BODY The Debate Surrounding the Body Positivity Movement

Featuring Lizzo and

CAN YOUR BODY MEET THE FACES DO YOUR GENES SHAPE TELL YOU O F T H E DETERMINE YOUR YOUR HEALTH? MOVEMENT. JEANS SIZE? CONTENTS

WRITTEN BY K A IL A D A NIELS , JISEL MIR A ND A , A ND A LYS A PEL A K

01 Editor's Note

02 What is Body Positivity?

03 How do YOU see the Body Positivity Movement?

05 History/ Timeline

06 Definitions of Health

Health is more than what 07 you eat.

10 Case Study: Yo-Yo Dieting

11 Too Covered on the Cover?

12 Photoshop or fine.

Worth and appearance 13 need to get a divorce.

14 Word Search

15 What makes me hungry?

18 Measuring Health

FRIDAY

FEBRUARY 2020 CONTENTS

19 Location, Location, Location

20 Is the movement diluted?

21 The tale of two celebrities.

22 Representation (or lack thereof).

24 Word Scramble and Body Positivity Playlist

25 Men and the Body Positivity Movement

26 Our vision for improvement.

28 Supplemental Information

29 Bibliography

FRIDAY FEBRUARY 2020 Dear Reader,

With the prevalence of body positivity than a trend, it is a within the media, we came into this powerful social movement with project aware of the influence of the significant biological implications. movement, but with many questions Additionally, there is room for regarding its impacts. We knew many improvement with the lack of debates existed regarding the validity of representation and the heavy focus on the movement, the impact on the an individual's appearance. perception of and health within the United States, and the After you finish reading this magazine, representation of bodies. At the same we hope that you gain a degree of time, we found this movement much knowledge on the topics of body needed with the strong perceptions of positivity, metabolic health, and the beauty that influence each and every correlations between and one of us and have had a profound social media. This knowledge will then impact on our lives. By diving deeply allow you to decide where you stand on into this movement and analyzing it the debate on The Body Positivity from each angle, we hoped to gain an Movement. Body Magazine is not a understanding and perspective on its persuasive magazine. This magazine has influence and form our own opinions the pure goal of informing the reader of about what the positives and negatives the connections between the societal of the movement are. We want our and biological sides of The Body readers to be able to take this same Positivity Movement and where these journey- an exploration of the body two sectors intersect, collide, and positivity movements leading to the coincide. formulation of their own perspective.

Sincerely, At the conclusion of our research, we have changed our perceptions of the Jisel Miranda, Kaila Daniels, and body positivity movement. It is more Alyssa Pelak

PAGE 1 PAGE 2 An overview of the body positivity movement https://specials-images.forbesimg.com/imageserve/1220404804/960x0.jpg?fit=scale

What is the Body Positivity Movement? Body positivity refers to the belief that all people deserve to have a positive body image. The goals of this movement include promoting the acceptance of all bodies, building the confidence and acceptance of all people, and addressing unrealistic body standards. People look to the body positivity movement to challenge how society views the body (Cohen, 2020) Why is there debate surrounding the movement? While the body positivity movement is meant to create a platform of acceptance for all kinds of bodies, many individuals do not agree with all aspects of the movement. First, many claim that the movement encourages unhealthy lifestyles and glorifies obesity (Cohen, 2020). Other criticisms acknowledge that the body positivity movement fails to include and represent all bodies, , races, and abilities. Finally, the content associated with the movement still heavily focuses on appearance, maintaining our societal focus on looks (Cohen, 2020). PAGE 3 How do YOU see body positivity? A collection of responses from a survey of our readers

"It breaks down 'typical' beauty standards." It is "celebrating", "empowering" and "normalizing" all body types, shapes, and sizes. How would you It promotes representation and acceptance of all bodies, especially define the in the media. It promotes feeling "comfortable in your own skin. It is "rejecting the rampant stereotypes about acceptable or attractive movement? bodies."

Many individuals responded "no." Is any group Other individuals answered men, people of color, people excluded from the with disabilities, thin women, older Individuals, non-binary individuals, trans people, and "those who fit societal movement? standards of beauty".

"Unattainable without surgery or constant diet & exercise", Common "constantly shifting", "curvy, white, but tanned", "tall, skinny, and fair", "fit, toned, and lean bodies" "for men, lean and Perceptions of muscular", "skinny bodies", "slim thicc", "smooth, light skin, society's Ideal and free of Imperfections" body type

It is "characterized by health", "strong, healthy body", "one Inhabited by a person who is happy in it", "a healthy Personal Perceptions mind, body, and soul", "there is no ideal body", "a body on what an Ideal body you are comfortable with", "toned body", "I have different is: ideals for myself and others...everyone should strive to feel good...I unfortunately idealize thinness"

by Jisel Miranda PAGE 4 In order to discuss issues surrounding the In the survey question that asked "How do body positivity movement, it is important you feel about your body image most of the to analyze common perceptions time?" that average response was 5.625 which surrounding the movement. We surveyed indicates respondents have a neutral participants anonymously and analyzed viewpoint on their body image. Likewise, when the results. Please see "Supplemental viewing the collective data for the question Information" section (Page 29) for brief "To what extent do genes impact your body information regarding the demographics size and weight?" 5.833 which also Indicates there is a neutral viewpoint on the Impacts of of this survey. genetics on body weight. The spread of data regarding how often Initially, there was no obvious trend present, people see body positivity memes gives however after comparing individual responses us a baseline for how much experience a trend appeared. Those who answered either people have with body positivity themes. a 7 or 8 on the genetic impact question, also There is a widespread familiarity with the on average answered 2-4 for their body body positivity movement in media with image self-confidence. As displayed in the line a peak at 7.5 (out of 10) which implies the graph below, there is a slight trend of those average of individuals being surveyed with a negative body image believing genes are relatively familiar with body positivity are more impactful for indicating weight. images and messages. Those with a relatively neutral body image (ranging from 5-7) had diverse beliefs about whether genes are significant in weight While more data is needed, there is an management. While no direct correlations emerging trend that those who have a can be made due to the limitations of this more positive self-image believe that survey, these trends open room for discussion genes have less of an impact on genes regarding individual's perceptions based on size & weight. their lived experiences involving body weight.

