’Art Moderne. Le Petit Larousse, a French dictionary, which was the section devoted to common expressions derived from Latin and other languages that made their way into French vocabularies. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Taken as a group, Picabia’s five portraits reflect the spirit of 291, critiquing modern art’s relationship to America while embodying both experimentation and satire. Part of their project with these works seems to have been the advancement of the activities of the 291 circle, both the magazine and the commercial Modern Gallery, and the continuation of the campaign for modern American art. Picabia’s portraits demonstrate artistic experimentation while promoting Picabia and his colleagues and their

friends. It is particularly telling that Picabia employed the visual language of advertisements, as if to Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ suggest that his machine portraits functioned as advertisements for modern art. Another motif implicit in Portrait of a Young American Girl in the State of Nudity was the French fascination with American girlhood as a potent symbol of health, vibrancy, and modernity. This cultural preoccupation can be detected in a passage by Jean Cocteau, where he writes: The United States . evokes. a girl more interested in her health than her beauty . She swims, boxes, dances, leaps onto moving trains—all without knowing she is beautiful . It is we who admire her face, on the screen—enormous, like the face of a goddess 104. It is likely that Cocteau refers to Mary Pickford, who was known for her angelic appearance and daring on-screen escapades. Pickford’s agility and clever demeanor furthered the spread of the New Woman as a cultural trope to an international audience. Picabia shared Cocteau’s interest in the young American woman as a metaphor. Two years prior to making the prints for 291, Picabia painted an abstract cubist composition that he titled Udnie (Jeune

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 103 fille américaine; danse) or Udnie, Young American Girl; Dance. As with the mechanomorphic print, Picabia refrains from explaining the title’s source. Yet the repetition of the phrase “young American girl” in both works suggests a correlation between his idea of modern art and the vitality embodied in his notion of American girlhood.

SECTION V SUMMARY “West cure.” He was sent to the Dakotas Neurasthenia and the New Woman in where outdoor activity, including cattle American Art at the Turn of the Twentieth roping, hunting, and rough-riding, were thought to replenish his energy stores. Century Selected Work: Thomas Wilmer Dewing, A ■■ Neurasthenia was brought to public attention Reading, 1897 as a disorder of the central nervous system in 1869 by Dr. George Miller Beard. Seeing ■■ New England-based painter Thomas Wilmer illness as a direct consequence of modern Dewing built his artistic career around the life, the theory held that the human body was depiction of languorous, aristocratic women like an electrical machine, powered by energy in subtle images that explore the boundaries distributed through the nervous system. Rapid of beauty, harmony, and refinement. urbanization and industrialization caused ■■ Painted in 1897, A Reading shows two people to spend too much “nervous energy,” elegant women sitting at a square, polished and once it was depleted, they became sick mahogany table, which is angled away with what was called neurasthenia. from the picture plane. The figures don’t ■■ The illness was thought to be especially acknowledge the outside world. One woman common among upper-class women and men, is turned away from the viewer, and they though the therapeutic treatment options hardly acknowledge one another; each is lost varied widely depending on the sex of the in her own thoughts. Slumped and enervated, patient. the women can be understood as embodying ■■ Women were diagnosed with neurasthenia neurasthenia. in far greater numbers than men, and the ■■ Dewing’s images are haunting and prescribed treatment plan consisted of rest ambiguous. Like the discourse surrounding Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ and sedatives. “Rest cures” often required neurasthenia, they reveal contemporary bed rest for four to six weeks or longer, and anxiety about the evolving place of women women were ordered to avoid both physical in society, the decline of New England’s old and mental activity, including reading, social elite, and the changes heralded by writing, and socializing. The rest cure is most urbanism, industrialism, and modernity. famously described by Charlotte Perkins The Rise of the New Woman Gilman in her short story, “The Yellow Wallpaper” (1892), in which the narrator ■■ In some regards, the preoccupation with is slowly driven mad by the experience of neurasthenia and its attendant “rest cure” can enforced confinement. be understood as a direct response to women’s ■■ Fewer men were diagnosed with creeping independence in the latter part of the neurasthenia, and their treatment plan was nineteenth century. Beard himself pinned the vigorous activity rather than rest. Theodore blame for the illness on “the mental activity of Roosevelt, for example, was diagnosed with women” among other causes. asthma and neurasthenia and received a ■■ The term “New Woman” typically referred

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 104 to middle- and upper-middle-class women in Edith Phelps Stokes is a picture of health the last quarter of the nineteenth century who and vivacity. Her pose, expression, and dress challenged social conventions and expanded combine to create an image that is athletic women’s participation in public life. Such New and charming, with her magnetic smile and Women sought out opportunities for education rosy cheeks. and public involvement, either through work ■■ The dynamism conveyed in the portrait or through crusades for social changes, such reflected the sitter’s reality; she was not as the fight for suffrage, campaigns for better a bored socialite; rather she was actively living conditions and child care, and issues engaged in the world, serving on committees related to reproductive rights. and performing service to her community. ■■ The conception of the New Woman took Selected Work: Francis Picabia, Agnes many forms in the popular press, from the suffragist to the woman’s club member, from Meyer, 1915 the department store shopper to the intrepid ■■ In 1913 Francis Picabia travelled to New bicyclist in bloomers. Commercial artists York to attend the Armory Show, which was played a pivotal role in disseminating the the first large-scale exhibition to introduce image of the New Woman in periodicals, European modernist art to an American which were read by a largely female audience. audience. As the only European artist to attend ■■ For twenty years, between 1890 and 1910, the Armory Show, Picabia became an instant illustrator Charles Dana Gibson satirized celebrity upon his arrival in New York—the society with his image of the New Woman press heralded him as a representative of the who was competitive, sporty, and vibrant French avant-garde. Picabia became fascinated as well as beautiful. The multi-faceted with the city’s modernity. Picabia met Alfred Gibson Girl appeared in illustrations in Stieglitz and his circle and was given a solo Life and Scribner’s, playing golf and tennis, exhibition at Stieglitz’s gallery 291 in the days riding horseback, drawing, playing musical that followed. instruments, and even participating in jury ■■ Two years later, Picabia returned to New duty. The Gibson Girl successfully marketed York. He asked to contribute to Stieglitz’s woman’s independence in an appealing, non- new journal, also called 291 . Picabia used threatening package. found advertisements and technical manuals Selected Work: John Singer Sargent, Mr. and to create non-representational portraits of Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Mrs. I. N. Phelps Stokes, 1897 himself and the magazine’s board members. ■■ One print was ambiguously labelled Portrait ■■ Nineteenth-century American artist John of a Young American Girl in the State of Singer Sargent was a lifelong expatriate, who Nudity . It showed a diagram of a spark plug captivated audiences both domestically and and was thought to represent Agnes Ernst abroad with his skillful and flattering society Meyer, the only board member not identified portraits. directly by name in Picabia’s work. ■■ Sargent was commissioned to paint Edith ■■ Picabia specifically refers to the image as Minturn Stokes as a wedding present. Taken being in the state of nudity. Yet he prevents with her vibrant appearance after a brisk walk, the girl’s body from being fetishized through Sargent decided to paint her in casual dress, the substitution of a machine part for the accompanied by her dog. When the dog was body. Furthermore, the spark plug is not a not available, Mrs. Stokes’s new husband filled conventionally feminine or seductive object. the empty spot in the composition. ■■ Another motif implicit in Portrait of a Young ■■ Resembling an aristocratic Gibson Girl, American Girl in the State of Nudity was the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 105 French fascination with American girlhood American Girl; Dance. As with the as a potent symbol of health, vibrancy, and mechanomorphic print, Picabia refrains from modernity. explaining the title’s source. Yet the repetition ■■ Two years prior to making the prints for of the phrase “young American girl” in both 291, Picabia painted an abstract cubist works suggests a correlation between his idea composition that he titled Udnie (Jeune of modern art and the vitality embodied in fille américaine; danse) or Udnie, Young his notion of American girlhood. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 106 Section VI Art and Mental Health Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

Albrecht Dürer, Melencolia I, 1514, National Gallery of Art . Hugh Welch Diamond, Seated Woman with a Bird, 1855, THE OTHERING OF MENTAL The Getty . In the mid-nineteenth century, Diamond, the ILLNESS IN ART superintendent of the Surrey County Lunatic Asylum, Representations of mental illness in art date back began taking photographs of the asylum inmates . centuries, and such artworks have succeeded in making mental illness more visible. However, the mentally ill in a subordinate social category, while art has brought attention to mental disorders, removed from their own experiences. art can also further stigmatize such illnesses by For instance, Renaissance artist Vittore Carpaccio’s representing those with mental illnesses as “other,” painting The Healing of the Possessed Man at without adequate sensitivity to or knowledge of the the Rialto (c. 1496), depicts mental illness as a plight of those being depicted. According to Edmund form of demonic possession that can be cured by Husserl, the other is defined as alien in relation to the priestly intervention. Albrecht Dürer’s depiction 105 self. The act of othering allows the viewer to place of melancholy in the engraving Melencolia I as

