Herbert spencer theory pdf

Continue English philosopher and political theorist For other people named , see Herbert Spencer (disambigation). Herbert SpencerSpenser aged 73Born (1820-04-27)27 April 1820Derby, Derbyshire, EnglandDied8 December 1903 (1903-12-08) (age 83) Brighton, Sussex, EnglandNationalityBritishEr19th century philosophyRegionalWestern philosophyClassic liberalismMaine interestsEvolution, positivism, non-intervention, utilitarianismSocial DarwinismAcrity of the most adapted influences of Aristotle, Charles Darwin, Auguste Conta, John Stuart Mill, George Henry Lewis, Jean-Baptiste Lamarque, Thomas Henry Huxley influence Charles Darwin, Henry Sijwick, William Graham Sumner, , Emile Durkheim, Henri Bergson, Jorge Luis Borges, Jack London Signature Part of the series on liberalism History of the Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contribution to liberal theory) Democratic capitalism Freedom of the Press Freedom of Speech Freedom Of Speech Principle Equality Men Principle Internationalism Laissez-faire Freedom Market Economy Natural and Legal Rights Negative/Positive Freedoms Principle Non-Aggression Open Society Permissive Society Rule of the Rule of The Church and the State Social Contract Welfare of Public Schools Thought Anarcho-Capitalism Classic Liberalism Left Liberalism Liberalism-Libertarian Conservative liberalism Democratic liberalism Green liberalism Liberal autocracy Liberal Catholicism Liberal conservatism Liberal feminism Liberal feminism Liberal internationalism Liberal Internationalism Liberal Socialism Liberal Democracy Muscle Democracy Muscle Liberalism National liberalism Ordoliberalism Radical centrism Religious liberalism Christian Islamic secular liberalism Social liberalism Technological liberalism The third way Whiggism People Acton Alain Alberdi Alembert Arnold Aron Badawi Barante Bastiat Bentam Beveridge Bobbyo Brentano Burke Berk Speck Cassirer Chicherin Chu Chidenius Clinton Cobden Collingdud Condorquette Constant Crocto Dauco Dahrendorf Deco Dickens Dider Dong Ouer Dvorkin Einaudi Emerson Estwas Flach Friedman Galbraith Garrison George Gladstone Gobetti Gomez Grey Green G. 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Spencer coined the expression survival of the fittest, which he coined in the principles of biology (1864) after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. This term convincingly suggests natural selection, but Spencer saw evolution as stretching in the field of sociology and ethics, so he also supported lamarcism. Spencer developed an all-inclusive view of evolution as a progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, human culture, and societies. As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature, astronomy, biology, sociology and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved great authority, mainly in English-speaking scientific circles. The only English philosopher who achieved anything like this was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century. Spencer was the most famous European intellectual in the last decades of the nineteenth century, but his influence declined sharply after 1900: Who now reads Spencer? asked Talcott Parsons 1937. On April 27, 1820, Jenf Spencer, son of William George Spencer (usually called George), was born in Derby, England. Father Spencer was a religious dissenter who moved from Methodism to quakerism, and who seems to have handed over to his son opposition to all forms of power. He ran a school based on the progressive teaching methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and served as secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific society founded in 1783 by Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin. Spencer was educated in empirical science from his father, while members of the Derby Philosophical Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution, notably Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarque. His uncle, the Rev. Thomas Spencer, vicar of Hinton Charterhouse near Bath, completed Spencer's limited formal education, teaching him mathematics and physics, and enough Latin to translate some simple texts. Thomas Spencer also captured his nephew's own free-trade firm and anti-statistics political views. Otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact who acquired most of his knowledge from narrowly oriented readings and conversations with his friends and acquaintances. As a young man, both as a teenager and a young man, it was difficult for Spencer to accept any intellectual or professional discipline. He worked as a civil engineer during the rail boom in the late 1830s, and devoted much of his time to writing for provincial magazines that were nonconformist in their religion and radicalized in their policies. From 1848 to 1853 he worked as a sub-editor in The Economist's journal, during which he published his first book, Social Static (1851), which predicted that humanity would eventually become fully adapted to the demands of life in society followed by the withering state. His publisher, John Chapman, introduced Spencer to his salon, which was attended by many of the capital's leading radical and progressive thinkers, including John Stuart Mill, Harriet Martino, George Henry Lewis and Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot), with whom he was briefly romantically associated. Spencer himself introduced biologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who later became known as the Bulldog of Darwin and who remained his lifelong friend. However, it was Evans and Lewis's friendship that introduced him to Jon Stewart Mill's Logic System and Auguste Comte's positivism and set him on the road to the work of his life. He strongly disagrees with Comte. The first fruit of his friendship with Evans and Lewis was Spencer's second book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1855, which examined the physiological basis of psychology. was based on the fundamental assumption that the human mind is subject to natural laws and that they can be discovered within the framework of general biology. This allowed us to take perspective of development not only in terms of personality (as in traditional psychology), but also in species and race. Through this paradigm, Spencer seeks to reconcile the eytonistic psychology of Mill's logic, the notion that the human mind was built from atomic sensations held together by the laws of the association of ideas, with apparently more scientific theory of phenology, which located specific mental functions in specific parts of the brain. Spencer argued that both theories were a