In this figure, higher scores on the X-axis are associated with a more positive self- assessed body image and lower scores representing a negative body image. On the y-axis, higher scores represent a stronger belief that biology (genetics) Impacts body size and weight, while lower scores represent no Impacts of genetics on body size and weight. PAGE 5

by Kaila Daniels

1967 Publication of Lew Louderback’s Saturday Evening Post essay “More People Should Be Fat” kicked off the movement of fat acceptance.

New York engineer Bill Fabrey created the National Association to Aid 1969 Fat Americans (known today as the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA)) due to his frustration with society’s treatment of his fat wife, Joyce.

California feminists, also angry with the treatment of fat people, formed the 1973 Fat Underground. What NAAFA called Fat Acceptance, they called Fat Liberation. In 1973, they released the Fat Manifesto. The Fat Manifesto demanded equal rights for fat people and declared diet culture to be the enemy. early/mid 1980s Fat liberation began to spread across the globe and the London Fat Women’s group formed Fat activists began picketing in front of the White House, staging protests in 1990s front of gyms with fatphobic advertising, and dancing alongside floats in San Francisco’s Pride Parade The term “body positive” emerged. Connie Sobczak and Elizabeth Scott, well- known feminists, created an organization called The Body Positive. The Body 1996 Positive organization has the mission of making “a better world for women to live in with fewer standards to follow from social media”. Their site offers resources and educational materials intended to make people feel good about their bodies. Early 2000s The internet became the main place for body shame and body love. Fat activists moved from message boards to chat rooms to AOL groups and finally to platforms such as Tumblr and Instagram. The new generation was spreading a concept known as Body Positivity

The Body Positivity Movement, in its current form, began to emerge in 2012.

All timeline data synthesized from the following sources: Alptraum, L. (n.d.). A Short History of 'Body Positivity'. Retrieved from https://fusion.tv/story/582813/a-short- history-of-body-positivity/History of Body Positivity. (2018, February 26). Retrieved from https://sites.psu.edu/halepassionblog/2018/02/26/history-of-body-positivity/The history of the body positivity movement. (2020, November 24). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z2w7dp3 PAGE 6 DEFINITIONS OF HEALTH By Kaila Daniels

With the popular belief that bodyweight and size influence health outcomes for adults, does the phrase “all bodies are good bodies” undermine the importance of metabolic health? Well, in Importantly, there are newer medical definitions order to answer that question we must identify the universal that emphasize the capacity of a healthy body to definition of health. That is if one exists. Classically, the term adapt according to changing internal and external health was disease-focused and centered around the absence of circumstances. According to a 2006 article in the disease. In 1948, the World Health Organization defined health Croatian Medical Journal, there are three more as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and recent types of definitions of health that are possible not merely the absence of disease and infirmity” (Brussow, 2013). and are used (Sartorius, 2006): Indeed, it is fair to say that in order for someone to be considered 1) Health is the absence of any disease or healthy they should not suffer from any disease, but health can impairment. not be diminished down to the absence of disease or infirmity. So, to some, this 1948 idea of health is 1) outdated and 2) 2) Health is a state that allows the individual to incomplete. Yet even in the current day, the oxford dictionary adequate cope with all demands of daily life. defines health as the state of being free from illness and injury. Following this definition of healthy, can an 3) Health is a state of balance, an equilibrium that individual be and simultaneously an individual has established within themselves and healthy? between themselves and their social and physical According to a research article on metabolically healthy obesity, environment. there are two classifications of obese people, as there are people These findings serve two purposes. On one hand, with obesity who have not experienced the poor metabolic these three definitions provide more accurate effects of excess body fat. The two categories are metabolically alternatives to the commonly used appearance, healthy obesity (MHO) and metabolically unhealthy obesity size, and BMI indicators of health status. But on (MUO) (Smith, et.al, 2019). Conversely, Dr, Jorge Plutzky, the another hand, this article displays the need for a director of preventative cardiology at Harvard-affiliate Brigham paradigm shift for health, disease, and health and Women’s hospital, warns the public that the idea of being promotion. None of the methods above give a “fat and fit” is easily misperceived. The longer someone is concrete, non-subjective definition of health that overweight, the shorter that their life can potentially be is capable of being measured across individuals of (Harvard, 2018). This is a clear example of how the disease- different groups, backgrounds, ages, able-status, centric definition of health can skew thoughts pertaining to what etc. it means to be healthy.

metabolicallyAbout 50% healthy of people when with healthy obesity is defined are as the absence of a metabolic syndrome, whereas only approx. 5% are metabolically healthy when healthy is defines as the absence of any metabolic syndrome components and normal insulin sensitivity

(Smith, et.a

l, 2019). PAGE 7 HEALTH IS MORE THAN WHAT YOU EAT WRITTEN BY: KAILA DANIELS AND ALYSSA PELAK

https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.istockphoto.com%2Fphotos%2Fartery-inside-adipose-tissue-picture-id1011297742&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.istockphoto.com%2Fphoto%2Fartery-inside-adipose-tissue-gm1011297742-272508214&tbnid=4OiF7MdhtIMX5M&vet=12ahUKEwir4Ie4_4DvAhWxGzQIHQayBZsQMygKegQIARBI..i&docid=X- tUv77WJ3KT8M&w=1024&h=683&q=artery%20inside%20adipose%20tissue%20getty%20images&ved=2ahUKEwir4Ie4_4DvAhWxGzQIHQayBZsQMygKegQIARBI

