SCRIPT A HIEROSOLY\HTANA
~ · - PUBLICATIONS OF THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY, JERUSALEM
VOLUME X\'
STUDIES IN GEOGRAPHY
Pamphlet No. 3
THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY
BY YEHOSHUA BEN-AHIEH Department of Geography
JERUSALEM, 1968 AT THE MAGNES PRESS, THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCI'ION: PHYSICAL BACKGROUND
SURFACE CONFIGURATIO~ ,)·• CLIMATE WATER RESOURCES 7
SETTLEMENT IN HISTORICAL PERIODS
THE CJV AS A SETTLEMENT REGION ... 1l THE REGION AS A CROSSROADS 13 PREHISTORIC PERIODS a. The Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) 17 Distributed in Great Britain, the British Commonwealth and Europe b. The Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) :w by the Oxford University Press c. The New Stone Age (Neolithic) 20 d. Conclusions 20
EARLY HISTORICAL TIMES a. The Chalcolithic Period 21 b. The Bronze Age 22 c. The Iron Age 25
LATE HISTORICAL PERIODS a. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Period 2() b. The Early Arab Period 29 c. From the Middle Ages to the 19th Century ... 30
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY a. Settlements and Nomadic Tribes :B b. Agriculture -l2
THE REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN THE TWENTIETH CE:\TUHY
THE BEGINNING OF THE CHANGE a. Types and Ideas of Early Jewish Settlement ... 47 b. The First Moshava - l\Iena~emya 43 c. The First National Farm and the © Second Moshava at Kinneret 50 d. The First "Kevutza", Deganya A 53 e. The Second "Kevutza", Kinneret and Bitanya Farm ... 56 Printed in Israel f. The First \Vorld \Var and General Developments 59 at Goldberg's Press Ltd. Jerusalem GROWTH AND DEYELOPl\lENT DURING THE BRITISH MANDATE a. The Third and Fourth Kibbutzim - Dt'ganya B and Bet Zera' 64 b. The Jordan Aqueduct; Afiqim; The "Kibbutz State" 68 PREFACE c. The Power Station at Naharayim; Development of the West Bank of the Jordan 70 The Central Jordan Valley is that part of the valley which lies between d. Gesher and Ashdot Ya'aqov ... 73 the Sea of Galilee in the north and the Bet She'an Valley in the south. e. The General Settlement Situation m the Mid·1930's 75 f. The Zema~ Land and the "Tower and Though very small in area, it possesses many distinctive geographical Stockade" Settlements 77 features which merit particular attention. In this region there flourished g. Increased Irrigation; the Yarmuk Aqueducts; some of the most important prehistoric and historic cultures of Israel. Reallocation of Land 80 During recent times it has undergone a radical change. Formerly a 86 h. The End of the British Mandate marginal region on the borders of the desert, inhabited only by Bedouin
THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY TODAY tribes, it has become one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in a. Changes during the First Two Decades the country. The first "kevutza" (communal settlement) in Israel was of the State of Israel 89 established in this area and the ideas of regional co-operation were given b. Agriculture, Industry, and Regional Co·operation 95 here their first expression. One of these ideas was to unite all the settle c. The Use. Problems, and Future of Water in the Region 105 ments in the region to form one large "Kibbutz State". The interesting development pattern of settlement in this area was made possible by the CONCLUDING REMARKS geographical conditions, the level topography of the Jordan Valley, easily PARALLELS BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT 117 workable soils, and above all the abundance of water. THE CONTRAST BETWEEN JEWISH AND ARAB VILLAGES 120 The aim of this essay is to present a picture of settlement in this region THE DISTINCTI\"ENESS OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN THE CJV 121 THE CJV - ISRAEL IN MINIATURE 122 at various historical periods, emphasizing the most recent changes which are, to a great extent, typical of the impact of modern Jewish settlement Bibliography 125 on the landscape and the general development of Israel. This essay is List of 1\laps ... 129 the fruit of study and lengthy research in the CJV. The regional research List of Photographs 130 project merited summary in a book published in Hebrew (Bibliography). Abbreviations 131 The present essay differs from the former in that it concentrates on one aspect of the region alone - the changes in its settlement pattern. Within this framework, subject matter was consolidated and many comments were added relating to the conclusions and summaries about the subject. The research was carried out before the Six Days War in June 1967. Therefore, this publication does not deal with changes that occurred in the CJV and Israel after the war. A list of the sources is given at the end of the book. Sources are also briefly mentioned in brackets in the text of the book, including only the author's surname and the date of publication. The second part of the Pssay which dPals with Jewish settlement is based mainly on internal reports of the various settlements and of the local authorities of the region. These reports are generally not found in libraries. I have listed the more important of these in the Bibliography but only a few within the body of the book. Spelling of place names, both Hebrew and Arabic, follows the official
tran~cription rules employed in the maps of the Government Department of Surveys. The only exception is Umm Jiinieh, taken in this form from tlw map of the Palestine Exploration Fund, because it is locally better known than the official form , Umm Juna. I am indebted to many sources who helped me in this work. Mention of all their names here would produce a long list, so I would like to take this opportunity of thanking them all for their generous assistance. Special thanks are due to the Regional Council of Emek HaYarden for thP as~i~tance in fieldwork and for part of the photographs published in INTRODUCTION: PHYSICAL BACKGROUND this study. ).!r;:;. Y. Elgad, 1\lrs. J. Pomeranz, and Mr. N. Kadmon assisted in hrinl!inl! the material to the press . Professor Amiran read, and commented on. the concludin~ chapters. 1\Iy thanks to them all, as well as to the Drpartmt'nt of Geography of the Hebrew University for financial help, and The :.\lagnPs Press and Goldherg's Press for the production of the hook.
