McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS

Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands

By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone

Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project Temple landscapes

McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS

Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands

By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone

With contributions by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Maarten Blaauw, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Alan J. Cresswell, Nathaniel Cutajar, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rory P. Flood, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Steve McCarron, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit, David C.W. Sanderson, Patrick J. Schembri, Sean Taylor, David Trump†, Jonathan Turner, Nicholas C. Vella & Nathan Wright

Illustrations by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Sara Boyle, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, David Redhouse, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit & Simon Stoddart

Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727).

Published by: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research University of Cambridge Downing Street Cambridge, UK CB2 3ER (0)(1223) 339327 [email protected] www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk

McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2020

© 2020 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. Temple landscapes is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives 4.0 (International) Licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1

Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge. Typesetting and layout by Ben Plumridge.

On the cover: View towards Nadur lighthouse and Għajnsielem church with the Gozo Channel to Malta beyond, from In-Nuffara (Caroline Malone).

Edited for the Institute by James Barrett (Series Editor). Contents

Contributors xi Figures xiii Tables xvi Preface and dedication xix Acknowledgements xxi Foreword xxiii

Introduction Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, 1 Rowan McLaughlin & Reuben Grima 0.1. Introduction 1 0.2. Background to FRAGSUS as an archaeological project 3 0.3. Environmental research in Malta and the Mediterranean 5 0.4. The development of the FRAGSUS Project and its questions 6 0.5. Archaeological concerns in Maltese prehistory and the FRAGSUS Project 8 0.6. The research programme: the sites and their selection 9 0.7. Investigating the palaeoenvironmental context 10 0.8. Archaeological investigations 11

Part I The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights into the 17 fifth–second millennia bc

Chapter 1 The geology, soils and present-day environment of Gozo and Malta 19 Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Patrick J. Schembri, Charles French, Alastair Ruffell & Simon Stoddart 1.1. Previous work 19 1.2. Geography 19 1.3. Geology 21 1.4. Stratigraphy of the Maltese Islands 23 1.4.1. Lower Coralline Limestone Formation 23 1.4.2. Globigerina Limestone Formation 23 1.4.3. Chert outcrops 25 1.4.4. Blue Clay Formation 26 1.4.5. Greensand Formation 28 1.4.6. Upper Coralline Limestone Formation 28 1.4.7. Quaternary deposits 29 1.5. Structural and tectonic geology of the Maltese Islands 29 1.6. Geomorphology 29 1.7. Soils and landscape 31 1.8. Climate and vegetation 32

Chapter 2 Chronology and stratigraphy of the valley systems 35 Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Sean D. F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, Alan J. Cresswell, Timothy C. Kinnaird, David Sanderson, Sean Taylor, Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1. Methods for dating environmental and climate change in the Maltese Islands 35 Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Paula J. Reimer & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1.1. Data sources for chronology building 35 2.1.2. Pottery finds 41

v 2.2. Basin infill ground penetrating radar surveys 41 Alastair Ruffell, Chris O. Hunt, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 2.2.1. Rationale 41 2.2.2. Geophysics for basin fill identification 41 2.2.3. Valley locations 43 2.3. The sediment cores 43 Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Rory P. Flood, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Nicholas C. Vella, Sean Taylor & Charles French 2.3.1. Aims and methods 43 2.3.2. The core descriptions 49 2.3.3. Magnetic susceptibility and XRF analyses of the cores 59 2.4. Age-depth models 64 Maarten Blauuw & Rowan McLaughlin 2.4.1. Accumulation rates 64 2.5. A local marine reservoir offset for Malta 65 Paula J. Reimer 2.6. Major soil erosion phases 65 Rory P. Flood, Rowan McLaughlin & Michelle Farrell 2.6.1. Introduction 65 2.6.2. Methods 66 2.6.3. Results 67 2.6.4. Discussion 68 2.6.5. Conclusions 71

Chapter 3 The Holocene vegetation history of the Maltese Islands 73 Michelle Farrell, Chris O. Hunt & Lisa Coyle McClung 3.1. Introduction 73 Chris O. Hunt 3.2. Palynological methods 74 Lisa Coyle-McClung, Michelle Farrell & Chris O. Hunt 3.3. Taxonomy and ecological classification 75 Chris O. Hunt 3.4. Taphonomy 75 Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 3.5. The pollen results 87 Michelle Farrell, Lisa Coyle-McClung & Chris O. Hunt 3.5.1. The Salina cores 87 3.5.2. Wied Żembaq 87 3.5.3. Xemxija 87 3.5.4. In-Nuffara 87 3.5.5. Santa Verna 95 3.5.6. Ġgantija 105 3.6. Synthesis 107 3.6.1. Pre-agricultural landscapes (pre-5900 cal. bc) 107 3.6.2. First agricultural colonization (5900–5400 cal. bc) 108 3.6.3. Early Neolithic (5400–3900 cal. bc) 109 3.6.4. The later Neolithic Temple period (3900–2350 cal. bc) 110 3.6.5. The late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age transition (2350–2000 cal. bc) 111 3.6.6. The Bronze Age (2000–1000 cal. bc) 112 3.6.7. Late Bronze Age, Punic and Classical periods (c. 1000 cal. bc to ad 1000) 112 3.6.8. Medieval to modern (post-ad 1000) 113 3.7. Conclusions 113

vi Chapter 4 Molluscan remains from the valley cores 115 Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 4.1. Introduction 115 4.2. Material 117 4.3. Methods 117 4.4. Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian age-depth models 117 4.5. Results 117 4.5.1. Marsaxlokk (MX1) 127 4.5.2. Wied Żembaq (WŻ) 127 4.5.3. Mġarr ix-Xini (MĠX) 128 4.5.4. Marsa 2 128 4.5.5. Salina Deep Core 133 4.5.6. Xemxija 1 and 2 152 4.6. Interpretative discussion 153 4.6.1. Erosion – evidence of major events from the cores 153 4.7. Environmental reconstruction based on non-marine molluscs 155 4.7.1. Early Holocene (c. 8000–6000 cal. bc) 155 4.7.2. Mid-Holocene (c. 6000–3900 cal. bc) 155 4.7.3. Temple Period (c. 3900–2400 cal. bc) 155 4.7.4. Early to later Bronze Age (2400–c. 750 cal. bc) 155 4.7.5. Latest Bronze Age/early Phoenician period to Late Roman/Byzantine 156 period (c. 750 cal. bc–cal. ad 650) 4.8. Concluding remarks 156 4.9. Notes on selected species 157 4.9.1. Extinct species 157 4.9.2. Species with no previous fossil record 158 4.9.3. Other indicator species 158