NOT ALL FAT IS CREATED EQUAL Metabolic health goes far beyond the 2018). These proteins can increase the risks foods that we consume and the weight of serious metabolic syndromes and cause that displays on the scale. In humans, there lipotoxicity (a metabolic syndrome that is more than one type of adipose tissue results from the accumulation of lipid (body fat) accumulation, and frankly, not all intermediates in non-adipose tissue) in the body fat is created equally. Further, there peripheral tissues. The major sites of are varying levels of risks associated with visceral adipose tissue deposit include particular types of fat accumulation. areas surrounding the heart and the Adipose tissue controls the metabolism of intraabdominal organs (Luong, 2019). In the human body through the secretion of simpler terms, this dangerous form of hormones, cytokines, proteins, and adipose accumulation can also be referred microRNAs that affect the function of cells to as central obesity (obesity in the mid- and tissues throughout the body (Luong, section). Visceral abdominal obesity 2019). There are two main types of adipose reduces the life expectancy by ~8 years. accumulation: visceral adipose tissue accumulation and subcutaneous adipose Understanding the regional distribution of tissue accumulation. These two types of adipose tissue is important in relating tissue express different genes involved in obesity to an individual’s metabolism of insulin resistance and also, the pattern of glucose and lipids. Referring back to the expression of these genes is different. previous point that not all body fat is Moreover, visceral adipose tissue secretes created equally, it is medically wise to adipokines which are proteins that are value the distribution of body fat in a associated with pathologies such as person rather than diminishing them obesity and insulin resistance (Szablewski, down to a number

PAGE 8 micronutrients found to be significantly on a scale or a negatively associated with change in BMI. A research . visceral fat accumulation (Ozato, et.al 2019). study evaluating These micronutrients, which are abundant the several in vegetable diets, contribute to the phenotypes of suppression of visceral fat accumulation. "I can’t eat/drink human obesity On the contrary, monounsaturated fat was found that a that because found to be significantly positively waist associated with the accumulation of I’m going to get circumference visceral fat. These observations are useful greater than fat" because properly composing and 100cm was proposing health diets can cause likely to be substantial decrease in metabolic associated with disturbances in lipoprotein metabolism syndrome risks. and in plasma glucose-insulin homeostasis (Wajchenberg, 2000). WHAT ABOUT GENETICS? In addition to biological variations in types So what does this mean for body image of fat tissue, genetic contributions can also and its relation to metabolic health? impact an individual’s body weight and size. Genes are protein coding formulas Yes, obesity and high levels of fat within human cells that are passed on accumulation are risky. But there is a huge from parent to offspring. The proteins they problem in the urgency to deem bodies synthesize are responsible for functions of that don’t fit society’s ideal as unhealthy. cells and the body. Genes are made up of a The described categorizations of adipose sequence of alleles, alternative forms of the tissue accumulation exhibit that body code, that impact the production of the composition and fat distribution have vital protein and, therefore, the function of the implications for overall health. A fulller face body. Since genes are hereditary, each may not serve as many health risks as a person has a unique set of genes that fuller midsection. impacts the body’s metabolism, adipose tissue type and distribution, and many And what does this mean for popular other factors that impact both body size reactions to the advocacy of larger body and weight (Chami et al., 2020). sizes? One gene, called the MC4R gene, is Critics often like to push weight loss as the involved with initiating feelings of satiety. answer to health, yet studies have shown This gene encodes a receptor for leptin, a that after severe weight loss, subcutaneous hormone sent from a brain region called fat at the abdominal level is lost in greater the hypothalamus that circulates in the proportions than visceral fat (Wajchenberg, bloodstream and initiates feelings of 2000). Rather than counting calories and fullness. (Kleinendorst et al., 2020). When spending endless hours on the treadmill, individuals have variants in the MC4R gene special attention should be given to the that reduce the number of leptin receptors specific micronutrients that enter the body. or deem the gene entirely unable to Soluble dietary fiber, manganese encode the protein, the hormone is not potassium, magnesium, vitamin K, folic recognized and the body is not told that it acid, and pantothenic acid were 7 is full. This can lead to overeating and

PAGE 9 obesity. Research has revealed that these active life, the availability of food, and many kinds of variants may be much more other environmental factors can impact the common than previously anticipated individual's body and weight. We cannot (Kleinendorst et al., 2020). In particular, they separate genes and environment and deem have identified 11 variants with significant one or the other responsible for weight and impacts on obesity, with up to a 20% size. Instead, it is an important combination difference in the rate of obesity between and interaction between the two. An those that do and do not have the variant interesting example is that some individuals (Chami et al., 2020). Another significant gene have certain single allele switches called is the UCP1 gene. This gene is involved with single nucleotide energy metabolism in the human body. Two polymorphisms that can variants, rs1800592 and rs 3811791, have been lead to an increase in body "I'm so associated with increased BMIs (Chathoth et weight. But, there are not disappointed al., 2018). There are potentially hundreds of activated unless the in myself genes that can impact body weight by individual experiences affecting nutrient intake, body fat stores, changes associated with because I dietary and metabolic functions, fat low socioeconomic status gained a few regulation, and nutrient turnover and (Korthals, 2011). Another pounds" thermogenesis (Martinez, 2000). However, important impact is except for extreme cases, no one gene on its epigenetics, alteration on own is responsible for an individual’s body. the genes separate from For example, the MC4R gene previously the genetic sequence itself. The code itself is mentioned is a significant influence on body not changed, but different proteins can bind weight, but it still only changed rates of and unbind regions causing an increase or a obesity by 20%. Research shows that body decrease in the reading of that code, and mass index is “highly heritable,” but it is the therefore creation of the proteins encoded by compounding impact of many genes the genes (Puiu et al, 2012, Price, 2011). working together and altering the body’s Activity, diet, behavior, stressful processes in different ways that can lead to circumstances, and living situation all cause body weight and size (O’Rahilly & Farooqi, an impact on epigenetics and therefore 2006). change which proteins are being created and at what amount. Does this mean that genes are responsible for variations in weight and size? What does this mean for perceptions and stereotypes based on body size? Genes play an important role in the determination of weight and size. The “Overweight” individuals are often proteins they code for can impact stereotyped as lazy and their size is blamed metabolism, fat distribution, and many other on them as a result of their behaviors. Research that has shown that genetics do factors . However, genes have an impact on size and weight has alone do not cause this allowed some of the stigma to be removed "Ugh! I ate variation. The from these individuals. There is always some environment is also amount of our size and weight that are way too important in entirely out of our control and are deemed by determining weight and much what is passed onto us by our parents. size. For example, what today" an individual eats, whether they live an PAGE 10 CCAASESE STUDY:STUDY: YOYO--YOYO DIETINGDIETING BY:BY: A A ALYSSLYSSAA PELPELAAKK