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 107 a shadowy, brooding figure is more nuanced, yet disorders by raising their visibility, at times this still beholden to period thinking about illness. ventured into exploitation, as the mentally ill were The darkness that falls upon Melancholia’s face put forth as spectacles to behold, an act which is thought to represent an excess of black bile, denied their inherent dignity and humanity. At other suggesting that a melancholic disposition was a points in history, images of the insane were created result of humors that were not in check. Humorism for systematic research purposes. For example, was a medical theory embraced by the ancient when photography was still a new medium in the Greeks, which held that the body was governed mid-nineteenth century, Hugh Welch Diamond, by four fluids or humors that governed health who was the superintendent of the Surrey County and temperament: blood (sanguine), yellow bile Lunatic Asylum, began taking photographs of the (choleric), black bile (melancholic), and phlegm asylum inmates with the idea that he could record (phlegmatic).106 Health and mood problems were their mental states as manifested in their facial attributed to an imbalance in one’s humors. expressions. The photographs are haunting but also raise concerns about patient privacy and patients’ While artists were able to normalize mental ability to consent to being photographed.

SELECTED WORK: WILLIAM HOGARTH, ILLUSTRATION OF BEDLAM FROM A RAKE’S PROGRESS, 1735

WILLIAM HOGARTH: BIOGRAPHY Hogarth was an eighteenth-century British artist best known for his widely circulated satirical engravings, which were a vehicle for his biting social commentary. Born in London in 1679, Hogarth grew up in a lower-middle-class family. His father was an educated man who taught Latin and wrote textbooks for a living, but he struggled financially. He attempted to open a

coffeehouse, but the venture failed, and he ended Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ up spending five years in a debtors’ prison. Hogarth never spoke of the experience, though it undoubtedly informed his work. As a young man, Hogarth learned the art of silverplate engraving as an apprentice to Ellis Gamble, a goldsmith. He engraved trade cards and book plates for Gamble before setting out on his own in 1720. His early work included political caricatures and book illustrations; he also began painting small conversation pieces. Hogarth was an avid reader of British satire; he counted the author and satirist Henry Fielding, who wrote the comic novel Tom Jones, among The Painter and His Pug, 1745, a self-portrait by William Hogarth . his closest friends.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 108 Hogarth’s engraved prints, with their focus on modern moral subjects that were intended to be viewed in a deliberate narrative sequence, can be understood as a visual equivalent to the tradition of literary humor. Hogarth’s working model was to create a series of highly detailed narrative paintings that were later engraved, with the prints being sold through print shops on a subscription basis. They are designed to be viewed in sequence, as if reading chapters of a book, following the lives of characters as they fall prey to topical social ills. For example, Marriage a la Mode consisted of six oil paintings showing an upper-class couple who marry for the wrong reasons (he for money, she for a title) and gradually fall into depravity. Hogarth’s style was distinctive, drawing upon the moralizing tradition of seventeenth-century Dutch genre painting combined with the influence of humorous British political broadsheets and caricatures. Hogarth understood that the rising middle class was clamoring for art that was affordable and that flattered their sense of moral superiority. The prints struck from his engravings proved to be so popular that they inspired imitators and plagiarists. The situation was so widespread that Hogarth lobbied for the Copyright Act of 1735 as legal protection for writers and artists.

Melancholic Madness and Raving Madness, 1676, Bethlem Museum of the Mind . Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS A Rake’s Progress tells the story of the fictional character Tom Rakewell in a series of eight paintings. Tom inherits a fortune from his parsimonious father but then follows a path to vice and eventual self- destruction. Painted in 1733, A Rake’s Progress followed the hugely successful A Harlot’s Progress (1730). The canvases were produced in 1732–34, then engraved in 1734, and published in print form in 1735.107 In the first painting, Tom has come into his wealth upon the death of his miserly father. While the servants mourn, he is measured for new clothes. Although he has had a common-law marriage with her, he now rejects the hand of his pregnant fiancée, Sarah Young, whom he had promised to marry. (She can be seen holding his ring while her mother holds his love letters.) Rakewell proceeds to waste all his money on unnecessary luxuries, prostitutes, and gambling. Rakewell eventually falls into debt and is imprisoned at Fleet Prison, before succumbing to lunacy. In the final image, he has descended into madness. He is now in Bethlem Hospital, or “Bedlam” as it was known, which was a notorious insane asylum. The inmates around him—a tailor, a musician, an astronomer, and an archbishop—are each suffering from delusions. In the doorway in the background,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 109 a naked man wearing a straw hat wielding a scepter thinks he is the king—he stands officiously while two well-dressed women gawk and giggle at the madhouse residents. The musician can be seen on the right, playing the violin though his sheet music rests atop his head. The false archbishop is next to him, seemingly singing along. The would-be astronomer is on the left, looking through his spyglass at the ceiling. On the floor near the rake is a mad tailor who holds up a tape measure, echoing the tailor who measures the rake for a new suit in the first image of the series. The rake’s pose is based upon the statues sculpted by Caius Gabriel Cibber in 1676 to mark the entrance to Bethlem Hospital.108 These two figures are called Melancholic Madness and Raving Madness; they sat atop the entrance gates as a warning to visitors of the madness that lay inside the institution and were landmarks well known to the residents of London until they were moved indoors in 1815. The grotesque figures were intended to depict the two faces of mental illness. One is quiet but vacant and disengaged; the other is full of anguish and writhing against the chains used to contain psychotic patients. Just like the sculptures, Rakewell is shown partially nude and reclining on the floor with shackles on. There is a mark on his chest that suggests that he tried to stab himself in a failed suicide attempt. He is surrounded by figures representing other forms of madness. One man is experiencing delusions of grandeur; he thinks he is a king, but is naked, carrying a straw crown and scepter. Bedlam was open to the public, and two fashionable ladies are sightseeing—they have come to see the poor suffering lunatics. The contrast between the preening ladies and the miserable inmates is notable, and Hogarth appears to be mocking the asylum tourists here. The faithful Sarah Young is with him at the end, sitting by Tom’s side. While Hogarth is sympathetic to Bedlam’s inmates, he also seemingly accepts the notion that moral failings cause insanity—Tom’s mental illness is the culmination of his misbegotten behavior in the previous plates of A Rake’s Progress. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS REGARDING THE HISTORY OF BEDLAM Bethlem Hospital was the oldest mental institution in England. The hospital dates back to 1247, when the Priory of St Mary of Bethlehem was created by the church to care for the poor. Initially known as Bethlehem Hospital, Londoners later abbreviated this to “Bethlem,” which eventually became its formal name. Colloquially, the hospital was referred to as “Bedlam,” with this usage becoming so widespread that it became a generic term that was used to refer to any insane asylum or loud ruckus. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ The City of London took over the hospital in 1346, and by 1403 the majority of its patients were there because they were perceived to be suffering from mental problems. The patients were called lunatics, implying that their illness was connected to the moon, but we now know that some were institutionalized for any number of conditions, including epilepsy, dementia, and learning disabilities. Originally located outside Bishopsgate, the hospital moved to its Moorsfield location in 1676. The new facility initially attracted visits from friends and relatives of the residents, but soon began to draw curious members of the general public. Entrance to the hospital was by donation only, and visitors’ fees represented a substantial income of over £300 each year, until visiting was curtailed there in the 1770s. Visitors were believed to be of help to patients at Bedlam by bringing an atmosphere of “jollity and merriment” to the hospital.109 In return, a moral lesson on the dangers of immorality was presented to those who came, as madness was considered to be a product of vice. Open days at the hospital were a public spectacle, complete with beer, nuts, fruit, and cheesecake on sale to visitors as they peered at the afflicted.110