partial account of the truth: repetitive associations of ideas were embodied in the formation of specific strands of brain tissue, and they could be passed down from generation to generation through the Lamarque use-inheritance mechanism. Psychology, in his opinion, will do for the human mind what Isaac Newton did on matter. However, the book was not initially successful, and the last of 251 copies of its first edition was only sold in June 1861. Spencer's interest in psychology stems from a more fundamental problem, which is to establish the universality of natural law. Like other members of his generation, including members of Chapman's salon, he was obsessed with demonstrating that it is possible to show that everything in the universe, including human culture, language and morality, can be explained by the laws of universal power. This contrasted with the opinion of many theologians of the time, who insisted that certain parts of creation, in particular the human soul, were outside the realm of scientific research. The Positism philosophy was written to demonstrate the universality of natural law, and Spencer had to follow the Count on the scale of his ambitions. However, Spencer differed from the Count, believing that it was possible to open a single law of universal application, which he identified with progressive development and was to be called the principle of evolution. In 1858, Spencer produced sketches of what was to become a synthetic philosophy system. This huge undertaking, which has few parallels in the English language, was aimed at demonstrating that the principle of evolution is applied in biology, psychology, sociology (Spencer appropriated the term Graft for a new discipline) and morality. Spencer envisaged that this ten-volume work would take twenty years; in the end it took it twice as long and consumed almost the rest of his long life. Despite Spencer's early struggle to establish himself as a writer, by the 1870s he had become the most famous philosopher of the time. His works were widely read during his lifetime, and by 1869 he could itself solely on the profit from the sale of books and on the income from his regular contributions to Victorian periodicals, which were collected as three volumes of essays. His works have been translated into German, Italian, Spanish, French, Russian, Japanese and Chinese, as well as many other languages, and he has been offered awards and awards throughout Europe and North America. He also became a member of Athenaeum, an exclusive Gentlemen's Club in London, open only to those who are notable for art and science, and the X Club, a nine-person dining club founded by T.H. Huxley, which met every month and included some of the most prominent Victorian thinkers (three of whom became presidents of the Royal Society). Among the members of the church were physicist- philosopher John Tindall and Darwin's cousin, banker and biologist Sir John Lubbock. There were also some rather significant companions, such as the liberal priest Arthur Stanley, the dean of Westminster; and guests such as Charles Darwin and Hermann von Helmholtz were entertained from time to time. Through such associations, Spencer had a strong presence at the heart of the scientific community and was able to provide an influential audience for his views. Despite his growing wealth and fame, he never owned his own home. Spencer's last decades of life have been characterized by growing frustration and loneliness. He never married, and after 1855 he was an eternal hypochondriac who endlessly complained of pain and illness that no doctor could diagnose at the time. By the 1890s, his readers had begun to leave him, while many of his closest friends had died, and he had come to doubt the confidence in the belief in progress that he had made a central part of his philosophical system. His later years were also those in which his political views became increasingly conservative. While social static was the work of a radical democrat who believed in voting for women (and even for children) and in nationalizing the land to break the power of the aristocracy, by the 1880s he had become an ardent opponent of women's suffrage and made common cause with landowners of the League of Freedom and Property Protection against what they saw as a drift toward socialism elements (such as like Sir William Harcourt) in the administration of William Ewart Gladstone - mostly against the views of Gladstone himself. Spencer's political views from that period were expressed in what became his most famous work, Man vs. State. The tomb, Highgate Cemetery The exception to Spencer's growing conservatism was that he remained throughout his life an ardent opponent of imperialism and militarism. His criticism of the Drilling War was particularly scathing, and this contributed to his declining popularity in the UK. also invented the forerunner of the modern butt, though it looked more Modern pin cotter. This mandatory pin was distributed by Ackermann. Spencer shows pin drawings in Annex I (after annex H) of his autobiography along with published descriptions of its use. In 1902, shortly before his death, Spencer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature, which was awarded to the German Theodore Mommsen. He continued to write all his life, in later years often dictating until he succumbed to ill health at the age of 83. His ashes are buried in the east london Highgate Cemetery in front of the tomb of Karl Marx. At Spencer's funeral, Indian nationalist leader Shyamaji Krishna Varma announced a donation of 1,000 pounds to organise a lecture at Oxford University in honour of Spencer and his work. Synthetic philosophy This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding links to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The basis for Spencer's appeal to many of his generations was that he seemed to offer a ready-made belief system that could replace traditional religious faith at a time when Orthodox beliefs were collapsing under the advances of modern science. Spencer's philosophical system seemed to demonstrate that one can believe in the ultimate perfection of mankind based on advanced scientific concepts such as the first law of thermodynamics and biological evolution. In fact, Spencer's philosophical vision was shaped by a combination of deism and positivism. On the one hand, he absorbed something from eighteenth-century derism from his father and other members of the Derby Philosophical Society and from books like George Combe's hugely popular Constitution of Man (1828). This treated the world as a space of benevolent design, and the laws of nature as