Jerm:alem. 1968 Y. BEN-ARIEH SURFACE CONFIGURATION
The Central Jordan Valley forms part of the Jordan-'Arava depres sion which extends throughout the whole length of Israel. In the part of the depression extending from the Sea of Galilee in the north to about 30 km south of the Dead Sea there existed during the Late Pleistocene an inland lake. This lake is known today as the Lisan (Arabic: tongue) Lake, after the deposits which were first identified in the Lisan "tongue" of the Dead Sea. The deposits of this lake form today the flat floor of the Jordan Valley which is known as "Kikkar HaYarden" (Arabic:, Ghor). After some time, the Pleistocene Lisan Lake began to shrink in the direction of the Dead Sea basin. It left behind a residual lake which is known today as the Sea of Galilee. The Lower Jordan began to cut its alluvial valley as it flowed from the Sea of Galilee towards the retreating and shrinking lake across the area of the present Kikkar Ha y arden, so that an alluvial valley was developed. This valley (Arabic : Zor) lies some 20-30 m below the level surface of Kikkar Ha Yarden, and it is only a few hundred meters wide. In the northernmost part of Kikkar HaYarden, i.e. in the CJV, there is another alluvial valley ~ that of the largest tributary of the Jordan : the Yarmuk. This tributary leaves the mountains and cuts its way down into Kikkar HaYarden, building its own flood·plain. The alluvial valley (Zor) of the Yarmuk is wider than that of the Jordan and in some places reaches a width of 2 km. The alluvial valleys of the Jordan and the Yarmuk form a triangle, of Kikkar Ha Yard en which has its base on the southern shore of the Sea of Galilee and its apex at the confluence of the Jordan and the Yarmuk. The triangle is completed in the north by the steep hill of Tel Qa?ir. The level of Kikkar HaYarden in the CJV is approximately 200 m below the level of the Mediterranean. On both sides of the CJV the ground rises to several hundred metres ( 400-500 m) above the valley. This section of the Central Jordan Valley is about 10 km long and 10 km wide so that its area is about 100 sq. km.
3 LAK-E TIBf:T\lA5 / i lake Kinneret .,,
IT•I-Aviv . Yaffo ""'""~:== I • ------- z 2 ""''''" '" 'l:o .•tSntMnh • Gazo ... 3 0 f,_,..·· 0 5 0 soo 1ooom 6 { ...... )
ZoS
2. The I. The old channel of the Jordan outlet 2 Km. 2. The Jordan channel prior to operation of the Naharayirn plant 3. Escarpment I. Th,. Central Jordan Yalley. General picture. 4. Boundary between Kikkar HaYarden (Ghor) and alluvial ,·alley (Zor) 1. Kibbutz. " Mo~havn. 3. Regional School. 4. Educational Centre. 5. Road 5. Regional Council. 6. Frontier. CLIMATE receives the highest rainfall in the Jordan Rift Valley south of the Sea of Galilee, it also has higher than average temperatures and particularly The average rainfall in the CJV is approximately 400 mm per annum. strong winds. Characteristic of the region are the lateness of the rains and the frequent occurrence of cloudbursts in the early and latter part of the year. WATER RESOURCES The average annual temperature is 23•c. In summer there is a marked difference in temperature between this area and the coastal plain near The abundance of water is undoubtedly the most important factor that Haifa, the rise in temperature from winter to summer being very rapid. distinguishes the CJV from other parts of the country. The three largest In winter the average maximum temperature does not exceed l8-2o•c, sources of water in the country are in this region : The Sea of Galilee, and and the absolute maximum does not fall below 27-3o•c. In summer, the the Jordan and Yarmuk rivers. All three receive their waters mainly average maximum reaches 37-38"C and the absolute maximum as much from outside the region of the CJV; they are not dependent on, or in as 48-so·c. The average summer minimum does not fall below 21 fluenced by, its climate and hydrology, but by that of a much wider 23•C and the absolute minimum below l7-l9•C. In winter, however, region. However, their influence is decisive on the natural and anthropo the average minimum is below 9-n•c and the absolute minimum may geographic conditions of the area. fall below freezing point. A comparison of minimum temperatures, both The Sea of Galilee is Israel's second largest lake. Its area is ap mean and absolute, of the CJV with those of the Bet She'an, J:Iula proximately 170 sq. km, its water level is 210m below Mediterranean sea and Haifa valleys reveals the relatively high minimum temperatures of level, and its volume 4,400 million cu. m. It reaches a maximum depth the Jordan region. The high minimum and maximum temperatures result of 45 m. The annual average salt concentration reaches 340-350 mgjl. in high annual averages, which render the CJV the hottest region in The average annual discharge of the Jordan on leaving the lake near Northern Israel. Deganya Bridge is estimated at approximately 490 million cu. m. The Two factors determine the wind regime in the CJV: its topography average maximum monthly discharge at this point is ISO million cu. m. and the presence of the Sea of Galilee. The former explains the greater The minimum monthly average amounts to 5 million cu. m. intensity of the westerly winds; the second causes a range of local lake Before 1932, when the dam near Deganya Bridge was constructed, winds. Both sets of winds blow mainly in summer whereas in winter the the level of the Sea of Galilee rose in winter by over 2 m due to the wind regime is less affected by local factors. sudden inflow of large quantities of water from the Jordan and the Annual average relative humidity at the Tiberias station is 57%. entire drainage basin, in addition to the large amounts of rain water Considerable annual fluctuations are recorded, with a maximum of 70% falling in the lake itself. Moreover, at this time of the year evaporation in February, and a minimum of 49% in May and September (the is particularly low. In summer, on the other hand, intense evaporation . 6 7 pletely. The dry summer months became the period of peak discharge and the rainy winter months that of minimum discharge, the discharge being dependent on the opening or closing of the dam. The average annual natural discharge of the Yarmuk before it joins the Jordan is estimated at 460 million cu. m. It reaches its peak discharge in February, before that of the Jordan, even in its upper section before it enters the Sea of Galilee. The average discharge in this month is approximately 150 million cu. m, that is about 60 cu. m/sec. The mini mum discharge is recorded in the summer (June to September), when the general average is 15-20 million cu. m per month or 6-8 cu. m/sec. The regime of this river is characterized by the occurrence of floods when large quantities of water are discharged during a short period of weeks or even days. SETTLEMENT IN HISTORICAL PERIODS 8 In 19-16 there were still a number of Arab villages in existence in the struction of a network of branch roads. After the Zema~-Tiberias road was built in 1921, a feeder road was built between Yavne'el and Kin art'a; their estimated population was as follows : neret Moshava, connecting