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 110 SELECTED WORK: THÉODORE GÉRICAULT, THE MADWOMAN, 1819–20 THÉODORE GÉRICAULT: BIOGRAPHY Théodore Géricault was born in France in 1791. He studied art under Pierre-Narcisse Guérin, who was a follower of Jacques Louis David. Géricault received rigorous training in the neoclassical tradition of drawing and composition that David embodied, but his own style emphasized drama, emotion, and complexity over clarity. As such, Géricault, alongside other artists like Eugène Delacroix, helped to usher in Romanticism, an art movement known for its emphasis on emotion and subjectivity, as the dominant style in French art, supplanting the more detached and cerebral neoclassicism of the previous generation. Géricault’s most ambitious, critically lauded work is The Raft of the Medusa. This large- scale work spans an entire wall, at around sixteen feet tall and twenty-three feet wide. It was exhibited at the Salon of 1819 and depicts Portrait of the artist Théodore Géricault by Horace the shipwreck of the Medusa, a French frigate Vernet, c .1822–23 . that ran aground off the coast of Africa due to the negligence of its captain, a political appointee. The hundred and fifty crew members built a makeshift raft from remnants of the ship and drifted for twelve days before they were rescued, at which point only fifteen survivors remained, five of whom died shortly after they were found. The event caused a political firestorm. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Géricault’s painting transposed the grandeur of neoclassical history painting with the compelling drama of current events to create a work of incredible emotional impact and heft. Géricault combined theatricality and emotion with rational study and research, visiting morgues to examine corpses and interviewing survivors in hospitals. He even had a model of the raft constructed in his studio. Rather than relying on the triangle or pyramid as a basis for the composition, as was popular during the Renaissance and neoclassical eras, the figures of the bodies, both living and dead, are arranged in an X formation, which adds dynamism and complexity to the painting’s overall structure.111 A sprawled out, bloated body on the lower left forms the base of an axis that extends diagonally to a black man waving a piece of cloth as a flag at upper right. This man has been identified as Jean Charles, an African crew member. Taking a contemporary event and rendering it in the size and scale of traditional history paintings was an audacious act and showed Géricault’s engagement with issues of the day. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS Romanticism was a rejection of Enlightenment rationality, and artists of the era sought out the irrational and the aberrant. Géricault created a series of pictures depicting inmates in mental hospitals

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 111 and institutions for the criminally insane. Mental illness was re-evaluated within the context of Romanticism. Mood swings and inner suffering were equated with the artistic temperament. Gericault painted ten of these works, depicting patients of his friend Dr. Etienne-Jean Georget, though only five remain. The women were likely painted in the women’s mental asylum, Salpêtrière. Géricault’s brushwork is fluid and painterly— it looks as though the paintings were done quickly and from life, likely in one sitting. Like his studies in the morgue during the painting Théodore Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1819, of The Raft of the Medusa, these portraits Louvre, Paris . of people suffering from mental illness demonstrate the artist’s commitment to authenticity. Géricault had direct experience with mental illness; both his grandfather and his uncle died insane, and the artist had his own mental breakdown in 1819.112 While painting The Raft, Géricault interviewed the ship’s surgeon, J.B. Henry Savigny, who wrote an account of the psychological impact the experience had on his fellow passengers. It is not surprising that the subjective experience of mental illness was a topic that fascinated him. Each of the patients in the portraits is shown in three-quarter profile, which is a pose typical of formal, commissioned portraits. The image of The Madwoman, however, departs from traditional conventions of portraiture that flatter the sitter. Géricault depicts a woman who looks off to the side— she is either engaged in her own thoughts or choosing to deliberately avoid the artist’s gaze. The background is dark, and her clothing is simple and unremarkable, directing the viewer’s gaze to the woman’s face. The somber color palette contributes to the brooding atmosphere. The woman’s mouth is rigidly set, her eyes are rimmed with red, and her brow is furrowed. The intensity of her expression and her fixed gaze are striking, suggesting an inner life far beyond what is conveyed in the picture. The fact that she doesn’t look directly at the viewer suggests she is lost in her own thoughts Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ or is disconnected from the process in which she is involved. Questions remain about whether the patients depicted in Géricault’s works were willing subjects, but the painting does not appear voyeuristic or exploitive. The suffering woman portrayed here is rendered with empathy; she maintains her dignity. At the same time, the fact that the sitters of the paintings are not named but are instead defined only by their illnesses suggests that they were constantly viewed through the lens of their mental disorder. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS Géricault’s friend Dr. Etienne-Jean Georget was a student of Jean-Etienne-Dominique Esquirol. Esquirol, who had written a text called On Madness, played a significant role in the development of early modern psychiatry in France. Esquirol rejected the moral or theological explanations for mental illness, seeing insanity neither as the workings of the devil nor as the outcome of moral decrepitude, but as an organic affliction, one that, like any other disease, can be identified by observable physical symptoms.113 He believed in physiognomy, which, like phrenology, has since been discredited as a pseudo-science. Popular in the nineteenth-century (and used to support racial and class prejudice), physiognomy held that physical appearances could be used to diagnose mental disorders. Esquirol

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 112 commissioned two hundred portraits of his mental patients to be used to study their physiognomy. They were displayed in Paris at the Salon of 1814, where Géricault was also an exhibitor. It is likely that Géricault saw the portraits, and they may have inspired his own project.

REPRESENTING THE eminent in philosophy or politics or poetry or the arts turn out to be melancholics?”114 Edvard Munch, EXPERIENCE OF MENTAL the Norwegian artist who visualized anxiety with ILLNESS IN ART his iconic 1893 painting The Scream, memorably While the artworks we have discussed thus far described his lifelong battle with depression by depict mental illness from the outside looking in, claiming, “disease, insanity and death were the black there is also a large body of artworks created by angels that stood guard over my cradle and followed artists who identify as mentally ill. Some find the me throughout my life.”115 The contemporary act of making art to be therapeutic while others see artist Yayoi Kusama has been forthcoming about their disorder as a source for creative inspiration. her mental illness throughout her career, and her The association between creativity and mental frankness has helped to destigmatize the condition. illness dates back to Aristotle, who famously began She has been able to demonstrate that her neurosis his treaty On Melancholy by posing the question, has not prevented her from maintaining a successful “through what cause do all those who have become career as an internationally acclaimed artist.

SELECTED WORK: FRANCISCO GOYA, THE SLEEP OF REASON PRODUCES MONSTERS (EL SUEÑO DE LA RAZON PRODUCE MONSTRUOS), 1799 FRANCISCO GOYA: BIOGRAPHY Born Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes in 1746, the artist known as Francisco Goya grew up in a village in the Aragon region of Spain. The family moved to Zargoza, where Goya’s father found work as a gilder. Goya began studying painting as a teenager and moved to Madrid, where he studied

under Anton Raphael Mengs, a German painter with connections to the royal court. There he was Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ hired by Francisco Bayeu to paint designs for the royal tapestry works.116 He was elected to the Madrid Academy in 1780 and became a painter for the Spanish royal court in 1786, where he served under Charles IV. While Goya’s professional loyalty was to the crown, he moved in social circles that celebrated the ideas of the French Revolution, and subtle critiques of the monarchy began to permeate his work. Charles IV reacted to the social upheaval in France by tightening control over the Spanish people. French books were banned, the Inquisition was reinstated, and social reforms were halted.117 The country’s political atmosphere proved to have a stifling effect on Goya’s career when he attempted to publish an album of satiric prints in 1799. Throughout his career he worked in a range of media, from cartoons for tapestries and etchings, to royal portraiture. Stylistically, Goya came of age during the era when Neoclassicism held sway, but his attention to emotional states and exploring the darkness at the core of human experience was critical to the rise of Romanticism in the nineteenth century. GOYA AND MADNESS Goya was preoccupied with madness and painted at least two asylum scenes: Yard with Lunatics in 1793–4 and The Madhouse, c. 1815–19. Yard with Lunatics is a small painting on tin plate, measuring

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 113 about thirteen by seventeen inches. Goya sent the work, along with ten other cabinet pictures, to the Madrid Academy. In the accompanying letter, he described it as, “a yard with lunatics, and two of them fighting completely naked while their warder beats them and others in sacks; it is a scene which I witnessed in Sargossa.”118 Goya had visited Sargossa, which was Spain’s oldest asylum, on several occasions dating back to his childhood, and two of his family members spent time as patients there.119 It had opened in 1425 and was known for its humane and progressive practices.120 Inmates were not chained, but instead were permitted to move about freely; they were allowed to play games and were provided with entertainment. Yet the image Goya depicts, of men in an enclosed courtyard with light streaming from above, is devoid of humanity. Instead, it conveys the brutality and confinement of the men’s situation. There is a key distinction Portrait of Goya by Vicente López Portaña, c 1826. . between this image and Hogarth’s illustration Museo del Prado, Madrid . of Bedlam in terms of how the viewer is positioned in relation to the subject. Hogarth includes observers in his scene, mediating between the viewer and the inmates and making the print in part about the touristic practice of looking at the insane. Goya includes no such stand-ins for the viewer; instead, we are placed in the yard of the asylum with the inmates and blocked off from freedom by the high walls, just as the inmates are.