Chapter 5 The geoarchaeology of past landscape sequences on Gozo and Malta 161 Charles French & Sean Taylor 5.1. Introduction 161 5.2. Methodology and sample locations 164 5.3. Results 165 5.3.1. Santa Verna and its environs 165 5.3.2. Ġgantija temple and its environs 174 5.3.3. Skorba and its immediate environs 183 5.3.4. Taċ-Ċawla settlement site 188 5.3.5. Xagħra town 190 5.3.6. Ta’ Marżiena 192 5.3.7. In-Nuffara 192 5.3.8. The Ramla valley 193 5.3.9. The Marsalforn valley 195 5.3.10. Micromorphological analyses of possible soil materials in the Xemxija 1, 196 Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep (SDC) cores 5.4. The Holocene landscapes of Gozo and Malta 213 5.5. A model of landscape development 217 5.6. Conclusions 221

Chapter 6 Cultural landscapes in the changing environments from 6000 to 2000 bc 223 Reuben Grima, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin & Caroline Malone 6.1. Introduction 223 6.2. A short history of survey of a fragmented island landscape 223 6.3. Fragmented landscapes 225 vii 6.4. The Neolithic appropriation of the landscape 227 6.5. A world in flux (5800–4800 cal. bc) 227 6.6. The fifth millennium bc hiatus (4980/4690 to 4150/3640 cal. bc) 228 6.7. Reappropriating the landscape: the ‘Temple Culture’ 230 6.8. Transition and decline 236 6.9. Conclusion 237

Part II The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights from 239 the second millennium bc to the present: continuing the story

Chapter 7 Cultural landscapes from 2000 bc onwards 241 Simon Stoddart, Anthony Pace, Nathaniel Cutajar, Nicholas C. Vella, Rowan McLaughlin, Caroline Malone, John Meneely & David Trump† 7.1. An historiographical introduction to the Neolithic–Bronze Age transition 241 into the Middle Bronze Age 7.2. Bronze Age settlements in the landscape 243 7.3. The Bronze Age Phoenician transition and the Phoenician/Punic landscape 246 7.4. Entering the Roman world 250 7.5. Arab 250 7.6. Medieval 251 7.7. The Knights and the entry into the modern period 251

Chapter 8 The intensification of the agricultural landscape of the MalteseArchipelago 253 Jeremy Bennett 8.1. Introduction 253 8.2. The Annales School and the Anthropocene 254 8.3. The Maltese Archipelago and the longue durée of the Anthropocene 255 8.4. Intensification 257 8.5. Population 258 8.5.1. Sub-carrying capacity periods 258 8.5.2. Post-carrying capacity periods 260 8.6. The agrarian archipelago 262 8.6.1. The agricultural substrate 262 8.6.2. The development of agricultural technology 262 8.7. Discussion: balancing fragility and sustainability 264

Chapter 9 Locating potential pastoral foraging routes in Malta through the use of a 267 Geographic Information System Gianmarco Alberti, Reuben Grima & Nicholas C. Vella 9.1. Introduction 267 9.2. Methods 267 9.2.1. Data sources 267 9.2.2. Foraging routes and least-cost paths calculation 268 9.3. Results 271 9.3.1. Garrigue to garrigue least-cost paths 271 9.3.2. Stables to garrigues least-cost paths 273 9.4. Discussion 276 9.4. Conclusions 283

Chapter 10 Settlement evolution in Malta from the Late Middle Ages to the early twentieth 285 century and its impact on domestic space George A. Said-Zammit 10.1. The Medieval Period (ad 870–1530) 285 10.1.1. Medieval houses 288 viii 10.1.2. Giren and hovels 289 10.1.3. Cave-dwellings 292 10.1.4. Architectural development 292 10.2. The Knights’ Period (ad 1530–1798) 293 10.2.1. The phase ad 1530–1565 293 10.2.2. The phase ad 1565–1798 293 10.2.3. Early modern houses 294 10.2.4. Lower class dwellings 297 10.2.5. Cave-dwellings and hovels 298 10.2.6. The houses: a reflection of social and economic change 298 10.3. The British Period (ad 1800–1900) 298 10.3.1. The houses of the British Period 299 10.3.2. The effect of the Victorian Age 300 10.3.3. Urban lower class dwellings 301 10.3.4. Peasant houses, cave-dwellings and hovels 301 10.4. Conclusions 302

Chapter 11 Conclusions 303 Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Nicholas C. Vella, Patrick J. Schembri, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 11.1. The palynological record 303 Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 11.1.1. Climate 303 11.1.2. Farming and anthropogenic impacts on vegetation 307 11.2. The molluscan record 308 Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 11.3. The soil/sediment record 310 Charles French 11.4. Discontinuities in Maltese prehistory and the influence of climate 313 Chris O. Hunt 11.5. Environmental metastability and the longue durée 314 Chris O. Hunt 11.6. Implications for the human story of the Maltese Islands 316 Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Caroline Malone, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Patrick J. Schembri & Simon Stoddart

References 325

Appendix 1 How ground penetrating radar (GPR) works 351 Alastair Ruffell

Appendix 2 Luminescence analysis and dating of sediments from archaeological sites 353 and valley fill sequences Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird & Charles French A2.1. Summary 353 A2.2. Introduction 354 A2.3. Methods 355 A2.3.1. Sampling and field screening measurements 355 A2.3.2. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements 355 A2.4. Quartz OSL SAR measurements 356 A2.4.1. Sample preparation 356 A2.4.2. Measurements and determinations 356 ix A2.5. Results 357 A2.5.1. Sampling and preliminary luminescence stratigraphies 357 A2.5.2. Gozo 357 A2.5.3. Skorba 363 A2.5.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi 363 A2.6. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements 363 A2.6.1. Dose rates 367 A2.6.2. Quartz single aliquot equivalent dose determinations 367 A2.6.3. Age determinations 371 A2.7. Discussion 372 A2.7.1. Ġgantija Temple (SUTL2914 and 2915) 372 A2.7.2. Ramla and Marsalforn Valleys (SUTL2917–2923) 373 A2.7.3. Skorba Neolithic site (SUTL2925–2927)s 373 A2.7.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi (SUTL2930) 376 A2.7. Conclusions 376