with the main road. Concurrently with the 3,660 Es-Samra: 310 Zcma~: Naharayim electric power project the main road from Zemal_I to Na 'Ubeidiya: 920 EI-Manara: 520; harayim was constructed. After the political disturbances of 1936-1939 430 Tot a I: 5,840. Dalhamiya: Naharayim was connected by road to Bet She'an, and in 1939 the con A comparison of these data with those for 1922 and 1936 shows that necting road to Kibbutz Kinneret was built with a branch to Bitanya the Arab population, too, had increased. There were four times as many and an approach road to Bet Zera'. This spreading network of com in 19-l6 as in 1922, and twice as many as in 1936. The main increase munication lines serves as evidence of the economic consolidation and, took place in Zema~, but a considerable rise was recorded in other set in turn, led directly to the growth and prosperity of the Jewish popula tkml'nts. too. Zema~ assumed the appearance of a small town, with shops, tion there. cafes and workshops being opened there. The inhabitants received large areas of land from the British l\landatory government, in return for a THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY TODAY Yt'ry small payment, hut preferred in many cases to sell the land and work in crafts and small trade. The relative importance of the place a. Changes during the First Two Decades of the State of Israel was due to its position ncar the border between Palestine, Jordan and With the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1947 acts of hostility Svria. As a result manY of the inhabitants were engaged in trade and, as by the Arabs against Jewish settlements spread through the country and a sidt·lint'. in smuggling. The Second World War caused an economic occurred also in the Jordan Valley. However, here, as elsewhere, the rist' in Zcmal_J. l\Iany of the townsfolk earned relatiwly good wages by Jewish community fought back. After the capture of Tiberias by Jewish buildin~ fortifications for the British Army. A quarantine station for forces in April 1948 and the retreat of the Arabs from the town, the cattle importC'd from Iraq and Syria was also built near Zema~. The Arab villagers began to leave the Jordan Valley, too. ~hortage of consumer goods in Palestine led to increased smuggling from On the evening of April 24th the British forces vacated the police the neighbouring countries and Zcma~ served as one of the important station of Gesher, which was taken over by a fighting unit from the kib centres for this activity. Agricultural products were sold at black market butz. In retaliation the Arab Legion (the armed forces of the Kingdom prices. The population grew, the new built-up area of Zema~ spread out of Jordan) opened artillery fire on the settlement, and continued firing for and many landowners sold one or two dunams of land on the edge of the two days. On the night of April 24th the :(':emal_I police station, too, was villagC' at C'xorhitant prices to new Arab settlers who came from villages vacated hy the British, and after a battle with an armed Arab force that in Lower Galilee, attracted hy the prosperity. had seized it, the police station and the Municipality building were In contrast to Zema~, 'Uhcidiya continued to support itself by agri captured hy the Jewish forces. culture aided by the irrigation waters from Na~al Yame'el. 'Ubeidiya's On May 15th, the day after the Declaration of Independence of Israel, C'conomv. based primarily on intensi,·e farming, led to its continued the Syrian invasion began. For five days there was heavy fighting in the l!rowth. In 19-16 the population was three times that of 1922. :(':emal_I-Deganya region. At the same time Iraqi forces attacked Kib Ap:ut from the Arab and Jewish settlements two large police forts of butz Gesher and the heights around it, but suffered heavy losses and were the Tcggart type were constructed in the area during the Mandatory forced to retreat. On the evening before these attacks began the Arab Legion captured the electric power station at Naharayim and took pris Jwnot· 1 : z_, t> maI_1 a11d G~,Jlnr.c . , Communi cations were assisted by the con- 89 oner the group of Jewish maintenance workers. On the night of May 15th. Jewish forces carried out acts of sabotage against the Iraqis who had planned to attack Kibbutz Gesher, blowing up the three bridges over the Jordan nearby, at the historic crossing point - the old Roman bridge, the new road bridge and the railway bridge. Two days before the first truce the Syrians began a further series of attacks in the area, directed chiefly against 'En Gev on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, but these attacks all ended in failure. After the war and the signing of the armistice agreements with the Arab states, the CJV was void of Arab settlements. The region now constituted part of the border zone of the young State. Security con· siderations necessitated immediate action to take control of the empty spaces left in the valley, and in 1949 three more kibbutzim were set up: Ma'agan, Tel Qa~ir and HaOn. Ma'agan was established on the south eastern shore of the lake, on part of the land of the former village of ZemaJ:, south of the Sea of Galilee, where the camp of the , British Mandatory Frontier Force had stood before the War of Independence. Tel Qa~ir was situated on a hill overlooking the Jordan Valley. HaOn was sited one kilometre north of the former Arab village of Samra, near the shore of the lake. The land that had been deserted by the Arab villagers in the CJV, particularly around ZemaJ:, was now divided among the Jewish settle· ments. The arable land of these settlements was increased, but only to a limited extent, and the areas were still insufficient. In order to irrigate the additional land it was essential to construct another irrigation system. Most of this land lay near the Y armuk, and it was logical to irrigate it 'I= ~ i' -.:_ -.-:=3,··' with water from this river, but security considerations dictated a change in plans, utilizing the Jordan. In 1952 a third regional water project was initiated. Near the old pumping station of the first aqueduct on the Jordan a new station was built which pumped water through a pipeline 17. The landscape in 1953 5 km long; 3 km of this pipe had a diameter of 40 inches and 2 km 1. Irrigated agriculture 5. Aqueduct 28 inches. The water passing through this pipe was intended to irrigate 2. Unirrigated agriculture 6. l\Iain canal 3. Patches of irrigated agriculture 7. Regional pipeline the fields of nine settlements, and therefore the line was known as "the 4. Stony land 8. Jewish settlement Jordan pipeline of the nine settlements". Apart from this project a num· 9. Arab settlement her of other waterworks were constructed to serve the needs of the various 90 91 settlements. When Kibbutz Ma'agan was founded, a pumping station na~emya and Gesher. This road provides easy access, over flat land, was se.t up on the Sea of Galilee. Water projects were also constructed to all the settlements of the CJV as well as to the Bet Shc'an Valley, and at HaOn and at Tel Qa~ir. also links the Jordan Valley with the Coastal