It is significant that Goya painted this work while recuperating from a devasting illness that not only Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ caused him to lose his hearing, but also caused him to question his own sanity. Biographers tend to see this illness as a defining moment and divide his career between the years prior to his illness and the dark, moody years that followed it. As he described it, in November of 1792, Goya began to suffer from headaches, dizziness, tinnitus, hearing loss, as well as problems with his sight. He fell into a depression and experienced hallucinations, delirium, and weight loss.121 Modern historians have attempted to deduce the cause of Goya’s illness. Syphilis and encephalitis have been posited as likely causes, as has lead poisoning, caused by the lead in his pigments. Another possibility is that the mercurial ointment often used to treat syphilis might have caused neurological damage.122 Whatever the cause, it is clear that Goya gravitated toward darker topics in the decades that followed. VISUAL ANALYSIS AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS A figure sits slumped in a chair, angled in such a way as to create a diagonal line that flows from his legs, crossed primly at the ankles, up to his arms, which rest atop one another. He is seated at a desk; there are papers and pens spreading beneath his weary limbs, which suggest that the figure might be a self-portrait of the artist. A group of owls lines the background as swirling bats draw the

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 114 eye upward, with the largest, most prominent bat at the top of the composition, looming even larger than the biggest owl below. The animals form a diagonal across the background as if emanating from the dreams of the sleeping man below. A black cat rests on the man’s back, meeting the viewer’s gaze, while a lynx in the right corner watches the unfolding scene with concern. The sleeping artist, accompanied by a cadre of nocturnal creatures lying in wait, implies a sense of menace and a suggestion that the line between imagination and insanity is tenuous at best. This attitude toward the imagination derives from Enlightenment thinking and can be traced to the writing of Immanuel Kant, who wrote that “lawless fantasy comes close to madness.”123 The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters is perhaps the best-known print from a series of etchings titled Los Caprichos (The Caprices) . Goya had intended for the image to be the frontispiece of the album. The folio of eighty works was created between 1796 and 1798 and published in 1799. The artist may have been trying to follow in the path of William Hogarth, who had developed a profitable career selling his engraved prints that were barbed attacks on the existing social order. An advertisement for the book (likely written by Goya himself) published in February 1799 said: As subjects appropriate to his work, he has selected from the multitude of stupidities and errors common to every civil society, and from the ordinary obfuscations and lies condoned by custom, ignorance, or self-interest, those he has deemed most fit to furnish material for ridicule, and at the same time to exercise the author’s imagination.124 Goya successfully employed a combination of etching and aquatint in the series. He used this combination of techniques in three other folios: The Disasters of War, Tauromaquia, and The Follies. Aquatint is a printing process invented in 1650 that adds tonal gradations, reminiscent of an ink or watercolor wash, to an etched plate by coating it with a resin powder before dipping the plate in an acid bath.125 The grainy, atmospheric quality and tonal richness created by the use of aquatint added depth and subtlety to the prints. Goya printed three hundred folios, but he withdrew them from sale two days after they were released. It was believed that the artist had been threatened with appearing before the Inquisition to answer for the unflattering depiction of the Catholic Church in some of the prints. Goya ended up donating the plates 126 to the Royal Printing Office in 1803. This gesture was intended to defuse controversy and reaffirm Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ his deference to the King. The print’s power lies in its ambiguity; it is unclear whether it is a defense of Enlightenment ideals or a celebration of the unfurled creative spirit embodied by Romanticism.

SELECTED WORK: VINCENT VAN GOGH, THE STARRY NIGHT, 1889 VINCENT VAN GOGH: BIOGRAPHY As the son of a Dutch Protestant minister, Van Gogh initially pursued a religious calling, performing missionary work in Belgium. He suffered from depression throughout his life, falling into despair as his professional and personal failures accumulated. He turned to painting as a way to communicate, and he completed his first major work, The Potato Eaters, when he was thirty-two. Largely self- taught, Van Gogh would go on to create around two thousand artworks, which included oil paintings,

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 115 watercolors, drawings, and sketches. Van Gogh’s brother Theo was a Parisian art dealer and was his closest friend and supporter. The letters exchanged between the brothers provide insight into Van Gogh’s emotional state and his approach to art. He described his expressive use of color thusly: “Instead of trying to reproduce exactly what I have before my eyes, I use color more arbitrarily as to express myself forcibly.”127 By rejecting objective representation, Van Gogh liberated the task of the painter from mimesis and sought emotional expression instead. In 1886 Van Gogh moved to Paris, where he was exposed to the art of the French avant-garde. He experimented with shorter, visible brushwork, thickly applied impasto paint application, and expressive, gestural brushwork. During this time, he began to collect and copy Japanese prints. Japonisme was a pervasive influence in Parisian art circles at the time. Japonisme is a term that refers to the influence of Japanese art—especially the spatial compression, Self-Portrait by Vincent van Gogh, 1887, Art Institute of flat color, and patterning found in Ukiyo-e Chicago . woodblock prints—on late-nineteenth-century French artists. Van Gogh flaunted this new interest with his painting Flowering Plum Tree from 1887, which was directly based upon a print by Hiroshige. At this time, Impressionism, which had held sway over the art scene in the previous decade, was in the midst of being supplanted by a new generation, as artists like George Seurat and Paul Signac held exhibitions in 1886, introducing audiences to pointillism and neoimpressionism. The impressionists Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ had long been associated with Paris and its environs, finding inspiration in the changing face of the city and the rise of urban leisure. However, several key figures in the generation that followed sought new subjects outside the city. Such artists, who have been grouped together under the moniker of postimpressionism, included Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin. Van Gogh’s brother introduced him to Paul Gauguin, and the two men discovered an instant rapport. Both had grown weary of the city, and they decide to seek new subjects elsewhere. Van Gogh left first for Arles, a town in the South of France, and he was followed there by Gauguin six months later. The two men spent nine weeks painting together in a house Van Gogh rented for them that became known as the Yellow House. It was in Arles that Van Gogh began to explore the rich creative potential of nocturnal scenes, with works like Café Terrace at Night (1888). The friendship, however, imploded in December of 1888 when Van Gogh wielded a razor blade in an argument with Gauguin. Later that night Van Gogh sliced off part of his ear and delivered it to a prostitute. Van Gogh was found unconscious the next morning by a policeman and taken to a hospital, having no memory of what had taken place. Gauguin left Arles in the immediate aftermath of the incident. The two men never saw

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 116 each other again, though they continued to write to one another for years. After the violent episode, Van Gogh spent time in asylums in Arles and Saint Rémy before deciding to return to Paris to be closer to his brother. Van Gogh’s brother had suggested that he meet with Dr. Paul Gachet, a doctor known to have treated several artists, including Pierre Auguste Renoir and Édouard Manet. Gachet was himself an art collector, and Van Gogh grew fond of him, noting in a letter to his sister that, “I have found a true friend in Dr. Gachet, something like another brother, so much do we resemble each other physically and also mentally.”128 The artist even painted his doctor’s portrait, depicting him with a melancholy expression that may have matched his own. In the foreground of the portrait sits a potted foxglove plant. Foxglove was an ingredient in digitalis, a medicine Gachet may have used to treat Van Gogh’s epileptic episodes. A known side effect of digitalis is xanthopsia, or “yellow vision,” a condition that causes one’s vision to be tinged by yellow.129 Scientists speculate that this may be why yellow features prominently in Van Gogh’s paintings. The treatment Van Gogh sought with Dr. Gachet did not prove successful, and in 1890, at the age of thirty-seven, Van Gogh shot himself. Van Gogh’s brother Theo had been ill, and his health began to decline further after his brother Vincent’s death. Theo died six months after Vincent. While Van Gogh sold only one painting in his lifetime, his reputation and influence grew exponentially in the decades following his death. SUBJECT MATTER AND VISUAL ANALYSIS The Starry Night was painted in 1889, when Vincent van Gogh resided at the asylum of Saint-Paul-de- Mausole in Saint Rémy, which was near Arles. That year he had written to his brother Theo, describing the view from his window: “This morning I saw the countryside from my window a long time before sunrise, with nothing but the morning star, which looked very big.”130 In the painting, the night sky dominates the composition, taking up three-quarters of the canvas. The dark blue sky is rendered in a roiling, swirling pattern that resembles the sea. A yellow crescent moon is in the upper right corner of the composition, while stars dot the rest of the sky. Each star is surrounded by radiating brushstrokes indicating a nimbus of light. One star, at lower left, distinguished by its large white halo of light, plays a foil to the yellow moon seen diagonally above it. This large star is Venus, the morning star to which Van Gogh refers in his letter to his brother. Just as the moon and the morning star form a compositional