decrees To be transcendently kind. Thus, natural laws are the charter of a well-managed universe, which was issued by the Creator in order to promote human happiness. Although Spencer lost his Christian faith as a teenager and then rejected any anthropomorphic concept of deity, he nevertheless held on to this concept on an almost sub-conscious level. At the same time, however, he owes far more than he ever recognized positivism, particularly in his conception of the philosophical system as a unification of various branches of scientific knowledge. He also followed positivism, insisting that it was possible to have only genuine knowledge of the phenomena and, therefore, that it was idly to speculate about the nature of the ultimate reality. The tension between positivism and its residual deism ran through the entire system of synthetic philosophy. Spencer followed the Smoocts, seeking to unite The truth is true; it was in this sense that his philosophy was intended to be synthetic. Like Comte, he was committed to the universality of natural law, the idea that the laws of nature applied without exception to the organic realm as much as to the inorganic, and to the human mind as much as to the rest of creation. Thus, the first purpose of synthetic philosophy was to demonstrate that there are no exceptions to the fact that they can discover scientific explanations of all phenomena of the universe in the form of natural laws. Tom Spencer's biology, psychology and sociology were designed to demonstrate the existence of natural laws in these particular disciplines. Even in his writings on ethics, he believes that it is possible to discover laws of morality that have the status of the laws of nature, while maintaining the normative content, a concept that can be traced to the Constitution of George Comba Man. The second purpose of synthetic philosophy was to show that these same laws inexorably led to progress. Unlike The Count, who emphasized only the unity of the scientific method, Spencer sought to combine scientific knowledge in the form of smooching all natural laws to one fundamental law, the law of evolution. In this regard, he followed the model outlined by Edinburgh publisher Robert Chambers in his Anonymous News of the Natural History of Creation (1844). Although often rejected as Charles Darwin's easy precursor to the Origin of Species, Chambers's book was actually a program to combine science, which aims to show that the Laplace Nebula hypothesis about the origins of the solar system and Lamarque's theory of species transformation were both copies of one magnificent generalization of progressive development (Lews' phrase). Chambers was associated with Chapman's salon, and his work served as an unrecognized template for synthetic philosophy. The Evolution portrait of Spencer Burgess, 1871-72 Spencer first articulated his evolutionary perspective in his essay, Progress: His Law and Reason, published in the Westminster Chapman Review in 1857, and which later formed the basis of the first principles of the new system of philosophy (1862). In it, he outlined the theory of evolution that combined ideas from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's essay The Theory of Life - itself derived from The Theory of Life by Friedrich von Schelling - with a generalization of von Baer's law on embryonic development. Spencer suggested that all structures in the universe evolve from simple, undifferentiated, homogeneous to complex, differentiated, heterogeneous, accompanied by a process of greater integration of differentiated parts. This evolutionary process can be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. It was a universal law that applied to stars and for biological organisms, as well as for human social organization, as well as for the human mind. It differed from other scientific laws only by its greater commonality, and the laws of special sciences could be shown as illustrations of this principle. The principles described by Herbert Spencer received different interpretations. Bertrand Russell stated in a letter to Beatrice Webb in 1923: I do not know whether it was ever done to realize the consequences of the second law of thermodynamics; If so, he may well be upset. The law states that everything tends to be uniform and dead level, reducing (not increasing) heterogeneity. The perceived contradiction between Spencer's theory and the second law of thermodynamics may arise from limiting the definition of homogeneity and heterogeneity to homogeneity and heterogeneity and heterogeneity and heterogeneity of spatial distribution of matter. For example, according to the second law of thermodynamics, gas molecules, filling the room, eventually fill the room at similar intervals. On the other hand, the direction of movement of molecules becomes more heterogeneous. The growing heterogeneity of this kind is consistent with an increase in entropy associated with the number of microscopic configurations corresponding to the macroscopic quantities that characterize the system. Herbert Spencer believes that evolution, defined as the integration of matter and the scattering of movement, is necessarily accompanied by dissolution, defined as the scattering of matter and the integration of movement. Therefore, the heterogeneity of matter itself is not asserted that it is constantly increasing. In addition, Herbert Spencer argues that dissolution goes in the direction of equilibration, a state of the system without differential force between its parts. Comparison can be made from such a state with thermodynamic equilibrium, a state without pure macroscopic streams of matter or energy. Spencer's attempt to explain the evolution of complexity was radically different from what can be found in Darwin's The Origin of Species, which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite mistakenly, believed to have simply appropriated Darwin's generalized natural selection work. But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phrase survival of the fittest as his own term for the Darwin concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker who simply applied Darwin's theory to society, he only reluctantly incorporated natural selection into his existing common system. The main mechanism for species transformation, which he acknowledged, was the inheritance of Lamarca's use, which suggested that organs were developed or reduced by use or non-substance, and that the associated changes could be passed on to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain the higher evolution, Social Development Development Moreover, unlike Darwin, he believes that evolution has direction and endpoint, achieving the final state of equilibrium. He tried to apply the theory of biological evolution to sociology. He suggested that society is the product of a change from lower to higher forms, as in the theory of biological evolution, the lower forms of life are said to develop into higher forms. Spencer argued that the human mind evolved in the same way from simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in thinking people. Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: human knowledge and racial knowledge. Intuition, or knowledge gained unconsciously, was an inherited experience of race. Spencer, in his book Principles of Biology (1864), proposed the theory of pangenesis that the involvement of physiological units is supposed to be related to specific parts of the body and responsible for transmitting characteristics to offspring. These hypothetical hereditary units were similar to Darwin's gems. Sociology In his 70s Spencer with excitement read the original positivist sociology Auguste Graf. A philosopher of science, Kont proposed the theory of sociocultural evolution that society progresses according to the general law of three stages. Writing after various developments in biology, however, Spencer rejected what he considered the ideological aspects of Graft's positivism, trying to reformulate social science in terms of his principle of evolution, which he applied to the biological, psychological and sociological aspects of the universe. Given the primacy that Spencer has placed on evolution, his sociology can be described as social Darwinism mixed with lamarcism. However, despite its popularity, this view of the sociology of Spencer is wrong. While his political and ethical writings were topics consistent with social Darwinism, such topics are absent in Spencer's sociological writings, which focus on how processes of social growth and differentiation lead to a change in degrees of complexity in a social organization, evolutionary progress from simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to complex, differentiated heterogeneity was an example, Spencer argued, of the development of society. He developed a theory of two types of society, bellicose and industrial, that corresponded to this evolutionary progress. The belligerent society, structured around the relationship of hierarchy and obedience, was simple and undifferentiate; an industrial society based on voluntary, contractual social obligations is complex and differentiated. The society that Spencer conceived as a social organism evolved from a simpler state to a more complex one under the universal law of evolution. In addition, industrial society was a direct descendant of an ideal society developed in though Spencer is now ambiguous about whether the evolution of society will lead to anarchimity (as he first believed), or whether he pointed to a permanent role for the state, although it boils down to minimal contract execution and external defense. Although Spencer made a valuable contribution to early sociology, not least in its impact on structural functionalism, his attempt to introduce Lamarque or Darwinian ideas into the field of sociology was unsuccessful. In addition, many considered it dangerous. Hermeneuts of the time, such as Wilhelm Diltei, were pioneers in the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften) and the humanities (Geisteswissenschaften). In the United States, the sociologist Lester Frank Ward, who will be elected the first president of the American Sociological Association, launched a relentless attack on Spencer's theories about non-interference and political ethics. Although Ward admired much of Spencer's work, he believed that Spencer's previous political biases distorted his thoughts and misled him. In the 1890s, Emil Durkheim created an official academic sociology with a firm focus on practical social research. At the turn of the 20th century, the first generation of German sociologists, primarily Max Weber, introduced methodological anti-positiveism. However, Spencer's theory of non-interference, survival of the fittest and minimal human intervention in the processes of natural law has been a lasting and even growing appeal in the social sciences of economics and political science, and one writer recently made the case for Spencer's importance to sociology, who must learn to take energy in society seriously. Ethics The ultimate point of the evolutionary process would be to create the perfect person in an ideal society, with people fully adapting to social life, as predicted in Spencer's first book. The main difference between Spencer's earlier and later concepts of this process was the evolutionary timeline. The psychological - and therefore moral - constitution, which is hung by our ancestors to the present generation and which we, in turn, will translate to future generations, is in the process of gradually adapting to the demands of life in society. For example, aggression is a survival instinct that is necessary in primitive living conditions but is not adaptive in developed societies. Because human instincts had a certain location in the strands of brain tissue, they were exposed to the Lamarque mechanism of use-inheritance, so that gradual changes could be transmitted to future generations. For many generations, the evolutionary process will ensure that people become less aggressive and altruistic, which ultimately leads to a perfect society in which no one will hurt another person. However, in order for evolution to be born of an ideal personality, present and future generations would have to experience the natural consequences of their behaviour. Only in this way will have the incentives necessary to work on self-improvement and thus to pass on an improved moral constitution to their descendants. Therefore, everything that interferes with natural behaviour and consequences should be confronted, and this includes the use of coercive powers of the State to alleviate poverty, provide public education or compulsory vaccination. Although charity should be encouraged even if it is limited to the fact that suffering is often the result of individuals being affected by their actions. Therefore, too much individual benevolence aimed at the unworthy poor will break the link between behavior and consequence that Spencer is considered fundamental to ensure that humanity continues to develop to a higher level of development. Spencer has adopted a utilitarian standard of ultimate value - the greatest happiness of the greatest number - and the culmination of the evolutionary process will be the maximization of utility. In