Plain via Bet She'an and A new development in land allocation now took place; over and above the Valley of Yizre'el. Another important road constructed was that the "local" average 2,500 dunam, most settlements were now also given linking Zema~ with 'En Gev. This road brought the settlements of 'En additional land outside the region, at first in the Negev and later in Gev and HaOn into closer contact with the other settlements of the Eastern Lower Galilee and in the Ta'anakh region in the Valley of Jordan Valley. Yizre'el. Another development occurred in the Jordan Valley during the early Two kibbutzim, Massada and Sha'ar HaGolan, were rebuilt after the years of Independence. This was the setting up, in 1950, of the transit War of Independence. These settlements had been captured and tempo camp for new immigrants (ma'abara) on the abandoned site of z;emai.J. rarily held by the Syrians during the war and their fields and houses The first occupants were immigrants from Yemen who had been trans had been burnt. After a relatively brief period of reconstruction the set· ferred from a camp in 'En Shemer. These were later joined by some im tlements were so well reorganized that the war damage could hardly be migrants from Iraq and the total population was then 2-10 families. The discerned. men were employed by the kibbutzim of the area. These first occupants Another settlement that was rebuilt after the war was Kibbutz Gesher. were housed in tents and only after a year or two huts were built for them. During the war it had suffered from heavy attacks and its buildings were From the time the camp was built the regional authority of the kib seriously damaged. After the war it was decided to move the kibbutz butzim demanded that it be used only as a temporary home for the im further west, to the hill known as "Camel's Hill". The rebuilding of migrants. In 1951/1952, 184 families left the camp to settle in other Gesher at this site accelerated its agricultural development, since in the parts of the country, and only 60 families remained. But these were period before the establishment of the State of Israel, Gesher had suf· joined by a new group of immigrants mainly from Tunisia, 1\Iorocco and fered seriously from land shortage. Here, too, the war resulted in an Egypt. In 1953 no new settlement groups were formed. The regional au entirely new land situation. The kibbutz received a permanent alloca thority of the kibbutzim objected to the continued existence of the im tion of 4,500 dunam and, in addition, half the water of Na~al Tavor migrants' camp in the valley, since it was turning into a settlement of as well as pumping rights on the Jordan. Temporarily some land in other "hewers of wood and drawers of water" serving the kibbutzim, with its areas, too, was handed over to the kibbutz. All these factors led to pros population, as a class of hired labourers within a network of independent perity. co-operative settlements. Neither did the local settlements see any pos The loss of the electric power station at Naharayim to the Jordanians sibility of leaving the camp as a permanent fixture in the region, because was a blow to the region. As a result the road linking the Jordan Valley of the land shortage and the tendency of the camp's inhabitants not to with the Valley of Bet She'an was cut, too, and this left Kibbutz Gesher cultivate the land. After lengthy discussions it was agreed by the regional without a road link with the other settlements in the valley. During the authority and the Jewish Agency Absorption Department to break up first years after the establishment of the State a new road section was the camp and move its inhabitants in accordance with their own wishes, built from Mena~emya to Gesher. This road ascends the steep slope of to settle permanently either in settlements in or near the CJV, or in other the western hills and then descends to the flat area near Kibbutz Gesher. parts of the country. During 1955 the camp was vacated and the entire However, this was only an emergency solution, and more recently a new shanty town pulled down. Once again the valley was left, as it had been road has been built along the west bank of the Jordan, connecting Me- before, a "republic" of co-operative settlements. 92 93 Another event in the history of communal settlement, that caused a Z07' 208 "'' violent upheaval in the Jordan Valley as well as in other parts of tht" "' country, was the split in the United Kibbutz movt"ment in 195:2/1953. This division led to the splitting of the largest kibbutz in the region, Ashdot Ya'aqov, into two separate settlements of the same name - K Krnneret Lake Krnneret Ashdot Ya'aqov "I~ud" and Ashdot Ya'aqov "1\Ie'u~ad", and to con siderable changes in the social composition of the other settlt"ments. As a result another settlement was added to the region, but the energetic growth that had marked Ashdot Ya'aqov as the largest settlement in tht" region was checked. In summing up the changes that occurred in the Jordan Valley after the establishment of the State of Israel it may be said that this mainly level area, which was semi-desert at the beginning of Jewish settlement near the end of the 19th century, and which served only as pasture land for the sparse nomadic Bedouin population, became a prosperous, fully irrigated agricultural region. b. Agriculture, Industry, and Regional Co-operation By the mid-1960's there were 15 kibbutzim in the CJV. The table below sums up their agricultural structure in these years. 211 The following table of income from agriculture in the Jordan Valley for the mid-1960's shows the contribution of the various branches. ·, INCOME FROM AGRICULTURE IN THE 2JJJ 2l0 ~}.,.; CJV SETTLEMENTS IN THE MID-1960"s •.j 1 Bananas 31.5% Dairy products 15.2% 4 Citrus 1.2% Beef -1.7% '•,, $..,..~/ Grapes 4.3% ...._...... Total 19.9% ' Olives 0.4% Dates 1.5% Miscellaneous fruits 0.1% Poultry 19.3% To tal 39% Fish (ponds) 4.8% 228 228 Fish (Sea of Galilee) 0.5% Cereals 4.3% Tot a I 5.3% Vegetables 4.5% Fodder 4.1% Miscellaneous lndwtrial crops 2.4% "'' 208 (sheep et.:.l I.~ 18. Agricultural areas of settlement in the triangle of Kikkar Ha Yarden (1960) Total 15.3% To tal 100.G~< 95 Examination of this table shows that the dominant branch of agri culture is the cultivation of bananas. The Central Jordan Valley is the most suitable region for the cultivation of bananas in the country, as a result of two physical factors : the abundance and low price of water 8 and the high summer temperatures. There are, however, several limita· .... tions, chiefly the strong winds (westerly in the summer and easterly in winter), soil salinity, the rise in water table and the danger of frost .; that threatens once in every few years to completely destroy the planta u" tions. Water for irrigating the banana plantations flows by gravity in concrete channels and the plants are watered by flooding. Between 2,800 and 3,500 cu. m of water are needed annually to irrigate one dunam of .... 