relationship, so too does the paired verticality of the cypress tree in the foreground and the church spire Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ in the background. Though the staccato brushwork gives the canvas a fervid, overwrought quality, the chaos is held in check by the underlying compositional structure and careful arrangement of forms. While cypress trees were known to be present in the view available to Van Gogh at the asylum, other aspects of the painting were cobbled together from elsewhere—certain elements in the painting were assembled from Van Gogh’s memories. For instance, the steeple of the church is similar to those found in Van Gogh’s native Holland, not in France. The quiet village at the bottom of the painting is in sharp contrast to the explosive and expressive sky, suggesting how slight human experience is against the vastness of the universe. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS The painting was completed a year before Van Gogh’s death, at a dark time in Van Gogh’s life when the artist was institutionalized while living in the French countryside and was isolated from family and friends. With The Starry Night, perhaps his most famous painting, Van Gogh demonstrated how a landscape could be a vehicle for emotional expression. Though he famously sold only one painting in his lifetime, Van Gogh’s reputation and influence grew exponentially in the decades following his

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 117 death. Van Gogh’s expressive, unconventional use of color and gestural paint application inspired countless artists and laid the preliminary ground for several modern art movements, including Fauvism, German Expressionism, and Abstract Expressionism.

SECTION VI SUMMARY delusions, while two ladies in the background The Othering of Mental Illness in Art can be seen gawking at the insane patients. ■■ Bethlem Hospital was the oldest mental ■■ Representations of mental illness in art date institution in England, dating back to 1247. back centuries, and such artworks have Initially known as Bethlehem Hospital, succeeded in making mental illness more Londoners later abbreviated this to visible. “Bethlem,” which eventually became its ■■ However, while art has brought attention formal name. Colloquially, the hospital was to mental disorders, art can also further referred to as “Bedlam,” with this usage stigmatize such illnesses by representing becoming so widespread that it became a mental illness as “other,” without adequate generic term used to refer to any insane sensitivity or knowledge of the plight of those asylum or loud ruckus. Friends and relatives being depicted. of the residents visited the facility, and in the ■■ While artists were able to normalize mental eighteenth century curious members of the disorders by raising their visibility, at general public began visiting as well. Open times this ventured into exploitation, as the days at the hospital were a public spectacle, mentally ill were put forth as spectacles to complete with musical accompaniment and behold, an act which denied their inherent refreshments for sale to visitors. dignity and humanity. Selected Work: Théodore Géricault, The Selected Work: William Hogarth, Illustration Madwoman, 1819–20 of Bedlam from A Rake’s Progress, 1735 ■■ Géricault was a nineteenth-century French ■■ William Hogarth was an eighteenth-century artist who helped to usher in Romanticism— British artist best known for his widely an art movement known for its emphasis on circulated satirical engravings, which were a emotion and subjectivity—as the dominant vehicle for his biting social commentary. style in French art, supplanting the more Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ detached and cerebral neoclassicism of the ■■ Hogarth’s working model was to create a previous generation. series of highly detailed narrative paintings that were later engraved, with the prints being ■■ This painting is one of a series of ten pictures sold through print shops on a subscription (five of which survive) Géricault created basis. They are designed to be viewed in depicting inmates in mental hospitals and sequence, as if reading chapters of a book, as institutions for the criminally insane. the works follow the lives of characters as they ■■ The artist may have been influenced by the fall prey to topical social ills. work of the early French psychiatrist Dr. ■■ A Rake’s Progress tells the story of the Jean-Etienne-Dominique Esquirol, who fictional Tom Rakewell in a series of eight had more than two hundred portraits of images. In the final picture, Tom has asylum inmates created so that he could descended into madness. He is half naked use physiognomy (a pseudo-science, like and shackled, lying on the floor of Bethlem phrenology) to track their symptoms. Hospital or “Bedlam,” as it was known. The ■■ The suffering woman portrayed here is inmates around him are suffering various rendered with empathy; she maintains her

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 118 dignity. At the same time, the fact that the satire and had likely threatened the artist sitters of the paintings are not named but with the Inquisition. are instead defined only by their illnesses ■■ The sleeping artist accompanied by a cadre suggests that they were constantly viewed of nocturnal creatures lying in wait implies through the lens of their mental disorder. a sense of menace and a suggestion that the Representing the Experience of Mental line between imagination and insanity is Illness in Art tenuous at best. Selected Work: Vincent Van Gogh, The ■■ There is a large body of artwork created by artists who identify as mentally ill. Some Starry Night, 1889 find the act of making art to be therapeutic ■■ As the son of a Dutch Protestant minister, while others see their disorder as a source for Van Gogh initially pursued a religious creative inspiration. calling, performing missionary work in ■■ The association between creativity and Belgium. He suffered from depression mental illness dates back to Aristotle and throughout his life, and with the was further reinforced by artists and critics encouragement of his brother Theo, an during the era of Romanticism. art dealer, he turned to painting as a way ■■ Artists who foreground their mental health to communicate. Largely self-taught, Van struggles in their artwork help to reduce the Gogh went on to create around two thousand stigma that continues to surround mental artworks in less than a decade, prior to illness. committing suicide at the age of thirty-seven. Selected Work: Francisco Goya, The Sleep ■■ The Starry Night was painted in 1889, when Van Gogh resided at the asylum of Saint- of Reason Produces Monsters, 1799 Paul-de-Mausole in Saint Rémy, which was ■■ Francisco Goya was a painter for the Spanish near Arles. royal court. Throughout his career he worked ■■ While cypress trees in The Starry Night were in a range of media, from cartoons for known to be present in the view available to tapestries and etchings, to royal portraiture. Van Gogh at the asylum, other aspects of the Stylistically, Goya came of age during the painting were assembled from Van Gogh’s era when Neoclassicism held sway, but his memories. For instance, the steeple of the attention to emotional states and exploring church is similar to those found in his native Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ the darkness at the core of human experience Holland, not in France. The quiet village was critical to the rise of Romanticism in the at the bottom of the painting is in sharp nineteenth century. contrast to the explosive and expressive sky, ■■ In 1792, Goya suffered from a devastating suggesting how slight human experience is illness that caused him to go deaf and made against the vastness of the universe. him question his sanity. The artworks he ■■ Van Gogh sold only one painting in his produced in the years that followed were noted lifetime, but his reputation and influence grew for their darker and more melancholic tone. exponentially in the decades following his ■■ The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, death. Van Gogh’s expressive, unconventional 1799, is perhaps the best-known print from use of color and gestural paint application a series of aquatint etchings titled Los inspired countless artists and laid the Caprichos (The Caprices). Goya printed preliminary ground for several modern art three hundred folios, but he withdrew them movements, including Fauvism, German from sale two days later. The Catholic Expressionism, and Abstract Expressionism. Church was unhappy with the album’s social

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 119 Conclusion

This resource guide provides a small window into its origins in the plague-era sick wards built onto the expansive range of artworks throughout history medieval monasteries. In the course of our study, that have tackled issues of sickness and health. we have observed how art can singularly reveal the Close attention to the formal qualities of artworks devastating impact of illness on both the individual enables us to appreciate their distinctive features and the culture at large, serving to broaden our and understand nuances, while also situating them understanding of disease. Studying the past gives us within a broader historical context that allows for historical insight as well as a new perspective on the more sweeping generalizations about society as a present day. whole. This resource guide has aimed to combine aspects of both, giving attention to the granular and Sickness and health are worldwide preoccupations, the global and thereby broadening your perspective and the finite nature of this guide only allows us to on the world. address a limited selection of artists and works. This guide is not able to cover all geographic regions and Our understanding of health and illness is culturally time periods, and as a result, many important works specific and evolves over time. Yet our cultural exploring topics relating to health and wellness were histories continue to inform current circumstances— omitted. The bibliography can point you to further as we learned, for example, when studying how investigations into the subject. the architecture of contemporary hospitals has Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 120 Timeline

The Black Death (Bubonic Plague) arrives in Sicily, marking the beginning of the 1347 – pandemic in Europe. The first wave of the plague pandemic subsides, after killing more than a third of the 1351 – population of Europe. Smaller outbreaks continue for the next five centuries. c.1419 – Filippo Brunelleschi, Ospedale degli Innocenti, Florence, Italy The Ospedale degli Innocenti, or Foundling Hospital, opens its doors to the public. It 1445 – operates continuously, caring for the infants and children of Florence until 1875. 1466 – 40,000 people die during an outbreak of plague in Paris. Andrea della Robbia adds ten sculptural medallions to the façade of the Ospedale degli 1487 – Innocenti. The sculptures, depicting babies wrapped in swaddling clothes, are called the “bambini.” 1497–99 – Josse Lieferinxe, St . Sebastian Interceding for the Plague Stricken The first book of anatomical illustration, De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas 1543 – Vesalius, is published. c.1562 – Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Triumph of Death

1632 – Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr . Nicolaes Tulp Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ 1676 – Bethlem Hospital moves to a location at Moorsfield in London.