a perfect society, people would not only enjoy the exercise of altruism (positive beolability), but would also be aimed at avoiding hurting others (negatively beneficial opinion). They also instinctively respect the rights of others, leading to universal respect for the principle of justice - everyone has the right to the maximum amount of freedom that is compatible with the same freedom in others. Freedom was interpreted as a lack of coercion and was closely related to the right to private property. Spencer called this code of conduct Absolute Ethics, which provided a scientifically sound moral system that could replace the supernaturally established ethical systems of the past. However, he acknowledged that our inherited moral constitution does not currently allow us to behave in full compliance with the code of absolute ethics, and for that reason we need a code of relative ethics that takes into account the distorting factors of our current imperfections. Spencer's distinctive view of musicology was also related to his ethics. Spencer thought that the origins of music could be found in passionate oratory. Speakers have a convincing effect not only of reasoning their words, but also of their cadences and tone - the musical qualities of their voices serve as a commentary of emotions on suggestions of intelligence, as Spencer put it. Music, conceived as an increased development of this characteristic of speech, contributes to ethical education progress progress The strange ability that we can use to be touched by melody and harmony can be taken to imply that it is within the capabilities of our nature to realize the intense charms that they vaguely offer, and that they are in some way interested in realizing them. If so, the power and meaning of music becomes clear; but otherwise they are a mystery. Spencer's recent years have been characterized by the collapse of his initial optimism, replaced by pessimism about the future of humanity. However, he has devoted much of his efforts to strengthening his arguments and preventing misinterpretation of his monumental theory of non-interference. Spencer's reputation among Victorians owes much to his agnosticism. He dismissed theology as representing the impurity of the pious. He was to gain greater notoriety for his rejection of traditional religion, and was often condemned by religious thinkers for allegedly promoting atheism and materialism. However, unlike Thomas Henry Huxley, whose agnosticism was a bellicose credo aimed at the unforgivable sin of faith (in The Phrase of Adrian Desmond), Spencer insisted that he was not interested in undermining religion in the name of science, but in achieving reconciliation between the two. The next argument is a summary of part 1 of his first principles (2nd ED 1867). Starting with either religious beliefs or science, Spencer argued that we are ultimately forced to accept certain irreplaceable but literally unthinkable concepts. Whether we are related to the Creator or the substrate that underlies our experience of phenomena, we cannot formulate it. Therefore, Spencer concluded, religion and science agree in the highest truth that human understanding is only capable of relative knowledge. This is the case, because of the limitations of the human mind, only knowledge of phenomena, not of reality (absolute) underlying phenomena, can be obtained. Therefore, both science and religion must recognize as the most certain of all facts that the power the universe shows to us is completely incomprehensible. He called this awareness unknown and presented the worship of the Unknown as capable of being a positive faith that could replace ordinary religion. Moreover, he believed that the Unknown represented the final stage in the evolution of religion, the eventual elimination of its last anthropomorphic remnants. 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Economist Murray Rothbard called social static the greatest work of libertarian political philosophy ever written. Spencer argued that the state was not a substantial institution and that it was unwrapped because the voluntary market organization would replace the coercive aspects of the state. He also argued that a person has the right to ignore the state. As a result of this view, Spencer sharply criticized patriotism. In response to the fact that British troops were in danger during the Second Afghan War (1878-1880), he replied: When people hire themselves to shoot other people to order without asking anything about the fairness of their cause, I don't care if they shot themselves. Politics in late Victorian Britain was moving in a direction Spencer disliked, and his arguments provided so much ammunition to conservatives and individualists in Europe and America that they were still in use in the 21st century. The expression No Alternative (TINA), made by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, can be traced back to its resolute use of Spencer. By the 1880s, he was denouncing the new Toryism (i.e. the social reformist wing of the Liberal Party - a wing somewhat hostile to Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, this faction of the Spencer Liberal Party compared to the interventionist Toryism of people like former Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli). In Man vs. State (1884), he attacked Gladstone and the Liberal Party for losing their proper mission (they must defend personal freedom, he said), and instead promoted paternalistic social legislation (what Gladstone himself called Building - an element of the modern Liberal Party he opposed). Spencer denounced Irish land reform, compulsory education, workplace safety laws, prohibition and moderation laws, tax-funded libraries and welfare reforms. His main objections were three times: the use of coercive powers of government, the despondency given to voluntary self-improvement, and disregard for the laws of life. Reforms, he said, amount to socialism, which he said is about the same as slavery in terms of restricting human freedom. Spencer vehemently attacked widespread enthusiasm for colonies and imperial expansion, undermining everything he predicted of evolutionary progress from militant to industrial societies and states. Spencer foresaw many of the analytical points of view of later libertarian-freedom theorists such as , especially in his equal freedom law, his persistence within predictive knowledge, his model of spontaneous public order, and his warnings about the unintended consequences of collectivist social reforms. Although Spencer was often caricatured ultraconservative, he was more radical early in his career - railing against