0 bananas. Experiments are being carried out to reduce this quantity, but --r- "' z; "'0 soil permeability and extreme evaporation (5-10 mm daily in the sum· ..... mer) resulting from the low air humidity and the high temperatures tend to increase the irrigation requirements. The CJV's banana plantations resemble a green sea covering thousands of dunams and changing its location from time to time; they are charac teristic of the scenery no less than of the agricultural system. The CJV today cannot be imagined without its banana plantations: bananas con stitute the main crop in the Jordan Valley, their marketing is well or ganized and profits are considerable. Second in importance and area among the fruit crops are grapes. The area of the vineyards in the individual settlements varies from 100 to -c 300 dunam. Those settlements having hilly areas partly use these for £ ~ "' growing vine. The advantage of the vineyards of the Jordan Valley over ~0- ·= r- ;:l those in other parts of the country lies in the early ripening times. Be· u cause of this the early varieties of grapes take up most of the planted area. In the young plantation the strains for export also figure promi· ~ nently. Differences in the time of ripening are found even within the 0 u" region. Fruit of a given strain in plantations situated on the eastern side of the valley ripen about a week earlier than those in the west, and this is of significance both from the point of view of price obtained and 0 r -c;:l "u the absorption capacity of the local market...... -==· =' In the third place, next in area to the vineyards, come various citrus ,....;cl} plantations and mainly grapefruit. This branch experienced its greatest 97 96 --- -·-- - - · ------ increase in recent years. The main advantage o£ growing citrus in the region is, again, the early ripening time. The date palm is one of the oldest and most fruitful trees in the country as a whole and in the Jordan Valley in particular. The pioneer settlers in the Jordan Valley did not forget the date palm and re· introduced it there, thus renewing the existence and distribution of one of the ancient traditional crops of the country. Most of the date planta· tions are scattered in areas of marginal soils, unsuitable for other crops. These are the western slopes facing the Jordan, the embankments of '" I fishponds, the banks of the Y armuk, the shore of the Sea of Galilee and .l land with a high water table in general; consequently, hundreds of palm trees decorate the land round the kibbutzim in clusters and lines. Other plantations in the CJV cover only a relatively small area. Olive groves have been unsuccessful because of marketing problems and their area has not grown in recent years. Small plantations of pomegranates and apples are found in the region, but these are relatively insignificant. Subtropical fruits, which were mostly introduced after the War of Independence, have also shown only small increases in recent years. The main crop is the Avocado, but the possibilities for its development in the region are, as yet, not clear. Experimental plantations of Pecan nuts are found in some of the settlements. The cultivation of cereals is gradually disappearing from the Jordan Valley. The transition to irrigated farming left no space for cereals, and as a result these are found only in crop rotation together with other field crops, serving also to dry the soil in irrigated areas. They cover 300 400 dunam in each settlement. Apart from the areas within the valley each settlement holds and cultivates some 1,000-2,000 dunam outside the region. But even in the best cases these areas supply only half the set· 0 "" .... t:=::==-: ;.::.··-= -m,.' dements' consumption of grains. The main problem in the cultivation of cereals is simply the land shortage. '" The most important agricultural activity in the CJV in the past, and 19. Agricultural land use in the triangle of Kikkar Ha Yarden (1960) one which played a major role in the development of the early set· I. Fishing 6. Vineyards II. Maize dements in the CJV, was vegetable growing; this, too, has declined con· 2. Varioll3 plantations 7. Bananas 12. Sown pasture 3. Citrus groves 8. Fodder 13. Beets siderably in recent years. The income from vegetables and bananas 4. Olives 9. Cereals 14. Settled area made it possible in the first place to plant other fruit crops (dates, citrus 5. Date palms 10. Vegetable gardens IS. Public parks 98 99 ------~~------and vineyards), to introduce pastoral activities and to initiate the region's irrig'ation network. Now the importance of the vegetable gardens is declining. In the mid-1960's the income from vegetables was only 4.5% of the total income from agriculture. The decline was due to a shortage of manpower, instability of yields and prices and a lack of suitable land. The continuous shortage of manpower led to an increase in hired labour which, in itself, led to a serious controversy in the kibbutz movement. • Those settlements that grow vegetables for external markets employ 40% of all agricultural hired labour in the CJV, and 70% of the working days spent in vegetable cultivation. The chief vegetables today are tomatoes, aubergines and green pepper. In fact, these are the monopoly crops of the area in late winter and early spring. In addition, potatoes are grown in rotation with bananas but the former do not produce yields as high as elsewhere in Israel. Recently there has been considerable de· velopment of tomato cultivation on the western slopes of the valley. Experience has shown that the danger of frost is smallest here, the soils are fertile and well drained and the crop ripens early. However, irriga tion, as well as soil reclamation which is being carried out today with heavy mechanical equipment, are expensive activities which raise the price of the tomatoes. The most important irrigated crops in the CJV, after fruit plantations, are fodder crops, of which the principal one is lucerne. The growing season lasts for nine or ten months. Because of the high temperatures in the Jordan Valley, growth is rapid and there are up to 18 harvests a year. Under irrigation the lucerne leaves are wide and large. Maize is the fodder crop second in importance to lucerne. Industrial crops are almost non-existent in the CJV, apart from their presence in crop rotation. Two branches of the livestock industry are of importance in the CJV : dairy farming and poultry. In recent years there has been an overall increase in dairying because of the growing importance of this operation in the newer settlements, and as a result of the introduction of a new activity - calf fattening. It seems probable that in the future milk production will not increase significantly, but it is to be expected that cattle fattening will develop and expand. 