An intriguing study by Bacon and It has been taken as fact that higher Aphramor showed a strong weights are correlated with health association between weight cycling risks that lead to higher rates of and hypertension. It evaluated the blood presusre of obese women, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, classified by BMI, who dieted and and other serious health conditions. those who did not diet. It found But, is this really the whole story? that those who dieted had significantly higher blood pressure when compared to those who did Studies have shown that there may not which is believed to be tied to be an important factor missing weight cycling (Bacon & Aphramor, from this conversation- the impact 2011). Further literature has of “yo-yo dieting.” Yo-yo dieting is shown that weight gain following also known as weight cycling and weight loss induces quicker and describes the repeated loss and more significant adipose tissue gain of weight that frequently growth (Strohacker et al., 2009). occurs with dieting. Individuals The literature went on to conclude start an unreasonable diet, lose a that weight cycling might actually significant amount of weight, have a more significant negative realize their diet is unsustainable, impact on health than just give up, then gain all of their maintaining the overweight or weight back. Soon, due to the obese classification (based on BMI) strong influence of diet culture, (Strohacker et al., 2009). Further they will likely start a new diet and research needs to be done in order the cycle will continue. These to decipher what impact weight major weight fluctuations are cycling has when compared to indubitably unhealthy for the body obesity itself and to analyze the and are thought to potentially exact physiological impacts. contribute largely to the observed However, one thing is certain, we increased health risks for cannot continue to believe that individuals with higher weights. So, there is a clear, linear relationship these increased risks may not be between weight and health risk. due entirely to weight itself, but due to the weight fluctuations resulting from diet culture and the pressure on people of higher weights to lose weight. PAGE 11 Too Covered on the Cover? Popular magazine “Vouge” had their first plus-sized by Jisel Miranda model Ashley Graham on the cover of their March 2017 issue. The title claimed “The Beauty Revolution. No Norm is the New Norm.” While this ideology represents the stance of the body positivity movement that is commonly AS SEEN ON TV praised, many individuals had critiques about this cover. While different ethnicities were displayed, all of the models were of relatively equal height, facial structure, and body size aside from Ashley Graham. The most notable critique was the unique pose of Ashley Graham in which she covered the top of her leg. In response to the controversy, Graham stated “I chose to pose like that...no one told me to do anything” (Murray 2017). This emerges the question of who gets to decide what qualifies as being inclusive. Having the model is not enough, they need to be presented in a certain way as well. Also, acknowledging how a photoshoot operates, while Graham may have posed like this for one photo, the art director or the photographer had the opportunity to step in and change the composition to reflect more uniformity among the models. In the end, it brings up the question of how to introduce diversity and begin normalizing. Critique can be positive but when critiques become gatekeepers to the movement will this hinder progress rather than promote it?

Photo editing is prevalent in everyday American lives, from editing on social media posts to photoshop touch-ups on a major beauty campaign. While this was the norm in the United States, some companies have been taking a stand. The first largely cited large-scale campaign to do so was the Dove’s Real Beauty Campaign in 2004 which was praised for this wide range of body types without editing. The ads featured individuals of a range of ages, races, and body types. This ad was compared to ads like the Victoria’s Secret “Love your body” campaign to highlight the influence the campaign has made in the body positivity movement and calling out brands who do not do the same. The Dove Campaign helped to open doors for future efforts of no photoshop and the display of more inclusivity and diversification. PAGE 12

Photoshopby Jisel Miranda or Fine

Around the world, there are different perceptions of photoshop. In France, any advertisements that have been Photoshop-edited or otherwise digitally enhanced to make a model appear thinner must feature a clear label (Held 2017). The label must be prominent- covering at least seven percent of the ad space-and feature a warning that the image has been digitally distorted (Gladstone 2016). Similar regulations have also been put in place in the UK and Israel which overall aim to regulate misleading advertisements in the cosmetic and beauty industry. While these regulations may seem like a solution to negative body image caused by photoshop, when individuals were surveyed in response to the photoshop warnings in study conducted by Ahn et al., photoshop had a negative impact on self-esteem and individuals still wanted to resemble the models in these images (Ahn 2019). In other words, the labels had little to no impact on individual’s body image. Additionally, in Bromberg et al. individuals were surveyed they found diverse models led to more body satisfaction than warnings on photoshopped images (Bromberg 2019). This data suggests photoshop regulation laws are not enough instead there should be a greater focus on the representation of a diverse population.