Appendix 2 – Supplements A–D 379

Appendix 3 Deep core borehole logs 401 Chris O. Hunt, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell & Rowan McLaughlin

Appendix 4 Granulometry of the deep cores 421 (online edition only) Katrin Fenech

Appendix 5 The molluscan counts for the deep cores 441 (online edition only) Katrin Fenech

Appendix 6 The borehole and test excavation profile log descriptions 535 Charles French & Sean Taylor

Appendix 7 The detailed soil micromorphological descriptions from the buried soils and 549 Ramla and Marsalforn valleys Charles French A7.1. Santa Verna 549 A7.2. Ġgantija Test Pit 1 551 A7.3. Ġgantija WC Trench 1 552 A7.4. Ġgantija olive grove and environs 553 A7.5. Skorba 553 A7.6. Xagħra town 554 A7.7. Taċ-Ċawla 555 A7.8. In-Nuffara 555 A7.9. Marsalforn Valley Profile 626 556 A7.10. Ramla Valley Profile 627 556 A7.11. Dwerja 556

Appendix 8 The micromorphological descriptions for the Malta deep cores of Xemxija 1, 557 Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and the base of the Salina Deep Core (21B) Charles French & Sean Taylor

Appendix 9 The charcoal data 563 Nathan Wright

Index 565

x Contributors

Dr Gianmarco Alberti Dr Rory P. Flood Department of Criminology, Faculty for Social School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Wellbeing, University of Malta, Msida, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected] Jeremy Bennett Department of Archaeology, University of Prof. Charles French Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Department of Archaeology, University of Email: [email protected] Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Maarten Blaauw School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Dr Reuben Grima University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, Ireland University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Petros Chatzimpaloglou Dr Evan A. Hill Department of Archaeology, University of School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Cambridge, Cambridge, UK University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Lisa Coyle McClung School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Prof. Chris O. Hunt University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores Ireland University, Liverpool, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Alan J. Cresswell Dr Timothy C. Kinnaird SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland University of St Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Nathaniel Cutajar Prof. Caroline Malone Deputy Superintendent of Cultural Heritage, School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Heritage Malta, Valletta, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Email: [email protected] Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Michelle Farrell Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Dr Steve McCarron School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Department of Geography, National University of Coventry University, Coventry, UK Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Katrin Fenech Dr Rowan McLaughlin Department of Classics & Archaeology, University School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s of Malta, Msida, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected]

xi John Meneely Prof. Patrick J. Schembri School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Department of Biology, University of Malta, University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Msida, Malta Ireland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Dr Simon Stoddart Dr Anthony Pace Department of Archaeology, University of UNESCO Cultural Heritage, Valletta, Malta Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell Dr Sean Taylor Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Department of Archaeology, University of Technological University, Singapore Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Prof. Paula J. Reimer Dr David Trump† School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Dr Jonathan Turner Ireland Department of Geography, National University Email: [email protected] of Ireland, University College, Dublin, Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Alastair Ruffell School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Prof. Nicholas C. Vella University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Department of Classics and Archaeology, Faculty Ireland of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

George A. Said-Zammit Dr Nathan Wright Department of Examinations, Ministry for School of Social Science, The University of Education and Employment, Government of Malta, Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Prof. David C.W. Sanderson SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland Email: [email protected]