1735 – William Hogarth, Illustration of Bedlam from A Rake’s Progress

1792 – Francisco Goya suffers from a severe illness that causes him to questions his sanity. Francisco Goya, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (El sueño de la razon produce 1799 – monstruos) Dr. Jean-Etienne-Dominique Esquirol commissions portraits of his mentally ill patients 1814 – and exhibits them at the Paris Salon. 1819 – Théodore Géricault exhibits The Raft of the Medusa at the Paris Salon.

1819–20 – Théodore Géricault, The Madwoman

1825 – Jefferson Medical College is founded in Philadelphia.

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 121 1867 – Joseph Lister publishes his research on antiseptic surgery in The Lancet. Neurologist George Miller Beard first identifies neurasthenia in the Boston Medical and 1869 – Surgical Journal. 1875 – Thomas Eakins, Portrait of Dr . Samuel D . Gross (The Gross Clinic) The term “New Woman” is first coined by writer Charles Reade in his novel A Woman 1877 – Hater, which is originally serialized in Blackwood’s Magazine. James Abbott McNeill Whistler successfully sues art critic John Ruskin for libel. Whistler 1878 – is driven into bankruptcy from the expense of the trial. 1883–84 – James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Maud Reading in Bed

1884 – John Singer Sargent scandalizes the Paris Salon with his bold portrait of Madame X. Thomas Eakins is forced to resign from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts after he 1886 – allows a mixed-gender class to draw a nude male model. 1887 – Harlem Hospital (now known as Harlem Hospital Center) is established. After an argument with Paul Gauguin, Van Gogh slices part of his ear off. Gauguin leaves 1888 – Arles as a result, and Van Gogh is hospitalized. 1889 – Vincent Van Gogh, The Starry Night Students at the University of Pennsylvania’s Medical Department commission Eakins to 1889 – paint Dr. Agnew performing an operation. 1890 – Van Gogh commits suicide at the age of thirty-seven. Charles Dana Gibson starts drawing the “Gibson Girl” for Harper’s Weekly, Scribner’s, 1890 – and Century Magazine. Charlotte Perkins Gilman publishes the short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” in which the 1892 – narrator is slowly driven mad after being prescribed a rest cure. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ 1897 – Thomas Wilmer Dewing, A Reading

1897 – John Singer Sargent, Mr . and Mrs . I . N . Phelps Stokes Francis Picabia travels to New York to attend the Armory Show, which is the first large- 1913 – scale exhibition to introduce European modernist art to an American audience. 1915 – Francis Picabia, Agnes Meyer

1920 – Henrietta Lacks is born in rural Virginia. Frida Kahlo is involved in a major bus accident. The incident impacts her health for the 1925 – rest of her life. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) is established as part of President Franklin D. 1935 – Roosevelt’s New Deal. 1945 – Frida Kahlo, Without Hope (Sin Esperanza)

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 122 1951 – Henrietta Lacks dies of cervical cancer, and her cells are used for medical research.

1954 – Kahlo dies of a pulmonary embolism at the age of forty-seven. The descendants of Henrietta Lacks learn that her cells are the basis for the “HeLa” 1973 – immortal line, which was used to develop the polio vaccine among many other medical advances. Haring moves to New York and begins studying at the School of Visual Arts and working 1978 – at Danceteria. 1982 – The CDC uses the term AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) for the first time. The Silence=Death Project begins covering New York with posters featuring a pink 1986–– triangle on a black background with the words “Silence=Death” in white below it. 1988 – Gran Fury, the AIDS activist and artists collective, is formed.

1988–89 – David Wojnarowicz, Untitled (Falling Buffalos)

1990/1996 – Keith Haring, Altarpiece

1990 – Haring dies from AIDS-related complications at the age of thirty-one.

1992 – Wojnarowicz dies from AIDS-related complications at the age of thirty-seven. The Food and Drug Administration approves the first protease inhibitor, marking a new 1995 – era in treating HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. 2005–12 – HOK with Jack Travis, Harlem Hospital Pavilion Facade, New York Kadir Nelson wins a Caldecott Honor for his illustrations for the book Henry’s Freedom 2008 – Box. 2010 – Rebecca Skloot publishes a best-selling biography of Henrietta Lacks. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ 2017 – Kadir Nelson, The Mother of Modern Medicine

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 123 Glossary

Aesthetic movement (aestheticism) – a late nineteenth- ceiling so that the colors penetrate the plaster and century European arts movement that espoused the become fixed as it dries philosophy that art exists for the sake of its beauty Golden Legend – a widely read compilation of stories alone and that it need serve no political, didactic, or detailing the lives of saints that dates back to 1260 narrative function Guild – an association of artisans or merchants who Apotropaic – adjective describing something thought to oversee the practice of their trade in a particular area ward off harm, injury, or bad luck and often come to hold sizeable political and civic Arcade – a covered walkway enclosed by a line of arches influence supported by columns Humanism – the predominant intellectual philosophy Avant-garde – A French term for the advanced guard, it during the Italian Renaissance; humanist scholars refers to artists or art movements that are innovative revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought. and push the medium in new directions. Iconography – involves the identification, classification, Buboes (sing . bubo) – swollen lymph nodes that were one and interpretation of symbols, themes, and subject of the most prominent symptoms associated with the matter in the visual arts bubonic plague Indigenismo  – a political, intellectual, and artistic Calligraphic – lines that are generally flowing and movement that celebrated indigenous peoples in rhythmical, like those found in calligraphy Mexico Conversation pieces – Conversation pieces were small- Installation art – refers to three-dimensional works that scale group portraits where figures are depicted are often site-specific and designed to transform the interacting with one another, in conversation, or perception of a space engaged in an everyday activity. Their casual nature Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ Japonisme  – a French term used to describe the fascination appealed to the growing middle-class audience in with Japanese art and design that swept Europe after Britain that rejected the formal portraiture favored by trade with Japan resumed in the 1850s the aristocracy. Neurasthenia – a historically specific condition Corinthian order – this architectural style is characterized characterized by physical and mental exhaustion by slender fluted columns and elaborate capitals usually with accompanying symptoms (such as decorated with acanthus leaves headache, stomach distress, and irritability); it was Dada – an international art movement in the early of unknown cause but was often associated with twentieth century that responded to the horrors of depression or emotional stress brought about by World War I by celebrating chaos and absurdity modern life. Danse Macabre – a medieval allegory about the Mechanomorphic – combining human and machine-like universality of death, represented by skeletons of elements figures from all walks of life (typically a worker, a Melancholic – a sad or depressive state, thought to child, a king, and a bishop) parading toward the grave; be one of the four fundamental personality types also known as the “dance of death” along with sanguine, choleric, and phlegmatic; Fresco – a painting created on wet plaster on a wall or these temperaments were described by Hippocrates

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 124 and were related to the ancient medical concept of Spandrels – the space between two arches humorism. Stop motion photography – the use of photography to Pandemic – an epidemic or outbreak of disease that isolate movement by a taking a series of images at occurs across a large region or on a worldwide scale split-second intervals and then displaying the results sequentially in a grid Physiognomy – a pseudo-scientific practice that became popular in the nineteenth century; it involved assessing Tehuana  – a matriarchal society based in the Isthmus of a person’s character or personality from their facial Tehuantepec, Oaxaca State, Mexico; their distinctive characteristics and outer appearance. dress style consisted of a blouse known as a huipile, which is embroidered with flowers, combined with a Plague saint – a saint especially invoked in times of skirt known as a falta, and a shawl. plague in the hopes of warding off illness Tenebrism  – from the Italian tenebroso (“dark, gloomy, Polychrome – the practice of decorating architectural mysterious”), also occasionally called dramatic elements or sculpture in a variety of colors illumination; a style of painting popularized during Portico – a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or the seventeenth-century Baroque period using extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a profoundly pronounced contrasts of light and dark, walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls where darkness becomes a dominating feature of the image Relic – a fragment of a deceased holy person’s body or belongings kept as an object of reverence Terracotta – unglazed, typically brownish-red earthenware used chiefly as an ornamental building Rest cure  – Pioneered by Silas Weir Mitchell for the material and in modeling treatment of neurasthenia, it refers to a period spent in bed or inactive with the intention of improving one’s Triptych – a picture on three panels, typically hinged physical or mental health. together side by side and used as an altarpiece Retrospective – an art exhibition that surveys an artist’s West cure – A common prescription for upper-class men entire career with neurasthenia was that they move away from cities and spend time living vigorous, outdoor lives in Silk Road – ancient network of trade routes, established the American West. during China’s Han Dynasty, that connected the East and the West Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 125 Notes