Laws like this were created in order to reduce unrealistic expectations of body image, particularly for young women. Regulations like this have been highly contested in the United States due to the use of photoshop as a form of expression and its risk of impeding 1st amendment rights. Three key court cases that explore these limitations are Valentine v. Chrestensen, Virginia Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, and Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission of New York (Hunter 2011). The United States had introduced a Healthy Media for Youth Act (House Bill 4925) that would have provided grants to organizations for promoting media literacy and empowerment in children as well as the creation of a task force to promote a positive body image, but it died in Congress (H.R.4925, 2010). If regulations seem out of reach, the United States has the FTC and National Advertising Division which can potentially enact similar photoshop regulations in the U.S. While photoshop regulations are not a necessity and are not a perfect solution for photoshop issues, if the United States does not follow these regulation movements at least for their international campaigns they risk facing fines, bad publicity, and possible economic loss.

“I don’t have bunny ears in my cabinet” With changing beauty ideals and more individual access to photo editing applications it has become easier to create the virtual body image you always wanted. However, this is not enough. Recently there has been a trend of individuals with a condition that cosmetic surgeons Dr. Esho coined as “Selfie Dysmorphia”. Selfie dysmorphia is a body-image disorder related to the need to edit one’s digital image and a dissatisfaction with their own appearance. With unachievable images looking more achievable through photos some individuals have begun taking their filtered photos to the cosmetic surgeon asking for bigger eyes and smaller chins that are not cosmetically possible. Registered nurse injector Megan Kozak responded to these requests by stating “I don’t have the bunny ears in my cabinet”. Individual filters have begun shaping our body image ideals and there is no telling how far this may go (Global News 2019). Worth and AppearancePAGE 13 need to get a DIVORCE

By Kaila Daniels Social media use has become the most popular form of media consumption with 89% of young adults using at least one form of social and Alyssa Pelak media every day (Cohen, 2020). On photo platforms, such as Instagram, individuals aim to post only the most perfect, and often overly-edited, https://miro.medium.com/max/13440/1*2VNTjD2FSEfcvx3Nb5tb_g.jpeg images. So, the body positivity movement is praised as an entity that challenges conventional beauty ideals and offers a space to display diverse body types and appearances. There are questions, however, regarding just how beneficial this space is. Claims have been made that the “BoPo”, short for body positivity, movement encourages a higher sense of self-worth and self-appreciation. But should self-worth be linked to physical appearance? It is possible that the focus of appearance on Instagram, even in body positive posts, contributes to the hyper-focusing on appearance over other characteristics (Lazuka et.al, 2020). One can argue that, regardless of the type of body that is being posted on such a platform, the concept of posting an image for others to view and comment on gives increased value to an individual’s “look”. Appearance-based content is very common amongst body- positive posts. According to a review on the current advances and future directions of body positivity on social media, “over 11 million "All bodies are good bodies"... posts [on Instagram] are tagged with #bodypositive and 4 million with Good for viewing purposes or #bodypositivity” (Cohen, 2020). Analysis of these posts revealed that good for health and longevity? more than 30% of the imagery in these posts contained bodies in very revealing clothing and even more posts featured objectification of the body (focus on a particular body part, a sexually aggressive pose, and/or the absence of the head/face). Details such as these support the concerns that the body positivity movement reinforces a preoccupation with appearance over other human attributes. This movement puts immense pressure on women to love their bodies and can create a feeling of guilt for women who do not.

Body Neutrality The response to these criticisms regarding body positivity is a different frame of thinking called body neutrality. Body positivity is not liberating because it still emphasizes appearance. Body neutrality is all about removing the constant attention to looks and appearances (Cohen, 2020). You do not need to hate or love your body, instead, we can value the function of our bodies without placing overwhelming significance on our appearances. We can use this space to emphasize our other important characteristics. As stated by Cohen, “You are more than your body,” and “Your body does not exist to be pleasing to the eyes of others (Cohen, 2020, 1).” PAGE 14

Representation Weight Obesity Skinny Acceptable Diet Genetics Positivity Healthy Body Fat Size Disease Appearance Movement

PAGE 15 What Makes Me Hungry? by Jisel Miranda Insight into the Impacts of Leptin, Ghrelin, and Set Point Theory on Weight.

Get to Know Your Hormones-- The Fundamentals: Never Feeling Full? Homeostasis regulates everything in our It may be leptin to blame. When there are bodies from body temperature to water issues regulating this hormonal signaling, it retainment to the hormones that regulate can lead to leptin resistance. Leptin is a our energy and hunger. The key hormones hormone that is released into the in our bodies that regulate how and when bloodstream to relay information about the we feel hunger are leptin (decreases fat mass/energy in the body (Bernstein appetite signals) and ghrelin (increases 2015). With more adipose tissue, there is appetite signals). These signals are directed more leptin. Leptin resistance leads to an to the hypothalamus to be processed by the inability to read leptin signaling and brain. Within the hypothalamus, the lateral therefore the individual is unable to feel hypothalamus (LH) functions as the hunger satiated. There is currently research center and the ventromedial nucleus of the questioning the current perceptions of hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety center leptin resistance such as whether it can be (Klein and Thorne, 2016). Now let’s take a diet-induced or genetically influenced. A look at the key players. review written by Cui et al. suggests current perceptions of leptin resistance are shifting focus from being environmentally induced to having genetic origins. For instance, they claim resistance to endogenous leptin does not contribute to obesity caused by a high- fat diet (HFD). Additionally, they found that genetic issues such as irregularities with the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and damaged LepRb (a specific leptin receptor gene) trafficking in the hypothalamus have impacted the body's ability to detect leptin. In response, they state mechanisms/molecules such as lepR and leptin transport rate across the blood-brain barrier were identified to propose ideas to resolve this resistance (Cui et al. 2017).