100 101 The second livestock industry, poultry farming, has maintained its perity. A partial solution may be found in cultivating additional land percentage of the general income in recent years. outside the CJV and so to increase the size of the farm unit. Some of the There has been a considerable decline in sheep rearing in recent settlements have already been given land in Eastern Lower Galilee and years. The main problem involved was how to support sheep in the in the Ta'anakh region in the Valley of Yizre'el. Recently plans have irrigated system of the Jordan Valley where cereal land and natural been proposed for taking up land in the Korazim area north of the Sea hill pasture were in short supply. The attempt to use the western slopes of of Galilee. Planned utilization of these areas could make a significant the valley as pastures was unsuccessful simply because there was not contribution to the consolidation of the agricultural structure of the CJV enough land to satisfy the needs even of moderate flocks. There are no in the future. other suitable pasture areas in the CJV, and in time most of the set· Apart from the agricultural branches there are several industries in the tlements sold their flocks. CJV which fulfil an important economic function in the n•gion. The Breeding fish is an important agricultural activity in the CJV today. most important of these is the "Kelet" wood factory of 1\:ihlmtz Afiqim. Income from fishponds constitutes 6-8% of the total income from agri In recent years the income from this factory reached 80~£, of the total culture. The total area of fishponds in the region reaches some 4,000 income of the kibbutz. The great strides in the development of this dunam, which is about 10% of the total in Israel. The areas selected for factory led to an increase in the number of employees. In 1965 there fishponds are marginal lands which are generally unsuitable for all other were approximately 500 hired employees, apart from kibbutz members, irrigated crops: they include the Zor area of the Jordan and the Yarmuk, who worked in three shifts. "Kelet" is the largest industrial concern in the area on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee and the edge of Kikkar the entire kibbutz organization in Israel today. HaYarden, near the mouths of the stream valleys. In the central part of "Sefen", too, is a wood factory, and the second largest concern in the Jordan Valley, however, there are no fishponds. If introduced here the area. The factory was established in 1951 by five kibbutzim in co they would ruin the soil by raising the water table. The fishpond areas operation with "Ampal". In 1955 two other kibbutzim joined in. These are today of no use for any other agricultural activity. The average seven settlements hold 50% of the shares capital that has been invested water requirement for fishbreeding is 6,000-8,000 cu. m per dunam and in the factory, the remaining 50% being held by "Ampal". The factory this high figure raises the question whether the continued existence of is situated near Afiqim, opposite Ashdot Ya'aqov, on an area of 70 dunam these ponds is justified. allocated by the kibbutzim for this purpose. There are 300 workers, of The survey of the agricultural system of the Jordan Valley shows that its whom 50 are kibbutz members. economy is based on the optimal utilization of water and soil. Agriculture Another factory in the region is the "Tarit" fish processing plant in in the CJV is relatively profitable in comparison with other parts of the 'En Gev. The number of employees at "Tarit" ranges from 30 to 70, country. One of the reasons is the lack of competition on the home market depending on the season. today, especially in the very early and very late seasons, but there is no Other concerns in the region are the gypsum quarries and crushing guarantee that this will continue to be the case in the future. A basic plant belonging to Kibbutz Gesher and a factory for processing gypsum factor in the system is the shortage of land. The average size of a which is held in partnership by Ashdot Ya'aqov Me'u~ad and the "Or farm unit, which is composed mainly of irrigated land, plantations and ganization of the Kibbutz HaMe'u~ad". In the case of Gesher the income fishponds, is only 17 dunam. With the current plans for rationing water from the factory constitutes about 25% of the total income of the kibbutz. in an area where the abundance of water serves as its agricultural base, Examination of the data of the CJV's industrial plants shows that, it is doubtful whether such a small holding will be able to ensure pros in spite of their relatively small number, they hold an important share 102 103 in the region's economic base, particularly the two largest, "Kelet" quarry in Tiberias which was acquired from private owners, quarries and "Sefen". The total number of external employees in the indus· in Lower Galilee, and a poultry abbatoir in Bet She'an, which serves trial plants moves around 1,000. Taking into account outside workers both regions, the CJV and the Bet She'an Valley. 120 kibbutz members employed in agricultural industries maintained by the regional coun· are employed in the co-operative concerns of the Regional Council, in cil and in the agricultural branches the total number of external workers addition to 150-200 hired workers, dependening on seasonal requirements. in the CJV reaches some 1,500. Most of these labourers live in Tiberias, The number of co-operative concerns in the region shows that the and there is a regular and frequent bus service between the city and the Jordan Valley exhibits a high degree of regional co-operation, and that settlements around. In addition there is a special transport service that many functions are co-ordinated hetween the settlements. Ne,·ertheless. conveys workers to and from work. This emphasizes the significance each settlement retains a considerable degree of independence in economic of the CJV settlements in the economic life of Tiberias. Perhaps the as well as in social and cultural life. These settlements were the pioneers most productive branch of employment for the working population of in regional co-operation at a time when other parts of the country had Tiberias is work in the factories and settlements of the valley. One can not even dreamt of it. At a later stage some retardation occurred in this even go so far as to state that Tiberias is supported chiefly by the industry process. But after Israel gained independence, and especially in recent and agriculture of the CJV. years, regional co-operation again became an important factor in the In addition to the factories mentioned, some of which are jointly owned area's agricultural, industrial, social and cultural activities. Today it ap by several settlements, a number of other jointly owned concerns have pears that the particular and difficult geographical conditions gi,·ing rise been established in the CJV. Today most of these are operated by the to similar agricultural problems, the high density of settlements and Regional Council of the Jordan Valley. In recent years regional organiza. the peculiar social conditions - an almost exclusive concentration of tion and co-operation have. been expanding. This co-operation is seen in kibbutzim - as well as a common regional history, are likely to ensure the establishment of a series of joint concerns collectively named "Jordan the continued expansion of regional co-operation, which may result in Valley Enterprises", linked to and controlled by the Regional council the almost complete realization of the prophecy of the 1930's : a small of the Jordan