private ownership on land and arguing that everyone has hidden claims of involvement in land use (the kinds that influenced ), calling himself a radical feminist and advocating union organizing as a bulwark against exploitation by bosses and advocating for an economy organized primarily by free-workers. Although he retained the support of trade unions, his views on other issues changed by the 1880s. He came to predict that social welfare programmes would eventually lead to the socialization of means of production, stating that all socialism was slavery; Spencer identified the slave as a man who toiled under duress to desire of another and believed that under socialism or communism man would be enslaved for the whole community, not for a particular master, and this meant whether his or her is one person or society. Social Darwinism For many the name of Herbert Spencer is practically synonymous with social Darwinism, a social theory that applies the law of survival most adapted to society and is inextricably linked to the rise of nineteenth-century scientific racism. In addition to Spencer's much positive contribution to intellectual thought, his contribution to the racist ideology must also be substantiated. In his famous work Social Static (1850), he argued that imperialism served civilization by purging the lower races from the earth: The forces that pull out the great scheme of perfect happiness, without taking into account the occasional suffering, destroy such parts of humanity that stand in their way. ... Whether it's a man or he's rude - the hindrance has to be getting rid of. However, in the same work, Spencer continues to say that the occasional evolutionary benefits derived from such barbaric practices do not justify their progress. Spencer's connection to social Darwinism may have its origins in a specific interpretation of his support for competition. While in biology competition of different organisms can lead to the death of a species or organism, the kind of competition Spencer favors is closer to that used by economists, where competitors or firms improve the well-being of the rest of society. Spencer looked positively at private philanthropy, encouraging both voluntary association and informal assistance to those in need, rather than relying on government bureaucracy or force. He also recommended that private charities be wise to avoid encouraging the formation of new dependent families by those who cannot feed themselves without charity. Focusing on the form, as well as the content of Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy, one writer defined it as a paradigmatic case of social Darwinism, understood as politically motivated metaphysical, very different in form and motivation from Darwinian science. In a letter to the Japanese government regarding mixed relations with Westerners, Spencer said that if you mix the constitution of two widely divergent varieties that have been adapted several times to divergent ways of life, you will get a constitution that is adapted to the regime of life of neither of them - a constitution that will not work properly. He goes on to say that America has failed to restrict Chinese immigration and limit their contact, especially sexual, with alleged European actions. He states that if they mix they should form a bad hybrid regarding the issue of Chinese and (ethnically European) Americans. Spencer ends his letter with the following statement against all immigration: In any case, assuming that will be a great, huge social evil to emerge, and eventually social social The same thing will happen if there should not be any significant mix of European or American races with the Japanese. The overall influence While most philosophers are unable to reach much of the following outside the academy of their professional peers, by the 1870s and 1880s Spencer had achieved unprecedented popularity, as evidenced by the huge volume of his sales. He was probably the first and perhaps the only philosopher in history, having sold more than a million copies of his works during his lifetime. In the United States, where pirated editions were still commonplace, its authorized publisher, Appleton, sold 368,755 copies between 1860 and 1903. This figure was little different from its sales in his native Britain, and once publications in the rest of the world are added to the figure of a million copies, it seems a conservative estimate. As William James observed, Spencer expanded the imagination and freed the speculative mind of countless doctors, engineers and lawyers, many physicists and chemists, and thoughtful laymen in general. The aspect of his thought, emphasized by individual self-improvement, found a ready audience in skilled working classes. Spencer's influence among thought leaders was also enormous, though it was most often expressed in terms of their reaction to his ideas and rejection of them. As his American follower John Fiske observed, Spencer's ideas had to be found running like paddles through the entire deformation of Victorian thought. Such diverse thinkers as Henry Sijvik, T.H. Green, G.E. Moore, William James, Henri Bergson and Emile Durkheim have defined their ideas in relation to him. Durkheim's labor department in the society to a very large extent extended discussion with Spencer, from whose sociology, many commentators now agree, Durkheim lent extensively. Portrait of Spencer Hamilton, circa 1895 in post-1863-Uprising Poland, many of Spencer's ideas became an integral part of the dominant Fin de si'cle ideology, Polish positivism. The leading Polish writer of the time, Boleslaw Proust, hailed Spencer as the nineteenth-century Aristotle and adopted the Spencer Society metaphor as an organism, giving it a startling poetic representation in his 1884 micro-story, The Mould of the Earth, and emphasizing the concept in the introduction to his most universal novel, The Pharaoh (1895). The beginning of the 20th century was hostile to Spencer. Shortly after his death, his philosophical reputation plummeted. Half a century after his death, his work was dismissed as a parody of philosophy, and historian Richard Hofstadter called him a metaphysicist of a self-made intellectual and a prophet of agnostic-breaker. However, Spencer's thought penetrated so deeply into the Victorian era that his influence did not disappear completely. In recent years, much more positive assessments appeared, and still a very negative assessment. Political influence Despite his reputation as a social Darwinist, Spencer's political thought was open to many interpretations. His political philosophy could be both an inspiration to those who