PAGE 16 Why do I feel hungrier after losing weight? What Is Set Point Theory Increases in ghrelin can lead to weight regain Many studies involving hormonal levels after dieting and weight loss. In a study by use the concept of set point theory. Set Naatanen et al. on groups of people with obesity point theory is the idea that body weight in a weight loss program, they monitored two is predetermined. When environmental groups consuming either high-satiety foods or changes occur, feedback mechanisms in lower-satiety foods. They found that post weight the body return the body back to the reduction, the protein and fiber content of a predetermined weight. This theory is weight maintenance diet did not impact commonly used to explain body weight concentrations of glucose or hormones such as control mechanisms in the body. ghrelin, leptin, insulin, and PYY. Most notably they However, the model of homeostasis is found that after 6 months, leptin and insulin highly contested for its simplicity. While concentration adjusted to the fat mass for a new there is not one universally correct way to homeostatic level (“set-point”) and ghrelin view energy and weight management, declined in response to the increase in fat-free here are rising alternatives. mass. This is interesting because there was no evidence of changes in satiety hormones which may imply that the brain is more sensitive to hunger signals than satiety signals. Therefore, after dieting weight gain may occur not because of an issue with leptin, but rather because the ghrelin and other hunger hormones are more easily registered than leptin a (Naatanen et al. 2020).

While there are significant biological explanations behind the feelings of hunger and satiety, it is important to remember there are environmental influences to be considered as well. For example, even when individuals are full, their appetite allows them to continue eating foods that may seem appealing like a cookie. Additionally, environmental cues as a regulator of energy homeostasis. Factors ranging from the time of day to the location you frequent when you eat snacks can influence your eating patterns as well. Hormones play a key role, but we must also care for our environment so we can control how the hormones respond (Bernstein 2015). PAGE 17

Replacements Theories for Set Point Surgery and Set-Point Theory: There is an existing stigma with surgery and Settling-Point Theory: This theory weight loss. Criticism such as “they didn’t earn incorporates environmental factors which it” or “they took the easy way out” often allows for a larger variability to “set-point” circulate those who receive these weight-loss theory. In other words, it maintains the surgeries. However, research shows that these fundamentals of set point theory, but the set bariatric surgeries like gastric bypass not only point itself can change with environmental remove fat from your body as a temporary changes like socio-economic or cultural factors solution, but they also have the ability to (Farias et al 2011). change the body’s natural set point for long- Glucoadipostatic Loop Model: This model term results. While the exact mechanism links energy stored in fat to energy through which this occurs is still unknown, homeostasis. This theory is similar to set point theory but incorporates glucose and energy individuals indicate that surgeries like Roux- expenditure with the adipose tissue to en-Y-gastric bypass (RYGB) have altered the estimate how the body will control the release of hormones like ghrelin and other hormonal feedback (Chapelot and Charlot gastrointestinal (GI) hormones, resulting in 2019). changes in hunger and increased satiation Allostasis: This model is a replacement for after meals (Farias et al. 2011). While this is the homeostasis model. It suggests the body true of gastric bypass surgeries, other anticipates needs and prepares before they surgeries such as lipectomies have shown to arise. This is mentioned in regards to weight be less effective, with individuals returning to maintenance because it allows the body to prepare and adapt to irregular energy source their expected body weight set-point post- availability (Chapelot and Charlot 2019). surgery (Chapelot and Charlot 2019). Addressing gastric bypass surgery, there are requirements for adults such as at least one obesity-related medical condition and at least six months of supervised weight-loss attempts. This brings up the question of why this method of weight loss counts as an “easy way out” when there is a rigorous process to get accepted? PAGE 18 PAGE 19

Location, Location, Locationby Jisel Miranda

This map represents different body Ideals around the Beauty by Location and Income world which includes not only body type but also body Traditionally there have been significant differences in modifications. While thin and curvy bodies are valued the body ideals between Western and Non-Western In the United States, plump body types are associated locations. However, recently this trend has been shifting. with high status, authority, and wealth with South According to a study conducted by Swami, there is a Pacific Islanders. Through this analysis, different significant trend being observed between different regions have different understandings of what Is socioeconomic statuses instead. Customarily a thin body healthy or beautiful and these ideas may change over type for women was predominantly noticed in Western time. cultures, while a more plump body type was preferred in non-Western cultures. Through the age of modernity, Protective Community these cross-cultural differences have been better By some measures, such as wondering whether one associated with socioeconomic status (SES) with is fat or obese, living in a county with a higher BMI is individuals from lower SES finding bigger body sizes protective of one’s mental health. In a study more attractive (Swami 2013). Part of this may be conducted by Kuebler et al., they used yahoo answers attributed to the rising spread of Western culture and analyzed posts by individuals who were through media which transmitted these ideals. There is expressing concerns for obesity and related diseases. debate surrounding whether modernization or A slight overall trend was discovered that obese Westernization is the cause of this shift from Western vs. individuals in countries with higher levels of BMI have Non-Western to SES, and we will likely continue to see improved physical/mental health in contrast to changes throughout history. countries with lower BMIs (Kuebler et al. 2013). This indicates that the body ideals of individual countries may impact how healthy an individual perceived themself to be. PAGE 20 Members of the fat acceptance community claiming to be “against the ideals of thinness.” Fat acceptance members share the behavior of “coming out as fat” as a way of telling their audience that they do not intend to change their physical shape (Marcus, 2016).

What if their current body composition is putting them at risk for metabolic disease? Can the concept of “coming out as fat” perpetuate health problems for at-risk individuals? Is unhealthy body image something that only pertains to those striving to become thinner? Do we believe that body positivity aligns with a resistance to change physical appearance? Or does it align with embracing body size and shape regardless of any changes that occur?

By Kaila Daniels

There have even been instances when body-positive influencers have been criticized for not being the “ideal” spokesperson for the movement. Should there be restrictions on who can and can not advocate for body positivity? For example, Sienna Mae Gomez is a teenage girl who is known for being Tik-Tok’s most famous body-positive creator. Sienna has acknowledged that she is aware that the body-positive movement was started by plus-sized Black women for plus-sized men and women. Due to backlash, she has had to exclaim that she is not trying to take away from the importance of the movement’s origins or be the “face” of something that was not intended to include someone like her. Instead of claiming to promote body positivity, Gomez prefers “body confidence” because that encompasses the entire spectrum of body sizes. Women are disproportionately targeted by weight-related stigmas, and these stigmas fall extremely heavy on celebrity women. Higher-weight individuals in the media are objects of heavy surveillance and often perceived as needing to lose weight in order to fit into society.