1. Robert S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in 23. HD Modanlou, “Historical evidence for the origin of teaching hospital, Medieval Europe (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010) 42–52; John medical school and the rise of academic medicine.” Journal of Kelly, The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death (New Perinatology (2011) 31: 236–9. York: Harper Collins, 2006), 11–12. 24. Guenter B. Risse, Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals 2. John Kelly, The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999) 4. the Most Devastating Plague of All Time . (New York: Harper Collins, 25. Antonio Manetti, The life of Brunelleschi, translated by Howard 2006), 11. Saalman, (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1970) 3. Cities which lost half their populations included Florence, Genoa, 239. Venice, Paris, Marseille, London, Ghent, Bruges, and Cologne. Franco 26. Giorgio Vasari, From the Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, Mormando, Thomas Worcester, Piety and Plague: From Byzantium to the and Architects (1500), reprinted. Baroque (Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2007), 24–59. 27. Philip Gavitt, Charity and Children in Renaissance Florence: The 4. Valentina Fornaciai, Toliette, Perfumes and Make-Up at the Medici Court Ospedale degli Innocenti, 1410-1536 (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of (Livorno: Sillabe, 2007), 67. Michigan Press, 1990) 5. Giovanni Boccaccio, The Decameron, translated from the Italian by 28. Roderick Conway Morris, “Della Robbia: A Story of Invention and Frances Winwar (New York: Modern Library, 1955) xxiii. Immortality,” New York Times (May 15, 2009), C1. 6. John Oliver Hand, and Martha Wolff. Early Netherlandish Painting. 29. W. Schupbach, The Paradox of Rembrandt’s “Anatomy of Dr Tulp,” (National Gallery of Art Systematic Catalogue: Washington, D.C., 1986) Medical History, Supp. No. 2 (London: Wellcome Institute for the 27–28. History of Medicine, London, 1982), 49. 7. Peter Thon. “Bruegel’s The Triumph of Death Reconsidered.” 30. Aloïs Riegl and Benjamin Binstock. “Excerpts from ‘The Dutch Group Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 3, (1968), 289. Portrait’,” October, Vol. 74, (Autumn 1995), 5. 8. Bocaccio’s quote from Decameron cited in Samuel Kline Cohen, The Cult 31. Anthony Bailey, Rembrandt’s House: Exploring the World of the Great of Remembrance and the Black Death: Six Renaissance Cities in Central Master, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), 56. Italy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 344. 32. Dolores Mitchell, “Rembrandt’s “The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp”: A 9. Anna L. DesOrmeaux, The Black Death and Its Effect on Fourteenth and Sinner among the Righteous,” Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 15, No. 30 (Nov Fifteenth Century Art, (Louisiana State University, May 2007), 64. 1994), 145. 10. Thon, 292. 33. Frances K. Pohl, Framing America: A Social History of American Art 11. Rudolph Binion, “Europe’s culture of death,” Journal of Psychohistory (Third Edition), (Thames & Hudson New York, 2012) 252. 31 (2004), 395. 34. Michael Fried, Realism, Writing, Disfiguration: On Thomas Eakins and 12. Jacobus De Voragine, The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints, Stephen Crane (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 62. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012), 97–101. 35. Michael Fried, Realism, Writing, Disfiguration: On Thomas Eakins and Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ 13. William G. Naphy, Plagues, Poisons, and Potions: Plague-spreading Stephen Crane (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 62. Conspiracies in the Western Alps, c . 1530–1640 (Manchester, UK: 36. Henry Adams, Eakins Revealed: The Secret Life of an American Artist, Manchester University Press, 2002), ix. (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005), 213. 14. Avram Finkelstein, After Silence: A History of AIDS through Its Images 37. Amy Beth Werbel, Thomas Eakins: Art, Medicine, and Sexuality in (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), 2. Nineteenth-century Philadelphia. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 15. “HIV and AIDS --- United States, 1981--2000,” https://www.cdc.gov/ 2007), 47. mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5021a2.htm, accessed on July 22, 2018. 38. Bobbi Booker, “Award-winning illustrator Kadir Nelson to discuss his 16. Lawrence K. Altman, MD. “30 years in, We are Still Learning from ‘search for truth’,” Philadelphia Tribune January 7, 2018, http://www. AIDS,” New York Times (May 30, 2011), D1. phillytrib.com/lifestyle/award-winning-illustrator-kadir-nelson-to- 17. Michael Kimmelman, “Bitter Harvest: AIDS and the Arts” New York discuss-his-search-for/article_cbd0219a-4735-51f1-a503-cfff03220954. Times (March 19, 1989), 20. html, accessed on August 2, 2018. 18. https://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/on_the_wall/have-you- 39. Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: seen-all-5-of-keith-harings-murals-in-nyc-55370, accessed on July 22, Crown, 2010), 93. 2018. 40. Skloot, 97. 19. Holland Cotter, “As Ants Crawl Over Crucifix, Dead Artist Is Assailed 41. James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (New Again,” The New York Times, December 10, 2010. York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), 204. 20. David Wojnarowicz, Close to the Knives: A Memoir of Disintegration 42. Paula Rogo, “The Smithsonian Has Acquired A Portrait Of Henrietta (New York: Vintage Books, 1991) np. [Eleven]. Lacks,” Essence May 12, 2018, https://www.essence.com/news/ 21. David Hurst Thomas, Exploring Ancient Native America: An smithsonian-portrait-henrietta-lacks/, accessed on August 5, 2018. Archaeological Guide (New York and London: Routledge, 1999), 72–73. 43. Adeel Hassan, “Henrietta Lacks: Cancer cells were taken from her body 22. Cynthia Carr, Fire in the Belly: The Life and Times of David without permission. They led to a medical revolution.” New York Times Wojnarowicz (New York: Bloomsbury, 2012), 410. (March 8, 2018), https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/obituaries/