xii Figures

0.1 Location map of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea. 2 0.2 Location of the main Neolithic archaeological and deep coring sites investigated on Malta and Gozo.  11 0.3 Some views of previous excavations on Malta and Gozo.  12–13 0.4 Some views of recent excavations.  14 1.1 The location of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea with respect to Sicily and North Africa.  20 1.2 Stratigraphic column of the geological formations reported for the Maltese Islands.  22 1.3 Geological map of the Maltese Islands.  22 1.4 Typical coastal outcrops of Lower Coralline Limestone, forming sheer cliffs.  23 1.5 Characteristic geomorphological features developed on the Lower Coralline Limestone in western Gozo (Dwerja Point).  24 1.6 The Middle Globigerina Limestone at the Xwejni coastline. 24 1.7 An overview of the area investigated in western Malta. 25 1.8 The end of the major fault system of Malta (Victorian Lines) at Fomm Ir-Riħ.  26 1.9 An overview of the western part of Gozo where the chert outcrops are located. 27 1.10 Chert outcrops: a) and c) bedded chert, and b) and d) nodular chert. 27 1.11 Four characteristic exposures of the Blue Clay formation on Gozo and Malta.  28 1.12 Map of the fault systems, arranged often as northwest–southeast oriented graben, and strike-slip structures.  30 2.1 Summary of new radiocarbon dating of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites on Gozo and Malta.  36 2.2 Summed radiocarbon ages for the main sediment cores.  36 2.3 The location of the Birżebbuġa Għar Dalam and Borġ in-Nadur basins and their GNSS-located GPR lines.  42 2.4 The core locations in Malta and Gozo.  44 2.5 Radiocarbon activity in settlement cores.  48 2.6 The Xemxija 2 core by depth. 51 2.7 The Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores by depth. 52 2.8 The Mġarr ix-Xini core by depth.  54 2.9 The Marsaxlokk 1 core and part of 2 by depth.  55 2.10 The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 1 core.  60 2.11 The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 2 core.  60 2.12 The multi-element data plots for Xemxija 1 core.  61 2.13 The multi-element data plots for Wied Żembaq 1 core.  62 2.14 The multi-element data plots for Marsaxlokk 1 core.  63 2.15 RUSLE models of soil erosion for the Maltese Islands in September and March.  69 2.16 R and C factors and their product.  70 3.1 Valley catchments and core locations in the Mistra area of Malta.  79 3.2 The modern pollen spectra. 81 3.3 Pollen zonation for the Salina Deep Core.  82–3 3.4 Pollen zonation for the Salina 4 core.  88–9 3.5 Pollen zonation for the Wied Żembaq 1 core.  92–3 3.6 Pollen zonation for the Xemxija 1 core.  96–7 3.7 Pollen zonation for the pit fills at In-Nuffara.  101 3.8 Pollen and palynofacies from the buried soils below the temple at Santa Verna.  102 3.9 Pollen and palynofacies from Test Pit 1 on the southwestern edge of the Ġgantija platform.  104 3.10 Photomicrographs (x800) of key components of the palynofacies at Santa Verna and Ġgantija.  106 4.1 Marsaxlokk 1 molluscan histogram.  120 4.2 Wied Żembaq 1 molluscan histogram.  122 4.3 Mġarr ix-Xini molluscan histogram.  129 4.4 Marsa 2 molluscan histogram.  134 4.5 Salina Deep Core molluscan histogram.  138 4.6 Marine molluscan histogram for the Salina Deep Core.  139 xiii 4.7 Xemxija 1 molluscan histogram.  144 4.8 Base of Xemxija 2 molluscan histogram.  145 5.1 Location map of the test excavation/sample sites and geoarchaeological survey areas on Gozo and Malta.  164 5.2 Plan of Santa Verna temple and the locations of the test trenches.  166 5.3 Santa Verna excavation trench profiles all with sample locations marked.  167 5.4 The red-brown buried soil profiles in Trench E, the Ashby and Trump Sondages within the Santa Verna temple site.  170 5.5 Santa Verna soil photomicrographs.  172–3 5.6 Plan of Ġgantija temple and locations of Test Pit 1 and the WC Trench excavations, with as-dug views of the WC Trench and TP1.  175 5.7 Section profiles of Ġgantija Test Pit 1 on the southwest side of Ġgantija temple and the east-west section of the Ġgantija WC Trench on the southeast side. 176 5.8 Ġgantija TP 1 photomicrographs.  178 5.9 Ġgantija WC Trench 1 photomicrographs.  180 5.10 Section profiles of Trench A at Skorba showing the locations of the micromorphological and OSL samples.  183 5.11 Skorba Trench A, section 1, photomicrographs.  185 5.12 Skorba Trench A, section 2, photomicrographs.  186 5.13 Taċ-Ċawla soil photomicrographs.  189 5.14 A typical terra rossa soil sequence in Xagħra town at construction site 2.  191 5.15 Xagħra soil photomicrographs.  191 5.16 In-Nuffara photomicrographs.  193 5.17 The Marsalforn (Pr 626) and Ramla (Pr 627) valley fill sequences, with the micromorphology samples and OSL profiling/dating loci marked.  194 5.18 Ramla and Marsalforn valley profiles soil photomicrographs.  195 5.19 Photomicrographs of the Blue Clay and Greensand geological substrates from the Ramla valley.  199 5.20 Xemxija 1 deep valley core photomicrographs.  202 5.21 Wied Żembaq 1 deep valley core photomicrographs.  206 5.22 Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep Core photomicrographs.  210 5.23 Scrub woodland on an abandoned terrace system and garrigue plateau land on the north coast of Gozo.  213 5.24 Terracing within land parcels (defined by modern sinuous lanes) on the Blue Clay slopes of the Ramla valley with Xagħra in the background.  216 6.1 The location of the Cambridge Gozo Project survey areas.  224 6.2 Fieldwalking survey data from around A. Ta Kuljat, B. Santa Verna, and C. Għajnsielem on Gozo from the Cambridge Gozo survey and the FRAGSUS Project.  227 6.3 The first cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Għar Dalam, Red Skorba and Grey Skorba phases.  229 6.4 The first half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis implemented for the Żebbuġ and Mġarr phases. 232 6.5 The second half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Ġgantija and Tarxien phases. 233 7.1 Kernel density analysis of the Tarxien Cemetery, Borġ in-Nadur and Baħrija periods for the areas covered by the Cambridge Gozo survey. 244 7.2a The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Mdina area on Malta. 245 7.2b The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Rabat (Gozo) area. 245 7.3 Distribution of Early Bronze Age dolmen on the Maltese Islands.  