Lizzo is a Grammy-winning American rapper and flutist whose popularity has been soaring since 2019. She is well- known for her anthems about self-acceptance and body By Kaila Daniels positivity. On multiple social media platforms, she regularly shares photos and videos appreciating and acknowledging her larger body and self-confidence. In an interview with Essence magazine, Lizzo explains that she posts risque photos of herself because she is comfortable in her skin and wants to normalize bigger bodies of all kinds, but especially Black women (Zavattaro, 2020).

Lizzo receives immense amounts of criticism for, what seems like, every single one of her public actions. When she posts about embracing her body, as is, she gets shamed for being unhealthy. One of the most popular criticisms that she received came from Jillian Michaels, fitness expert, and trainer for the TV show The Biggest Loser. Michaels questioned “Why are we celebrating her body?” and followed by saying, “it is not going to be awesome if she gets diabetes”. Michaels warned that even though it is important to be inclusive, it is also important not to glorify obesity. And the criticisms do not end here. When Lizzo posts about eating healthy and working out, she receives negativity from strict advocates of fat-acceptance. Those who view Lizzo as their body-confident role model tend to get upset when they witness her efforts to increase her metabolic health by eating healthy and being active.

Melissa McCarthy is another higher weight star, yet the media reactions to her weight are much different from Lizzo’s. McCarthy is identified as someone who presents an “alternative on-screen embodiment of circumscribed deviance” (Bombak, et.al, 2019). She is met with more praise than hate, and this suggests that media-validated self- acceptance is more acceptable for people who fit into a privileged mold. Further, white, cis, straight, and middle- class voices dominant the side of the body acceptance movement that is less debated and shamed. Such patterns make it clear that the scope of the body positivity movement overlaps into the realm and racial and socioeconomic disparity. This is now an issue of society, identity, race, and PAGE 21 health. PAGE 22

Representation (or lack there of) By: Alyssa Pelak

In 1989, Kimberle Crenshaw healthy and beautiful (Awad et al., (pictured above) coined the term 2015). However, within Black intersectionality to describe the culture, thickness and being curvy unique lived experiences of people is the exemplary body. This creates at the corners of multiple a binary that cannot ever be oppressions. She explained that satisfied by Black Americans. They compounding oppressions impact are at the center of two beauty the challenges and obstacles that ideals, one from their culture and individuals face (Awad et al., 2015). one from their white-dominated When we evaluate the body society. As a result, they positivity movement and overall experience even more negative body images, we cannot do so views of their body and pressures without analyzing intersectionality, from all sides (Awad et al., 2015). which drastically impacts Another layer is added when hair individuals’ experiences with their comes into the picture. In a focus bodies and weights. group with 31 college-age black women, one of the main themes Race is a major contributing factor that arose was hair. There is a to perceptions of the body. White large community-specific emphasis bodies are typically idealized within on hair and the time and money it the United States because our requires (Awad et al., 2015). societal views stem from European Additionally, the overwhelming beauty ideals and a national ignorance about Black hair from history of white supremacy and the White population leads to colonization. This means that pale many microaggressions that skin and thin bodies are seen as impact perceptions of beauty. PAGE 23 The movement is largely dominated by movement as disabled bodies are not White, able-bodied, ciswomen. Black shown in this movement contributing to the communities are often excluded and invisibility and lack of representation they underrepresented within the movement. feel. This movement could have an With the preference for lighter skins in extremely influential place in encouraging White and Black communities, dark skin self-love for people with disabilities. It could women often feel they can never satisfy the depict people with disabilities as confident beauty standards and beautiful. This would also serve to shift in place (Awad et the view of disability away from the medical al., 2015). This model and toward the social model of shows that, in disability which states that society impairs order to truly individuals rather than individuals being center the impaired themselves. People with movement disabilities are capable and perfect the way around they are, but the way our society is shaped encouraging prevents them from being able to reach positivity for ALL this potential and have their differences be bodies, all races, celebrated. must be included. Perpetuating a lack of representation continues to limit the We could discuss many other contributing audience of the movement to White factors that influence perceptions of bodies women. , Continuing on, there is also a severe lack of sexuality, representation for individuals with ethnicity, disabilities within the movement. Society socioeconom continues to operate under a medical ic status, and model of disability, viewing disability as an so many issue that prevents an individual from more. having full membership within society (Loja Overall, the et al., 2013). It places a medical issue that body needs to be solved within the person with positivity the disability. Because this view permeates movement through society, disabled individuals are fails often pitied and their position is to truly encourage positivity for all people emphasized as flawed and outside of the by representing mainly white, cis, able- norm (Loja et al., 2013). People with bodied women. Representation of all disabilities experience social invisibility and bodies needs to be significantly increased are driven out of the idea of beauty. This in order to truly create a movement that directly relates to the body positivity embraces self love for ALL bodies. PAGE 24

Who Says - Selena Gomez & The Scene Confident - Demi Lovato Born This Way - Lady Gaga Good as Hell - Lizzo Body - Megan Thee Stallion Flawless -Beyoncé All About that Bass -Meghan Trainor PAGE 25 Men and the body positivity movement by Jisel Miranda

After Rihanna’s Savage x Fenty lingerie advertisements for her men’s collection were advertised, praises for her diversity of representation of body types skyrocketed. Some praises included “we love a full man” and highlighting it is “the first body inclusivity for men I’ve ever seen” (Allwood 2020). Her model selection highlights diversity and inclusivity that is absent in other campaigns. However, there were also critics claiming “yea let’s support unhealthy lifestyle choices'' and making claims that it glorifies obesity. While body positivity efforts are not always met with unhindered praise, as the movement is normalized these responses may change. There are many femme body types being represented but there is still a need for more body types in media.