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 126 overlooked-henrietta-lacks.html, accessed on August 5, 2018 Atlantic Monthly, March 11, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/health/ 44. Michael Rogers, “The HeLa Strain,” Detroit Free Press, (March 21, archive/2016/03/the-history-of-neurasthenia-or-americanitis-health- 1976), 47 and Michael Rogers,”The Double-Edged Helix,” Rolling Stone happiness-and-culture/473253/ accessed on September 2, 2018. (March 25, 1976). 78. Beard, vii. 45. Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: 79. Megan Barke, Rebecca Fribush, and Peter N. Stearns, “Nervous Crown, 2010.) Breakdown in 20th Century American Culture,” Journal of Social 46. http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/harlem-hospital/about/history, accessed History 33.3 (2000), 567. on 3/10/19. 80. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence (reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1969), 47. Ibid. vol. 1, 290. 48. Katherine H. Adams, Michael L. Keene, Women, Art and the New Deal 81. Greg Daugherty, “The Brief History of “Americanitis””. Smithsonian. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co, 2016), 1–2. (25 March 2015) 49. John Franklin White, Art in Action: American Art Centers and the New 82. Cheryl Leibold, “Thomas Eakins in the Badlands,” Archives of Deal (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1987), 9–10. American Art Journal 28 (1988): 2–15. 50. Nicholas Lampert, A People’s Art History of the United States (New 83. For more on the Cult of True Womanhood, also referred to as the Cult York: The New Press, 2013), 153. of Domesticity, see Nancy Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: “Woman’s Sphere” in New England, 1780-1850 (New Haven: Yale University 51. William B. Scott, Peter M. Rutoff, New York Modern: The Arts and the Press, 1977); Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820- City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,) 253. 1860,” American Quarterly 18, no. 2 (Summer 1966): 151-174. 52. Patricia Hills, Painting Harlem Modern: The Art of Jacob Lawrence 84. Arthur Kleinman, Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 34. Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China, (New Haven: Yale University 53. Robin Pogrebin, “At Harlem Hospital, Murals Get a New Life,” New Press,1986),115. York Times, 16 September 2012. 85. Dewing to White, February 3, 1900, SW 42:8, Stanford White Papers, 54. Hills, 34. Avery Library, Columbia University, cited by Asma Naeem in “Splitting 55. Ibid. Sight and Sound: Thomas Dewing’s “A Reading”, Gilded Age Women, 56. https://collection.cooperhewitt.org/objects/420777941/ , accessed on and the Phonograph,” American Quarterly Vol. 63, No. 3: 461. March 12, 2019. 86. Cited in Kathleen Pyne, “On Women and Ambivalence in the 57. Robin Pogrebin, “At Harlem Hospital, Murals Get a New Life,” New Evolutionary Topos,” Nineteenth Century Art Worldwide Volume 17, York Times, 16 September 2012. Issue 1 (Spring 2018) https://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/76-spring03/ 58. Ibid. spring03article/225-on-women-and-ambivalence-in-the-evolutionary- topos 59. Bailey van Hook, Angels of Art: Women and Art in American Society, 1876–1914 (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 87. David Finkelstein, “A Woman Hater and Women Healers: John 1996), 1. Blackwood, Charles Reade, and the Victorian Women’s Medical Movement,” Victorian Periodicals Review Vol. 28, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), 60. Ronald Anderson and Anne Koval, James McNeill Whistler: Beyond the 330. Myth (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1995), 11. 88. Finkelstein, 331. 61. Linda Merrill, After Whistler: The Artist and his Influence on American Painting, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 180. 89. Laura R. Prieto, At Home in the Studio: The Professionalization of Women Artists in America (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2001), 62. James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Mr. Whistler’s Ten O’ Clock Lecture 160. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1885), 9-14. 90. “Through the Metropolitan’s Collection,” Bulletin of the Metropolitan 63. Margaret F. MacDonald, Whistler’s Mother: An American Icon (London: Museum of Art (1999), 5. Lund Humphries, 2003), 39–54. 91. Richard Ormand and Elaine Kilmurray, Sargent: The Early Portraits, 64. Daniel E. Sutherland, Whistler: A Life for Art’s Sake (New Haven & (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 114. London: Yale University Press, 2014), 146. 92. “Through the Metropolitan’s Collection,” 5. 65. Margaret F. MacDonald, “Maud Franklin and the ‘Charming Little Swaggerers,’” in Whistler, Women, and Fashion (New Haven and 93. Edith’s great-niece was Edie Sedgwick, the socialite best known for Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ London: Yale University Press, 2003), 135. being one of Andy Warhol’s superstars in the nineteen-sixties. Edie was named after her great-aunt Edith. 66. Maud Franklin to George A. Lucas, October 23, 1886. University of Glasgow, Whistler Correspondence, Item Number 09209. 94. Gregory Gilmartin, Shaping the City: New York and the Municipal Art Society (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1995), 287. 67. Margaret A. Lindauer, Devouring Frida: The Art History and Popular Celebrity of Frida Kahlo (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 95. Helene Barbara Weinberg, American Impressionism and Realism (New 2011) 115. York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994), 258. 68. Hayden Herrera, Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo. (New York: 96. Weingberg, 214. Harper & Row, 1983) 62-63. 97. Francis Morrone, “The Ghost of Monsieur Stokes,” City Journal, New 69. Herrera, 344-46. York: The Manhattan Institute (August 1997), https://www.city-journal. org/html/ghost-monsieur-stokes-11939.html 70. “Mexican Autobiography,” Time, April 27, 1953, 92. 98. Francis M. Naumann, Beth Venn, Making mischief: Dada invades New 71. Park, M. P., and R. H. R. Park. “Fantastic Feeding Funnels in Medicine York (New York: Harry N. Abrams,1997), 59. and Art.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 337, no. 7684 (2008): 1448. 99. Cited in Elizabeth Hutton Turner in her essay, “La Jeune Fille 72. G. Ankori, “The hidden Frida: covert Jewish elements in the art of Frida Americaine and the Dadaist impulse,” edited by Naomi Sawelson-Gorse, Kahlo,” Jewish Art 1993/94; 19/20: 224-47. Women in Dada (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001),13. 73. Park, 1448. 100. Barbara Zabel, Assembling Art: The Machine and the American Avant 74. Herrera, 491. Garde, (Jackson, MS: Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2004), 89. 75. Bertram D. Wolfe, The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera (New York: 101. Willard Bohn, The Rise of Surrealism: Cubism, Dada, and the Pursuit Cooper Square Press, 2000), 360. of the Marvelous, (Albany: SUNY Press, 2002), 68. 76. George M. Beard, American Nervousness: its causes and consequences 102. Zabel, 89. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1881), vi. 103. Pepe Karmel, “Francis Picabia, 1915: The Sex of a New Machine,” 77. Julie Beck, “‘Americanitis’: The Disease of Living Too Fast,” The

2019–2020 Art Resource Guide • (Updated July 30, 2019) 127 Modern Art and America: Alfred Stieglitz and his New York Galleries, 117. Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, vol . II, Fourteenth Edition (New York: (New York: Bullfinch Press, 2000), 216. Prentice Hall, 2011), 938. 104. Cited in Elizabeth Hutton Turner in her essay, “La Jeune Fille 118. Peter K. Klein, “Insanity and the Sublime: Aesthetics and Theories Americaine and the Dadaist impulse,” edited by Naomi Sawelson- of Mental Illness in Goya’s Yard with Lunatics and Related Works.” Gorse, Women in Dada (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001), 5. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 61 (1998): 200–202. 105. “The Other”, The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, Third 119. Ibid., 210. Edition, (1999) p. 620. 120. Ibid., 206. 106. William A. Jackson, “A short guide to humoral medicine,” Trends in 121. D. Felisati and G. Sperati. “Francisco Goya and his Illness” Acta Pharmacological Sciences. 22 (9): 487–489. otorhinolaryngologica Italica: organo ufficiale della Societa italiana 107. Hogarth, William, Engravings by Hogarth (New York: Dover Reprints, di otorinolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale vol. 30, 5 (2010): 2013) 28. 264–70. 108. Fiona Haslam, From Hogarth to Rowlandson: Medicine in Art in 122. Ibid. Eighteenth-century Britain (Liverpool:Liverpool University Press, 123. Ibid., 219. 1996), 150-51. 124. Janis A. Tomlinson, ed. Goya: Images of Women (Washington, DC: 109. Paul Chambers, Bedlam: London’s Hospital for the Mad (Shepperton, National Gallery of Art, 2002), 257. UK: Ian Allan, 2009), 88. 125. Colta Ives, “The Printed Image in the West: Aquatint,” https://www. 110. Richard B. Schwartz, Daily Life in Johnson’s London, (Madison: Univ metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aqtn/hd_aqtn.htm, accessed on March 15, of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 57. 2019. 111. Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, vol. 126. Stokstad, 939. II, 13th edition. (Boston: Cengage Learning, 2009), 620. 127. Vincent van Gogh to Theo van Gogh, August 11, 1888, in W.H. Auden, 112. Robert Snell, Portraits of the Insane:Theodore Géricault and the ed., Van Gogh: A Self-Portrait. Letters Revealing his Life as a Painter Subject of Psychotherapy (London: Routledge, 2018), 41. (New York: Dutton, 1963), 313. 113. Albert Boime, “Portraying Monomaniacs to Service the Alienist’s 128. Vincent van Gogh, Letter to Wilhelmina van Gogh, Auvers-sur-Oise, 5 Monomania: Géricault and Georget,” Oxford Art Journal 14.1 (1991), June 1890, http://www.webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter/21/W22.htm. 80. 129. Anna Greuner, “Vincent Van Gogh’s yellow vision,” British Journal of 114. Simon Kyaga, Creativity and Mental Illness: The Mad Genius in General Practice, 63(612) Jul 2013: 370–371. Question (London: Springer 2014), 83. 130. Vincent van Gogh, Letter to Theo van Gogh, Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, 115. Elizabeth Prelinger, After The Scream: The Late Paintings of Edvard between about Friday, 31 May and about Thursday, 6 June 1889, http:// Munch, (Atlanta: High Museum of Art, New Haven: Yale University vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let777/letter.html. Press, 2001), 16. 116. Sandra Forty, Francisco Goya, (TAJ Books International 2014), 4. Chandler High School - Chandler, AZ

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