246 7.4 Distribution of presses discovered in the Mġarr ix-Xini valley during the survey. 248 7.5 The cultural heritage record of the Punic tower in Żurrieq through the centuries. 249 7.6 The changing patterns of social resilience, connectivity and population over the course of the centuries in the Maltese Islands.  252 8.1 An oblique aerial image of the northern slopes of the Magħtab land-fill site, depicting landscaping efforts including ‘artificial’ terracing.  256 8.2 RUSLE estimates of areas of low and moderate erosion for Gozo and Malta.  259 9.1 a) Sheep being led to their fold in Pwales down a track; b) Sheep grazing along a track on the Bajda Ridge in Xemxija, Malta.  269 xiv 9.2 Least-cost paths (LCPs), connecting garrigue areas, representing potential foraging routes across the Maltese landscape.  271 9.3 Density of LCPs connecting garrigue areas to random points within the garrigue areas themselves. 272 9.4 Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest garrigue-to-garrigue LCP.  273 9.5 LCPs connecting farmhouses hosting animal pens to randomly generated points within garrigue areas in northwestern (A) and northeastern (B) Malta. 274 9.6 As for Figure 9.5, but representing west-central and east-central Malta. 274 9.7 As for Figure 9.5, but representing southern and southwestern Malta. 275 9.8 Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest outbound journey.  276 9.9 a) Public space at Tal-Wei, between the modern town of Mosta and Naxxar; b) Tal-Wei public space as represented in 1940s survey sheets. 277 9.10 Approximate location of the (mostly disappeared) raħal toponyms.  279 9.11 Isochrones around farmhouse 4 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed.  280 9.12 Isochrones around farmhouse 2 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed (grazing while walking).  281 9.13 a) Isochrones around farmhouse 5 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals; b) Isochrones around farmhouse 6; c) Isochrones around farmhouse 7. 282 10.1 The likely distribution of built-up and cave-dwellings in the second half of the fourteenth century. 286 10.2 The lower frequency of settlement distribution by c. ad 1420.  286 10.3 The distribution of settlements just before ad 1530.  288 10.4 The late medieval Falson Palace in Mdina.  289 10.5 A girna integral with and surrounded by stone dry walling. 290 10.6 A hovel dwelling with a flight of rock-cut steps.  291 10.7 The hierarchical organisation of settlements continued, with the addition of Valletta, Floriana and the new towns around Birgu. 295 10.8 An example of a seventeenth century townhouse with open and closed timber balconies. 296 10.9 An example of a two-storey razzett belonging to a wealthier peasant family.  297 10.10 The distribution of built-up settlements in about ad 1900.  299 10.11 An example of a Neo-Classical house.  301 11.1 Summary of tree and shrub pollen frequencies at 10 sample sites. 304 11.2 Summary of cereal pollen frequencies at 14 sample sites.  305 11.3 Schematic profiles of possible trajectories of soil development in the major geological zones of Malta and Gozo. 311 11.4 The main elements of a new cultural-environmental story of the Maltese Islands throughout the last 10,000 years.  317 A2.1 Marsalforn valley, Gozo.  360 A2.2 Marsalforn valley, Gozo.  361 A2.3 Ramla valley, Gozo.  361 A2.4 Ġgantija Test Pit 1, Gozo.  361 A2.5 Skorba Neolithic site; trench A, East section; trench A, South section.  362 A2.6 Skorba, Trench A, South section.  362 A2.7 Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta.  364 A2.8 Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta.  364 A2.9 Photograph, showing locations of profile sample and OSL tubes, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 1. 365 A2.10 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 3.  365 A2.11 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 2.  366 A2.12 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profiles 4 and 6.  366 A2.13 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 5.  367 A2.14 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2916 (P1). 370 A2.15 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2920 (P2). 370 A2.16 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2913 (P3). 370 A2.17 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2924 (P4). 370 xv A2.18 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2929 (P5). 371 A2.19 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2928 (P6). 371 A2.20 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2931 (P7). 371 A2.21 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2914 and 2915.  374 A2.22 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2917–2919.  374 A2.23 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2921–2923.  375 A2.24 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2925–2927.  375 A2.25 Probability Distribution Function for the stored dose on sample SUTL2930.  376 SB.1 Dose response curves for SUTL2914. 385 SB.2 Dose response curves for SUTL2915. 385 SB.3 Dose response curves for SUTL2917. 386 SB.4 Dose response curves for SUTL2918. 386 SB.5 Dose response curves for SUTL2919. 387 SB.6 Dose response curves for SUTL2921. 387 SB.7 Dose response curves for SUTL2922. 388 SB.8 Dose response curves for SUTL2923. 388 SB.9 Dose response curves for SUTL2925. 389 SB.10 Dose response curves for SUTL2926. 389 SB.11 Dose response curves for SUTL2927. 390 SB.12 Dose response curves for SUTL2930. 390 SC.1 Abanico plot for SUTL2914.  391 SC.2 Abanico plot for SUTL2915.  391 SC.3 Abanico plot for SUTL2917.  392 SC.4 Abanico plot for SUTL2918.  392 SC.5 Abanico plot for SUTL2919.  392 SC.6 Abanico plot for SUTL2921.  393 SC.7 Abanico plot for SUTL2922.  393 SC.8 Abanico plot for SUTL2923.  393 SC.9 Abanico plot for SUTL2925.  394 SC.10 Abanico plot for SUTL2926.  394 SC.11 Abanico plot for SUTL2927.  394 SC.12 Abanico plot for SUTL2930.  395 SD.1 Apparent ages for profile 1, with OSL ages. 397 SD.2 Apparent ages for profile 2, with OSL ages. 397 SD.3 Apparent ages for profile 3, with OSL ages. 398 SD.4 Apparent ages for profiles 4 and 6, with OSL ages.  398 SD.5 Apparent ages for profile 5, with OSL ages. 399 SD.6 Apparent ages for profile 7.  399