What about the men? With a quick google search of “Body Positivity Movement,” a majority of the images that pop up are images of women and femme bodies with very little representation of male bodies. While body image and self-esteem is an issue that has the potential to impact everyone, it is not equally represented or perceived by everyone. In Tylka et al., researcher Thomas Cash conducted a study finding that men had a more favorable body image quality of life than women. Additionally, between college men and women, there was an inverse association between body dissatisfaction and body image quality of life (Tylka et al). This indicates that in regards to body image and dissatisfaction, women struggle with this issue more than men. In a separate study by Kuebler et al. yahoo groups were surveyed for posts related to obesity and related concerns. For those who inquired whether they were “fat” or obese” 68% of men and only 40% met the CDC criteria for being overweight or obese. Likewise, 51% of adolescent boys and 30% of girls fit into these categories (Kuebler et al. 2013). This data may suggest that even from a young age, women are more concerned with their body image than men are. Therefore, much of the efforts to promote body positivity and inclusiveness have surrounded them. Our vision for PAGE 26 improvement

By: Kaila Daniels and Alyssa Pelak

Health At Every Size

While the body positivity movement is filled with important messages about loving your body and not folding to society’s standards of a “healthy This allows individuals to rely on their own body body,” it also clearly has flaws. Health at Every signals and eat what they want, when they need Size directly addresses many of the concerns to (Jonas, 2002). Returning to this more primal with the movement. state of viewing food removes the idea of guilt for eating junk food. One of the main ideas behind this process is that individuals restrict Ignoring health themselves from the foods they are craving due While we need to love and spread positivity to the guilt they have associated with it, then end about all bodies, many argue that body positivity up binging later because they denied themselves fails to acknowledge the health risks associated these foods. Or they engage in the process of with certain weights. is a weight cycling when they are on their next “diet” balance between body positivity and health and lose weight then ultimately fail because of (Jonas, 2002). It acknowledges that the emphasis the lack of sustainable practices of diets and gain on weight loss in our society is unsafe and often the weight back (Bacon & Aphramor, 2011). unattainable. Diet culture prioritizes weight rather than health itself. HAES defines health as Our bodies are able to determine what fuels us intuitive eating, body movement, and a stable, and makes us feel energized without our positive relationship with your body (Jonas, emotions attached. We do not need to diet or 2002). It emphasizes that health is not about restrict ourselves, instead, we need to eat when size, it is about eating balanced foods that we feel hungry, a return to “intuitive eating.” This nourish your body and living an active lifestyle. explains why HAES study groups showed better eating behaviors and an increased ability to For example, in terms of eating, diet culture recognize body hunger signs. These changes are highlights eating less and getting smaller. It more likely to be long-lasting, permanent creates an internalized idea of insufficiency and changes (Ulian et al., 2018). that you must change your body to reach confidence, happiness, and acceptance. HAES Research has shown that participants who encourages intuitive eating which includes utilized HAES, had improved cardiovascular and removing the emotional associations with food. mental health outcomes. Individuals in a study

PAGE 27

group who utilized the HAES approach, had from the equation (Ulian et al., 2018). lower levels of total cholesterol and low- It falls more along the line with body density lipoprotein cholesterol, both neutrality, deemphasizing appearance cardiovascular risk factors, compared to the control group (Ulian et al, 2018). Additionally, and centering the individual and their HAES participants had significant health. Social media is a very improvements in self-esteem and body important component for depictions satisfaction (Ulian et al., 2018). Further, of individuals and can be a large part results from a review of six randomized of representing diverse bodies and controlled trials confirmed that HAES was sizes without editing them to fit a associated with statistically and clinically significant improvements in blood pressure certain ideal. measures, health behaviors, and reduction in health disorders (Bacon & Aphramor, 2011). How about we make This emphasizes that one does not need to things less prioritize getting and being thin in order to be healthy. Simultaneously, we can highlight the appearance-based? importance of health, while changing the definition of health to separate it from size. As an alternative to explicitly making posts “body-positive” (which can lead to a heavy Focus on Appearance focus on appearance), social media posts, The body positivity movement still focuses on advertisements, etc. should consistently give what individuals look like by placing bodies equal representation to all types of bodies. center instead of health. Body positivity is Refraining from acknowledging how different solely about loving the way your body looks someone's body is from the societal ideal and changing what society views as beautiful can decrease the perpetuation of the taboo to include more kinds of bodies. HAES about differences in appearance. centers the idea of health instead of looks which serves to take the focus off of appearance entirely (Ulian et al., 2018). It is all about movement, intuitive eating, and positive relationships with your body and food (Jonas, 2002). Health is clearly delineated as separate from size and weight.

Representation A major criticism of the body positivity movement is the lack of representation for all bodies, races, genders, and other groups. HAES explains that bodies come in all shapes and sizes and we do not need to classify one look as healthy or not healthy. It allows for each individual to be represented since it removes appearance and beauty standards

PAGE 28 Supplemental Information

Of the participants who submitted responses for our survey, there were 70.8% female and 29.2% male self- identified participants. 20.8 % of our survey were 18-19 years old 66.7% survey were 20-23 and 12.5% were 40-44 years old. This survey was distributed with knowledge that the overall data would be used in research projects. There was no compensation for this survey and all data was submitted voluntarily.

Unprocessed Data

Link to the Survey: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScjm- QFMmM1Aau2ymoe9XW3Gk7ClTdbu- _B4VsDrE7ZdDPFgg/viewform?usp=sf_link Bibliography PAGE 29 Bibliography PAGE 30 Bibliography PAGE 31 Bibliography PAGE 32 Bibliography PAGE 33 Bibliography PAGE 34