Valley. "Republic of Kibbutzim" in the CJV. The most important of these concerns are the co-operative marketing organizations. The first of these, established by the Regional Council c. The Use, Problems, and Future of Water in the Region in 1957, was the banana ripening plant. Another co-operative concern The extensive use of water in the CJV on the one hand, and the is the date drying and packing centre, which began work in September changes likely to occur in the sources of water supply to the region on 1961. the other, give rise to various fundamental problems relating to the Apart from the marketing organizations, others dealing with agri character of the region's agricultural system. cultural machinery were set up. The most important of these is the Large-scale irrigation caused the water table to rise. The enormous heavy equipment department of "Jordan Valley Enterprises". It was irrigation potential in the area enabled thousands of cubic metres of established to carry out work requiring large and expensive machinery water to flow over every dunam of land, particularly in the banana that the individual settlements were unable to purchase. Another activity plantations. It soon became clear that the soil could not absorb all this is the co-operative store for spare parts. Other concerns coming under water, and the surplus not used by the plants or returned to the atmos the management of the Regional Council are the "Drainage Authority" phere by evapotranspiration did not drain away naturally. In addition which carries out drainage projects in the region, a petrol station, a to the rise in the water table, various salts, and chiefly chlorine deposits, 104 105 concentrated in the upper layers of the soil. As a result many plants withered and, moreover, there was a danger of the soil structure break ing down. Discussion of the salinity problem with experts resulted in ... ••• "' the decision to carry out drainage projects in the valley. At the beginning of 1947 the first drainage canals were dug experimentally and pro\'ed l\ / \ i successful. In the same year it was decided to carry out another more /r-i i I extensive drainage project: in accordance with a (temporary) master I'I. ,'J' Ut' ... plan, construction of an underground drainage system was commenced, iJ I* III j !i ) i \ ,_,·'-' consisting of a network of main pipelines and a branch system of \ (") \ I . ) i , secondaires. The underground drainage system consisted of cracked ~ \ I m \ .I , ...... \ .....i )t cement pipes which caught the water from the irrigated fields. These ...... , pipes were 12-20 inches in diameter and they were laid at a depth of ( 2.5-3 m; their direction was parallel to that of the subterranean flow of water in the valley. To these main pipes feeder pipes of 6-10 inches in diameter were connected whose direction was perpendicular to that of the flow of water. The depth of the feeders was 2-2.4 m. During the execution of the drainage project it became clear that the places where the water table rose most were those in which irrigation was continuous and the immediate surroundings of which were irrigated, I / "' too. Since the water table rose highest in the banana plantations it was concluded that it would be preferable to disperse these plantations. In ' l order to hold the level of the water table constant obsen·ation points \ ...... were installed throughout the areas liable to suffer from a rise of the ~ water table. These points were examined periodically and when a rise I' I 1 in water level was discovered, drainage was carried out. t.._../ After the first emergency drainage projects were carried out the work \ slackened. Maintenance of the drainage lines was neglected and some pipes were clogged by roots of plants. This neglect was due to the lack '" of a central organization which could take on the responsibility to finance 0 500 1000 cf--====i:=:=J:., .., and maintain the drainage system, which by now was extensive and, in 1958, totalled 36 km of pipelines from 6 to 20 inches in diameter. Final ••• .... ly, in 1960, a regional drainage authority was set up by the govern 21. Underground drainage in the triangle of Kikkar HaY arden ment. A new master plan was drawn up for extensive regional drainage projects to cover the entire triangle of the Central Jordan Valley. In the same year further projects were carried out. In 1967 the observation 106 107 -200l2 ~200 points extended over most of the valley and totalled 500. The position -200.86 today is, in general, satisfactory and there is no part of the CJV where groundwater reaches the surface and causes salinity. The drainage pro -20159 jects have thus succeeded in preventing a rise in the water table, which 2 remains at least l-1.5 m below the surface. There exists, however, the constant danger of a rise in the water table which is quite near the 3 surface. A further problem that has arisen in recent years is the salinity of ir ·4 rigation water taken from the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan. Until a few years ago the salinity of the lake did not exceed 280 mg chlorine per -205 litre, and that of the Jordan at its exit from the lake, 300 mg. Recent ...... I II -·-· 2 examinations have shown that the salinity has been on the increase. --3 There are several reasons for this, among them the influence of the series -207 of drought years in the recent past. During these years the dam regulat ing the flow of the Jordan where it leaves the lake near Deganya B has 22. Cross-section of the level of groundwater in various months of the year been operated so as to ensure a minimal efflux in order to maintain the (normal conditions) water level of the lake. This limited flow did not carry away a sufficient 1. July 2. November 3. March amount of minerals and as a result the salinity of the lake increased. It is also probable that the drainage of Lake J:lula to a certain extent influenced the balance of minerals in the Sea of Galilee. Another pos sible explanation is the increasing amount of sewage water from the Jordan Valley. The large amount of salt in the water of the lake and of the Jordan endangers the soils causing considerable changes in the characteristics of the irrigated soils which are now liable to turn into salt pans in course of time. To solve this problem various methods of soil improvement are now being carried out in the Jordan Valley, such as ventilation and drainage. It appears, however, that extensive irrigation with large quantities of fresh water flushes out the salts to considerable --5-· depths and washes them away into the lake, the Yarmuk and particularly into the Jordan. The salinity of groundwater in the region reaches 2,000 ·zosl------ mg chlorine per litre and more, and this is one of the factors leading to 23. Cross-section of the groundwater level in various months of the year (with drainage activity) the rise in salinity of the Jordan southwards. 1. March 3. July The basic solution to the problems of salinity is to be found in the 2. May 4. November new water projects that are about to be carried out in the area. One 5. August project that is causing a radical change in the local water supply situa 108 109 tion is the diversion of the Yarmuk by the Jordanians. This diversion "" ... 