Tables

1.1 Description of the geological formations found on the Maltese Islands.  21 2.1 The cultural sequence of the Maltese Islands (with all dates calibrated). 37 2.2 Quartz OSL sediment ages from the Marsalforn (2917–2919) and Ramla (2921–2923) valleys, the Skorba temple/buried soil (2925–2927) and Tal-Istabal, Qormi, soil (2930).  40 2.3 Dating results for positions in the sediment cores. 45 2.4 Summary stratigraphic descriptions of the sequences in the deep core profiles. 57 2.5 Mean sediment accumulation rates per area versus time for the deep cores. 64 2.6 Radiocarbon measurements and ΔR values from early twentieth century marine shells from Malta. 65 2.7 Calibrated AMS 14C dates of charred plant remains from Santa Verna palaeosol, Gozo.  68 2.8 Physical properties of the catchments.  68 2.9 Normalized Diffuse Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the catchments in 2014–15 and average rainfall data for the weather station at Balzan for the period 1985 to 2012.  69 3.1 Semi-natural plant communities in the Maltese Islands.  76 xvi 3.2 Attribution of pollen taxa to plant communities in the Maltese Islands and more widely in the Central Mediterranean.  77 3.3 Characteristics of the taphonomic samples from on-shore and off-shore Mistra Valley, Malta.  80 3.4 The pollen zonation of the Salina Deep Core with modelled age-depths.  84 3.5 The pollen zonation of the Salina 4 core with modelled age-depths.  90 3.6 The pollen zonation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core with modelled age-depths.  94 3.7 The pollen zonation of the Xemxija 1 core with modelled age-depths.  98 3.8 The pollen zonation of the fill of a Bronze Age silo at In-Nuffara, Gozo.  103 3.9 Summary of the pollen analyses of the buried soil below the Santa Verna temple structure.  103 3.10 Summary of the pollen analyses from the buried soil in Ġgantija Test Pit 1.  105 3.11 Activity on Temple sites and high cereal pollen in adjacent cores.  105 4.1 List of freshwater molluscs and land snails found in the cores, habitat requirement, palaeontological record and current status and conservation in the Maltese Islands. 118 4.2 Molluscan zones for the Marsaxlokk 1 core (MX1).  121 4.3 Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 1 core (WŻ1).  123 4.4 Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 2 core (WŻ2).  125 4.5 Integration of molluscan zones from the Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores.  128 4.6 Molluscan zones for the Mġarr ix-Xini 1 core (MĠX1).  130 4.7 Molluscan zones for the Marsa 2 core (MC2).  135 4.8 The non-marine molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC).  140 4.9 Molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC).  142 4.10 Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 1 core (XEM1).  146 4.11 Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 2 core (XEM2).  148 4.12 Correlation and integration of molluscan data from Xemxija 1 (XEM1) and Xemxija 2 (XEM2).  151 5.1 Micromorphology and small bulk sample sites and numbers.  162 5.2 Summary of available dating for the sites investigated in Gozo and Malta.  163 5.3 pH, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, calcium carbonate and % sand/silt/clay particle size analysis results for the Ġgantija, Santa Verna and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo.  168 5.4 Selected multi-element results for Ġgantija, Santa Verna and Xagħra town buried soils, and the Marsalforn and Ramla valley sequences, Gozo.  169 5.5 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations for the Santa Verna, Ġgantija and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo.  181 5.6 pH, magnetic susceptibility and selected multi-element results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba.  184 5.7 Loss-on-ignition organic/carbon/calcium carbonate frequencies and particle size analysis results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba.  184 5.8 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the buried soils in sections 1 and 2, Trench A, Skorba.  188 5.9 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the possible buried soils at Taċ-Ċawla.  189 5.10 Field descriptions and micromorphological observations for the quarry and construction site profiles in Xagħra town. 190 5.11 Sample contexts and micromorphological observations for two silo fills at In-Nuffara.  192 5.12 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations from the Ramla and Marsalforn valley fill profiles.  196 5.13 Main characteristics of the Upper and Lower Coralline Limestone, Globigerina Limestone, Blue Clay and Greensand. 197 5.14 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Xemxija 1 core.  200 5.15 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Wied Żembaq 1 core.  207 5.16 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Marsaxlokk 1 core.  209 5.17 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the base zone of the base of the Salina Deep Core.  211 8.1 Carrying capacity estimates for the Neolithic/Temple Period of the Maltese Archipelago.  258 8.2 Summary of population changes in the Maltese Archipelago.  261 11.1 Summary of the environmental and vegetation changes in the Maltese Islands over the longue durée. 306 xvii 11.2 Summary of events revealed by the molluscan data in the deep cores. 309 11.3 Major phases of soil, vegetation and landscape development and change during the Holocene.  312 11.4 Occurrence of gypsum in FRAGSUS cores and contemporary events.  314 A2.1 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of the profiling samples used for initial screening and laboratory characterization.  358 A2.2 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930.  360 A2.3 Activity and equivalent concentrations of K, U and Th determined by HRGS.  368 A2.4 Infinite matrix dose rates determined by HRGS and TSBC.  368 A2.5 Effective beta and gamma dose rates following water correction.  369 A2.6 SAR quality parameters.  369 A2.7 Comments on equivalent dose distributions of SUTL2914 to SUTL2930.  372 A2.8 Quartz OSL sediment ages.  372 A2.9 Locations, dates and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930.  373 SA.1 Field profiling data, as obtained using portable OSL equipment, for the sediment stratigraphies examined on Gozo and Malta.  379 SA.2 OSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’. 380 SA.3 OSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’ for SUTL2924. 382 SA.4 IRSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’.  382 SA.5 IRSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’ for SUTL2924.  383 A3.1 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina Deep Core.  401 A3.2 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 4 core.  405 A3.3 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 2 core.  407 A3.4 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 1 core.  408 A3.5 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 2 core.  411 A3.6 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core.  413 A3.7 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 2 core.  413 A3.8 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mgarr ix-Xini core.  414 A3.9 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsaxlokk core.  416 A3.10 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsa 2 core.  417 A3.11 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mellieħa Bay core.  418 A3.12 Key to the scheme for the description of Quaternary sediments. 419 A4.1 Marsa 2.  421 (online edition only) A4.2 Mgarr ix-Xini.  424 (online edition only) A4.3 Salina Deep Core.  427 (online edition only) A4.4 Wied Żembaq 2.  429 (online edition only) A4.5 Wied Żembaq 1.  430 (online edition only) A4.6 Xemxija 1.  432 (online edition only) A4.7 Xemxija 2.  435 (online edition only) A4.8 Marsaxlokk 1.  438 (online edition only) A5.1 Marsa 2.  442 (online edition only) A5.2 Mgarr ix-Xini.  456 (online edition only) A5.3 Salina Deep Core non-marine.  466 (online edition only) A5.4 Salina Deep Core marine.  478 (online edition only) A5.5 Wied Żembaq 2.  490 (online edition only) A5.6 Wied Żembaq 1.  496 (online edition only) A5.7 Xemxija 1.  502 (online edition only) A5.8 Xemxija 2.  516 (online edition only) A5.9 Marsaxlokk 1.  528 (online edition only) A8.1 Xemxija 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions.  557 A8.2 Wied Żembaq 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions.  559 A8.3 Marsaxlokk core micromorphology sample descriptions.  560 A8.4 Salina Deep Core micromorphology sample descriptions.  561 A9.1 The charcoal data from the Skorba, Kordin, In-Nuffara and Salina Deep Core.  563 xviii Preface and dedication

Caroline Malone

The FRAGSUS Project emerged as the direct result As this and the two other volumes in this series of an invitation to undertake new archaeological report, the original Cambridge Gozo Project was the fieldwork in Malta in 1985. Anthony Bonanno of the germ of a rich and fruitful academic collaboration University of Malta organized a conference on ‘The that has had international impact, and has influenced Mother Goddess of the Mediterranean’ in which successive generations of young archaeologists in Colin Renfrew was a participant. The discussions that Malta and beyond. resulted prompted an invitation that made its way to As the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS David Trump (Tutor in Continuing Education, Cam- Project, on behalf of the very extensive FRAGSUS team bridge University), Caroline Malone (then Curator of I want to dedicate this the first volume of the series the Avebury Keiller Museum) and Simon Stoddart to the enlightened scholars who set up this now 35 (then a post-graduate researcher in Cambridge). We year-long collaboration of prehistoric inquiry with our eagerly took up the invitation to devise a new collab- heartfelt thanks for their role in our studies. orative, scientifically based programme of research on prehistoric Malta. We dedicate this volume to: What resulted was the original Cambridge Gozo Project (1987–94) and the excavations of the Xagħra Joseph Attard Tabone Brochtorff Circle and the Għajnsielem Road Neo- Professor Anthony Bonanno lithic house. Both those sites had been found by local Professor Lord Colin Renfrew antiquarian, Joseph Attard-Tabone, a long-established figure in the island for his work on conservation and and offer our profound thanks for their continuing site identification. role in promoting the prehistory of Malta.

xix

Acknowledgements

This volume records research undertaken with fund- They were helped by Vincent Van Walt, who provided ing from the European Research Council under the technical assistance. Al Ruffell and John Meneely did European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme geophysical evaluation and GRP location of the cores. (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 323727 During fieldwork, Tim Kinnaird and Charles French (FRAGSUS Project: Fragility and sustainability in were assisted by Sean Taylor, Jeremy Bennett and small island environments: adaptation, cultural change Simon Stoddart. We are grateful to the Superintend- and collapse in prehistory – http://www.qub.ac.uk/ ence of Cultural Heritage, Malta and Heritage Malta sites/FRAGSUS/). All the authors of this volume are for permission to undertake the analyses and much indebted to the ERC for its financial support, and to practical assistance. the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS Project, For Chapter 5, we would like to thank all at Her- Prof. Caroline Malone (Queen’s University, Belfast, itage Malta, the Ġgantija visitor’s centre and the Uni- UK), for her central role in devising the project and versity of Malta for their friendly and useful assistance seeing this research through to publication. throughout. In particular, we would like to thank For Chapter 2, we extend warm thanks to the George Azzopardi, Daphne Caruana, Josef Caruana, staff of the 14CHRONO centre at QUB, especially Nathaniel Cutajar, Chris Gemmell, Reuben Grima, Stephen Hoper, Jim McDonald, Michelle Thompson Joanne Mallia, Christian Mifsud, Anthony Pace, Ella and Ron Reimer, all of whom took a keen interest in Samut-Tagliaferro, Mevrick Spiteri, Katya Stroud, the FRAGSUS Project. The success of the FRAGSUS Sharon Sultana and Nick Vella. We also thank Tonko Project in general and the radiocarbon dating exercise Rajkovača of the McBurney Laboratory, Department has depended on their work. We thank the Physical of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, for mak- Geography Laboratory staff at the School of Geogra- ing the thin section slides, the Physical Geography phy, University College Dublin, for the use of their Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of ITRAX XRF core scanner. In particular, we would like Cambridge, and the ALS Global laboratory in Seville, to thank Dr Steve McCarron, Department of Geogra- Spain, for processing the multi-element analyses. phy, National University of Ireland, Maynooth and Dr For Chapter 6, Reuben Grima wrote the first Jonathan Turner, Department of Geography, National draft of this contribution, receiving comments and University of Ireland, University College, Dublin. additions from the other authors. We thank Prof. Patrick Schembri for sourcing and For Chapter 7, Simon Stoddart wrote the first collecting the Acanthocardia samples from the Natural draft of this contribution, receiving comments and Museum of Natural History. Sean Pyne O’Donnell additions from the other authors. thanks Dr Chris Hayward at the Tephrochronology For Chapter 9, we thank Sharlo Camilleri for pro- Analytical Unit (TAU), University of Edinburgh, for viding us with a copy of the GIS data produced by the help and advice during microprobe work. Dr Maxine MALSIS (MALtese Soil Information System) project. Anastasi, Department of Classics and Archaeology, We are grateful to Prof. Saviour Formosa and Prof. University of Malta, helped identify the pottery from Timmy Gambin, both of the University of Malta, who the settlement cores. Dr Frank Carroll helped show facilitated the donation of LiDAR data, together with us the way forward; but sadly is no longer with us. computer facilities, as part of the European project Chris Hunt, Rory Flood, Michell Farrell, Sean Pyne ERDF156 Developing National Environmental Monitor- O’Donnell and Mevrick Spiteri were the coring team. ing Infrastructure and Capacity, from the former Malta xxi Acknowledgements

Environment and Planning Authority. A number of the grant. The research team also wants to record our individuals were happy to share their recollections of indebtedness to the administrators of the grant within shepherding practices in Malta and Gozo over the last our own institutions, since this work required detailed sixty or seventy years; others facilitated the encoun- and dedicated attention. In particular we thank Rory ters. We are grateful to all of them: Charles Gauci, Jordan in the Research Support Office, Stephen Hoper Grezzju Meilaq, Joseph Micallef, Louis Muscat, Ċettina and Jim McDonald – CHRONO lab, and Martin and Anġlu Vella, Ernest Vella and Renata Zerafa. Stroud (Queen’s University Belfast), Laura Cousens Simon Stoddart would like to thank Prof. Martin (Cambridge University), Glen Farrugia and Cora Jones and Rachel Ballantyne for their advice in con- Magri (University of Malta), the Curatorial, Finance structing Figure 11.4. The editors would like to thank and Designs & Exhibitions Departments in Heritage Emma Hannah for compiling the index. Malta and Stephen Borg at the Superintendence of Firstly, the FRAGSUS Project is the result of Cultural Heritage. Finally, we thank Fr. Joe Inguanez a very generous research grant from the European (Emeritus Head of Department, Department of Soci- Research Council (Advanced Grant no’ 323727), with- ology, University of Malta) for offering us theleitmotif out which this and its two partner volumes and the of this volume while a visiting scholar in Magdalene research undertaken could not have taken place. We College, Cambridge: ‘Mingħajr art u ħamrija, m’hemmx heartily thank the ERC for its award and the many sinjorija’ translating as ‘without land and soil, there is administrators in Brussels who monitored our use of no wealth’.