101 results in the loss of 23 million cu. m of water required by the settlements •• •• of the Jordan Valley, and 17 million cu. m needed by those of the Bet She'an Valley. The second plan causing a drastic change in the water situation is the Kinneret-Negev conduit - the chief water project of ... Israel. The annual amount of water taken from the Sea of Galilee through the Kinneret-Negev conduit and led southward is about 160 million cu.m in the first stage, and will reach 320 million in the second stage ... of the project. This, together with the implementation of the Y armuk diversion scheme, will cause a marked reduction in the discharge of the Lower Jordan. The significance to the settlements in the CJV lies in the fact that all settlements along the banks of the river, from the point where "' it leaves the Sea of Galilee southward, will be left without that river water which had, before, constituted the basis of their agriculture. To solve this problem a water conduit from the Sea of Galilee to Bet She'an, with a capacity of 80 million cu. m per annum, has been planned. The water is being pumped from the Jordan at its exit from the lake. Con· struction of the carrier was to be carried out in three stages, the first i ,.,·· I two of which have already been completed, as follows : i \ l. The construction of the primary pumping station and the laying of i ... I no the 5 km long cement pipeline of 48 inches in diameter, to a central fi'J point in the CJV where a large cement reservoir was constructed for the r distribution of water to all settlements who formerly pumped water from the Yarmuk. The amount of water flowing through the conduit after the completion of stage one reaches 22 million cu. m, equivalent to the amount formerly pumped from the Yarmuk. 2. The laying of the continuation of the pipeline from this reservoir to the Doshen farm in the north of the Bet She'an Valley, where another reservoir was built to distribute water to the northern settlements of the Bet She'an region. With the completion of stage two, approximately '" ... 45 million cu. m of water flow through the carrier each year. 24. Network of irrigation channels in the triangle of Kikkar Ha Yarden 3. The third stage will bring water to the settlements in the Bet She'an 1. Aqueduct 4. Pumping station 5. Reservoirs Valley. By the end of 1961 the first stage of construction was completed. 2. Regional pipeline 3. Water canal 6. Fishponds The second stage was finished in late 1964. Another change that is likely to influence the pumping installations no Ill ' ~,. ' • on the Sea of Galilee is the fluctuation that will affect the level of the The radical changes that are about to occur in the region's water lake as a result of the operation of the Kinneret-Negev conduit. In order system will create a completely new situation: the CJV, \\hich is rich in to stabilize the water supply even in the low·water season of the Jordan, water sources, will be left with only one useable source - the Sea of it was decided to create a reserve of 1,000 million cu. m of water in the Galilee. From here water will flow through the Kinneret-Bet She'an lake. This volume will he available by lowering the water level of the conduit to all settlements in the region. Changes such as these seriou:;ly lake by 7 m, from the normal, higher, level of 209 m below Mean Sea reduce the amount of water that will he available to the agricultural set· Level to a lower level of -216 m. With the lowering of the water level tlements in the future. to the lower value mentioned the shoreline . will retreat and a number of The total amount of water consumed Ly the settlements of the ref!ion pumps and other installations are likely to fall out of use. An examination in 1957 was over 60 million cu. m. (p. ] 12). BetwPPn 1957 and tlw of the bathymetric map of the Sea of Galilee shows that a lowering of 1960's consumption increased further and reached approximatt>ly 80 7 m in the water level will have considerable effects mainly on the million cu. m. The settlements of the CJV planned further dewlopment southern, relatively flat·hottomed, section of the lake and cause the projects particularly on the western slopes of the hills necessitating a southern shoreline to retreat northward by 1-1.5 km from its present further continual increase in water. But when the general water problem position. in Israel became more serious, it became clear that it was imperative to co·ordinate the region's water consumption with national water plans SOURCES AND CONSUMPTION OF WATER IN 1957 (in million cu. m) and projects. The settlements in the valley were requested to restrict their water consumption. The Agricultural Planning Centre even worked out From the From the From the a plan for water rationing in the region. Among other steps the Planning Jordan Yarmuk Sea of Galilee Total Settlement centre recommended that in the final stage the fishponds using fresh· Alumot 2.1 6.1 water be abolished, thus saving some 15 million cu. m of water. How· Afiqim 3.9 2.2 6.1 ever, the Planning Centre proposed to cut watersupplies to other ir· Ashdot Ya'aqov I~ud 3.5 3.5 rigated areas, too, with a view of changing the characteristics of the Ashdot Ya'aqov Me'u~ad 3.0 3.0 Bet Zera' 4.0 1.2 5.2 farming system of the Jordan Valley, which is at present based on banana 1.6 Gesher 1.6 plantations and other irrigated crops that require particularly large Deganya A 4.4 1.1 5.5 Deganya B 4.1 1.3 5.4 amounts of water, to a system with reduced water requirements. This HaOn 2.0 2.0 plan is contrary to the recent trend whereby the settlements had heen Kibbutz Kinneret 3.3 2.2 5.5 increasing the area under bananas and other tree crops, and restricting Moshava Kinneret 3.0 3.0 Mena~emya 2.0 2.0 that under vegetables. The settlements try, naturally, to use to lu:·st Massada 1.3 3.0 4.3 advantage the limited amount of land at their disposal and make it as Ma'agan 1.1 0.5 1.6 'En Gev 4.0 4.0 profitable as possible by utilizing the region's plentiful water supplies. Sha'ar HaGolan 1.4 4.2 5.6 The Planning Centre, on the other hand, starts from the hasic idea of Tel Qa~ir 1.1 0.5 1.6 the national need to economize water and, therefore, advocates concentrat· Sefen 0.1 0.5 0.6 ing all water resources under one administration which will ensure the Total 30.4 22.2 10.0 62.6 fair distribution of water to all parts of the country. The main difficulty Source: Regional Council CJV. ht finding a way of bridging the gap between these two contradictory 112 ll3 .. attitudes is due to the physical facts. The settlements of the CJV were established in, and based their systems of operation on, the particular geographical conditions they encountered. A change in these geographical conditions is likely to cause a crisis resulting in severe damage to the settlements' economy. That such a change is now taking place is an undisputable fact; the question facing the settlements is the quality and extent of compensation they will receive as a result of these changes. CONCLUDING REMARKS 114