xxii Foreword

Anthony Pace

Sustainability, as applied in archaeological research designed by the participating institutional partners and heritage management, provides a useful perspec- and scholars, was to explore untapped field resources tive for understanding the past as well as the modern and archived archaeological material from a number conditions of archaeological sites themselves. As often of sites and their landscape to answer questions that happens in archaeological thought, the idea of sus- could be approached with new techniques and meth- tainability was borrowed from other areas of concern, ods. The results of the FRAGSUS Project will serve to particularly from the modern construct of develop- advance our knowledge of certain areas of Maltese ment and its bearing on the environment and resource prehistory and to better contextualize the archipela- exploitation. The term sustainability entered common go’s importance as a model for understanding island usage as a result of the unstoppable surge in resource archaeology in the central Mediterranean. The work exploitation, economic development, demographic that has been invested in FRAGSUS lays the founda- growth and the human impacts on the environment tion for future research. that has gripped the World since 1500. Irrespective of Malta and Gozo are among the Mediterranean scale and technology, most human activity of an eco- islands whose prehistoric archaeology has been nomic nature has not spared resources from impacts, intensely studied over a number of decades. This transformations or loss irrespective of historical and factor is important, yet more needs to be done in the geographic contexts. Theories of sustainability may field of Maltese archaeology and its valorization. provide new narratives on the archaeology of Malta Research is not the preserve of academic specialists. and Gozo, but they are equally important and of It serves to enhance not only what we know about central relevance to contemporary issues of cultural the Maltese islands, but more importantly, why the heritage conservation and care. Though the archae- archipelago’s cultural landscape and its contents ological resources of the Maltese islands can throw deserve care and protection especially at a time of light on the past, one has to recognize that such extensive construction development. Strict rules and resources are limited, finite and non-renewable. The guidelines established by the Superintendence of sense of urgency with which these resources have to Cultural Heritage have meant that during the last two be identified, listed, studied, archived and valued is decades more archaeological sites and deposits have akin to that same urgency with which objects of value been protected in situ or rescue-excavated through a and all fragile forms of natural and cultural resources statutory watching regime. This supervision has been require constant stewardship and protection. The idea applied successfully in a wide range of sites located in of sustainability therefore, follows a common thread urban areas, rural locations and the landscape, as well across millennia. as at the World Heritage Sites of Valletta, Ġgantija, It is all the more reason why cultural resource Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra and Tarxien. This activity management requires particular attention through has been instrumental in understanding ancient and research, valorization and protection. The FRAGSUS historical land use, and the making of the Maltese Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island historic centres and landscape. environments: adaptation, cultural change and col- Though the cumulative effect of archaeological lapse in prehistory) was intended to further explore research is being felt more strongly, new areas of and enhance existing knowledge on the prehistory interest still need to be addressed. Most pressing are of Malta and Gozo. The objective of the project as those areas of landscape studies which often become xxiii Foreword

peripheral to the attention that is garnered by prom- FRAGSUS Project, will bear valuable results that will inent megalithic monuments. FRAGSUS has once only advance Malta’s interests especially in today’s again confirmed that there is a great deal of value world of instant e-knowledge that was not available in studying field systems, terraces and geological on such a global scale a mere two decades ago. settings which, after all, were the material media in FRAGSUS also underlines the relevance of which modern Malta and Gozo ultimately developed. studying the achievements and predicaments of past There is, therefore, an interplay in the use of the term societies to understand certain, though not all, aspects sustainability, an interplay between what we can learn of present environmental challenges. The twentieth from the way ancient communities tested and used the century saw unprecedented environmental changes very same island landscape which we occupy today, as a result of modern political-economic constructs. and the manner in which this landscape is treated in Admittedly, twentieth century developments cannot contested economic realities. If we are to seek factors be equated with those of antiquity in terms of demog- of sustainability in the past, we must first protect its raphy, technology, food production and consumption relics and study them using the best available meth- or the use of natural resources including the uptake ods in our times. On the other hand, the study of the of land. However, there are certain aspects, such as past using the materiality of ancient peoples requires climate change, changing sea levels, significant envi- strong research agendas and thoughtful stewardship. ronmental degradation, soil erosion, the exploitation The FRAGSUS Project has shown us how even small and abandonment of land resources, the building and fragile deposits, nursed through protective legislation maintenance of field terraces, the rate and scale of and guardianship, can yield significant information human demographic growth, movement of peoples, which the methods of pioneering scholars of Maltese access to scarce resources, which to a certain extent archaeology would not have enabled access to. As reflect impacts that seem to recur in time, irrespec- already outlined by the Superintendence of Cultural tively of scale and historic context. Heritage, a national research agenda for cultural herit- age and the humanities is a desideratum. Such a frame- Anthony Pace work, reflected in the institutional partnership of the Superintendent of Cultural Heritage (2003–18).

xxiv References

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Temple landscapes

The ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island environments: adaptation, cultural change and collapse in prehistory, 2013–18), led by Caroline Malone (Queens University Belfast) has explored issues of environmental fragility and Neolithic social resilience and sustainability during the Holocene period in the Maltese Islands. This, the first volume of three, presents the palaeo-environmental story of early Maltese landscapes. The project employed a programme of high-resolution chronological and stratigraphic investigations of the valley systems on Malta and Gozo. Buried deposits extracted through coring and geoarchaeological study yielded rich and chronologically controlled data that allow an important new understanding of environmental change in the islands. The study combined AMS radiocarbon and OSL chronologies with detailed palynological, molluscan and geoarchaeological analyses. These enable environmental reconstruction of prehistoric landscapes and the changing resources exploited by the islanders between the seventh and second millennia bc. The interdisciplinary studies combined with excavated economic and environmental materials from archaeological sites allows Temple landscapes to examine the dramatic and damaging impacts made by the first farming communities on the islands’ soil and resources. The project reveals the remarkable resilience of the soil-vegetational system of the island landscapes, as well as the adaptations made by Neolithic communities to harness their productivity, in the face of climatic change and inexorable soil erosion. Neolithic people evidently understood how to maintain soil fertility and cope with the inherently unstable changing landscapes of Malta. In contrast, second millennium bc Bronze Age societies failed to adapt effectively to the long-term aridifying trend so clearly highlighted in the soil and vegetation record. This failure led to severe and irreversible erosion and very different and short-lived socio-economic systems across the Maltese islands.

Editors: Charles French is Professor of Geoarchaeology in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Chris O. Hunt is a Professor in the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool. Reuben Grima is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, University of Malta. Rowan McLaughlin is Senior Researcher in the Department of Scientific Research at the British Museum and honorary research scholar at Queen’s University Belfast. Caroline Malone is a Professor in the School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University Belfast. Simon Stoddart is Reader in Prehistory in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge.

Published by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK.

Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge.

ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1 ISBNISBN 978-1-902937-99-1 978-1-902937-99-1

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