believed that people were masters of their own destiny, who should not interfere in the affairs of the state-intervention, and for those who believed that social development required a strong central authority. In Lochner v. , conservative United States Supreme Court justices could find inspiration in Spencer's writings for striking down a New York law limiting the number of hours a baker could work during the week, on the ground that this law limited contract liberty. Arguing against the majority, arguing that the right to a free contract is implied in due process by the Fourteenth Amendment, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. wrote: The Fourteenth Amendment does not accept Mr. Herbert Spencer's social statics. Spencer was also described as a quasi-anarchist as well as an outspoken anarchist. Theorist of Marxism Georgi Plekhanov in his 1909 book Anarchism and Socialism called Spencer a conservative anarchist. Spencer's ideas became very influential in China and Japan in large part because he appealed to the reformers' desire to create a strong nation state with which they would compete with Western powers. His thought was introduced by Chinese scholar Yen Fu, who saw his writings as a recipe for reform of the Tsing state. Spencerism was so influential in China that it was synthesized into a Chinese translation of Origin of Species, in which Darwin's branching view of evolution was transformed into a linear-progressive one. Spencer also influenced the Japanese Westerner Tokutomi Soho, who believed that Japan was on the verge of transition from a combat society to an industrial society and needed to quickly discard all Japanese and engage in Western ethics and training. He also corresponded with Kaneko Kentaro, warning him of the dangers of imperialism. Savarkar writes in his camp Inside the Enemy, about reading all Spencer's works, about his great interest in them, about their transfer to Marathi, about their influence on the likes of Tilak and Agarkar, and about the affectionate sobriety given to him in Maharashtra - Harbhat Pendze. Spencer's influence on literature has had a profound impact on literature and rhetoric. His 1852 essay Philosophy of Style explored a growing trend of formalist approaches to writing. Focusing on the correct placement and streamlining of parts of the English offering, he created a guide to the effective composition. Spencer seeks to free the prosaic writing from as much friction and inertia as possible, so that the reader will not slow down the tense debate regarding the proper and the meaning of the sentence. Spencer argued that writers should strive to present ideas that they can be held up with the least mental efforts of the reader. He argued that by making meaning as accessible as possible, the writer would achieve the maximum possible communicative efficiency. This was achieved, according to Spencer, by placing all subordinate reservations, objects and phrases in front of the subject, so that when readers reached the subject, they had all the information necessary to fully perceive its meaning. While the overall influence of style philosophy on the field of rhetoric was not as far-reaching as his contributions to other areas, Spencer's voice had an authoritative support for formalist views on rhetoric. Spencer influenced literature because many writers and writers of the story came to consider his ideas in his work. Spencer referred to George Eliot, , Machado de Assis, Thomas Hardy, Boleslaw Prus, George Bernard Shaw, Abraham Cahan, Richard Austin Freeman, D.H. Lawrence and Jorge Luis Borges. Arnold Bennett praised the First Principles, and the impact it had on Bennett can be seen in his many novels. Jack London went so far as to create a character, Martin Eden, a convinced Spencer. It has also been suggested that Vershinin's character in Anton Chekhov's play Three Sisters is a devoted Spencerian. Herbert Wells used Spencer's ideas as a theme in his novel The Time Machine, using them to explain the evolution of man into two species. This is perhaps the best evidence of the influence of Spencer's beliefs and writings that his coverage has been so diverse. He influenced not only the administrators who shaped the inner workings of their societies, but also the artists who helped shape the ideals and beliefs of these societies. In Rudyard Kipling's novel Kim, an English-made Bengali spy Hurri Babu admires Herbert Spencer and quotes him to comic effect: They are, of course, dematerialized phenomena. Spencer says: . I'm good enough Herbert Spencerian, I hope to come across a trifle like death, which is all in my destiny, you know. He thanked all the gods of the Hindustan, and Herbert Spencer, that remained some valuables to steal. Upton Sinclair, in One Clear Call, 1948, jokes that Huxley said that Herbert Spencer's idea of tragedy was a generalization of the killed fact; ... Primary Sources Documents herbert Spencer in the Library of the Senate House, University of London Education (1861) Synthetic Philosophy System, in ten volumes First Principles ISBN 0-89875-795-9 (1862) Principles of Biology (1864, 1867; revised and expanded: 1898), in two volumes Volume I - Part I: Biology Data; Part II: Induction Biology; Part III: The Evolution of Life; Application Volume II - Part IV: Morphological Development; Part Physiological development; Part VI: Laws of Multiplication; AppendixEs Principles of Psychology (1870, 1880), in two volumes Volume I - Part I: Data of Psychology; Part II: Induction of Psychology; Part III: General Synthesis; Part IV: Special synthesis; Part V: Physical synthesis; Application Volume II - Part VI: Special Analysis; Part VII: General Analysis; Part VIII: Congruence; Part IX: Principles of Sociology, in three volumes Volume I (1874-75; increased 1876, 1885) - Part I: Sociology data; Part II: Induction of Sociology; Part III: Internal Institutions Volume II - Part IV: Ceremonial Institutions (1879); Part V: Political Institutions (1882); Part VI published here in some publications: Church Institutes (1885) Volume III - Part VI published here in some editions: Church Institutions (1885); Part VII: Professional Institutions (1896); Part VIII: Industrial Institutions (1896); References To the Principles of Ethics, in Two Volumes Volumes Volume I - Part I: Ethics Data (1879); Part II: Ethics Induction (1892); Part III: The Ethics of Individual Life (1892); References Volume II - Part IV: The Ethics of Social Life: Justice (1891); Part V: The Ethics of Social Life: Negative Benefit (1892); Part VI: The Ethics of Social Life: Positive Be benefits (1892); Applications Study of Sociology (1873, 1896) Autobiography (1904), in two volumes See also Spencer, Herbert (1904). Autobiography. J. Appleton and the company. v1 The Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer david Duncan (1908) v2 Life and Letters by Herbert Spencer David Duncan (1908) Descriptive Sociology; or Sociological Facts Groups, Parts 1-8, classified and organized by Spencer, compiled and abstract by David Duncan, Richard Shepping, and James Collier (London, Williams and Norgate, 1873-1881). Essay Collections: Illustrations of Universal Progress: A Series of Discussions (1864, 1883) Man vs. State (1884) Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative (1891), in three volumes: Volume I (includes Development Hypothesis, Progress: Its Law and Cause, Factors of Organic Evolution, etc.) Volume II (includes Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) Tom III (includes Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) Tom III (includes Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) Tom III (includes Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) Tom III (includes Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) Tom III (includes The Classification of Sciences, Philosophy of Style (1852), Origin and Function of Music, Physiology, etc.) , State rigging with money and banks, Specialized administration, From Freedom to Slavery, Americans, etc.) Various Fragments (1897, enlarged 1900) Facts and Commentaries (1902) Great Political Thinkers (1960) Critic Philosophers Herbert Spencer: Assessment and Review (1904) by Josiah Royce. Ethics lectures by T.H. Green, Mr. Herbert Spencer and J. Spencer-defeat in Washington (1894) By Lester F. Ward. The Puzzled Philosopher (1892) George. Remarks by the definition of Spencer's mind as correspondence (1878) by William James. See also the List of Liberal Geolibertarian Theorists of Organicism Notes: Weinstein, David, Herbert Spencer, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Autumn 2019 Edition), Edward N. Salta (e.g.), URL - zlt;https: plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/spencer/=>b Letter 5145 - Darwin, C. R. Wallace, A.R., July 5 (1866). Darwin Correspondence Project. Received on January 12, 2010. Maurice E. Stack. Best Competition Propaganda (PDF). Received on August 29, 2007. Herbert Spencer in his principles of biology 1864, vol. 1, p. 444, wrote: This survival of the fittest, which I here sought to express in mechanical terms, is what Mr. Darwin called natural selection, or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. Peter (November 4, 2010) Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinist or Libertarian Prophet?, The Misanza Institute - Thomas Eriksen and Finn Nielsen, History of Anthropology (2001) p. 37 - Spencer became the most famous philosopher of his time, says Henry L. Tishler, Introduction to Sociology (2010) and Talcott Parsons, Structure of Social Action (1937; New York: Free Press, 1968), p. 3. quote from C. Crane Brinton, English political thought in the nineteenth century (London: Benn, 1933). - The Rev. Thomas Spencer (October 14, 1796 - January 26, 1853) - See: - Duncan, life and letters herbert Spencer pp. 53-55 - Duncan, Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer p. 113 - In 1844, Spencer published three articles on phrinology in the journal The Journal of Cerebral Physiology and Mesmerism and their applications to human well-being: A New Look at Imitation and Benevolence Functions (Vol.1, No.4, (January 1844), p. 369-85) On the position of the amative organ (Tom.2, No.6, (July 1844), p. 186-89); and the Theory of the Miracle Organ (Tom.2, No.7, (October 1844), p. 316-25). Duncan, the life and letters of Herbert Spencer b. 75 - Duncan, life and letters of Herbert Spencer p. 537 - Duncan, life and letters of Herbert Spencer p. 497 - Stephen Shapin (August 13, 2007). The man with the plan. newyorker.com archive from the original on April 30, 2015. A lifelong hypochondriac, he came for his health to revive his severely disordered nervous system, and he withstood all the promptings to what he called social unrest. Disgusted with the life of Herbert Spencer. Routledge. 7-8. ISBN 9781317493464. Archive from the original on December 30, 2018. Received on December 30, 2018 - through ndpr.nd.edu. Duncan, the Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer page 464 - Duncan, Life and the zlt;/https:Herbert Spencer, page 537 and cited in Egan, Kieran (2002). Getting it wrong from the start. Received on June 14, 2013. Deichman, Ute. Darwinism, philosophy and experimental biology. Springer. 41-42. ISBN 978-90-481-9901-3 - Turner, Jonathan H. (1985). Herbert Spencer. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-8039-2244-2. Popular Science Monthly, Volume 44 - McKinnon, AM (2010). Energy and Society: The Energy Sociology by Herbert Spencer of Social Evolution and Beyond (PDF). In the Journal of Classical Sociology. 10 (4): 439–55. doi:10.1177/1468795x10385184. hdl:2164/2623. S2CID 144492929. Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative, Volume 2 - Online Freedom Library. oll.libertyfund.org. - Doherty, Brian, radicals of capitalism: The Free History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement, page 246. Stingham, Edward. Anarchy and the law. Transaction publisher, 2007. page 387. Stingham, Edward. Anarchy and the law. Transaction publisher, 2007. page 388. Herbert Spencer, Facts and Comments, page 126. Social static (1851), page 42, 307. Man Vs. State, 1884 in The Constitutional Society - Ronald F. Cooney, Herbert Spencer: The Apostle of Freedom Freeman (January 1973) online Archive 7 November 2018 in Wayback Machine - Chris Matthew Sciabarra, Libertarian, in the International Encyclopedia of Economic Sociology, ed. Jens Beckert and Milan Zafirovski (2006), page 403-07 online. Herbert Spencer on The Land issue: Criticism, by Alfred Russell Wallace. people.wku.edu. - Herbert Spencer Anti-Defamation League (part 423 ???). Lindqvist, Sven (1996). Destroy all the beasts. The new press. page 8. ISBN 9781565843592. Spencer, Social Static, 417-19. Offer, John (2006). The intellectual history of British social policy. Bristol: Politics Press. 38, 142. ISBN 1-86134- 530-5. Ian Stewart (2011). Time of command: The ideological status of time in the social Darwinism of Herbert Spencer. Australian Journal of Politics and History. 57 (3): 389–402. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.2011.01604.x. Hearn, Lafcadio (2012). Japan: Attempt to interpret Kindle Edition. Pp. App. ISBN 978-1406722383. James, William (1904). Herbert Spencer. Atlantic month. XCIV: 104. A quote in John's sentence, Herbert Spencer: Critical Ratings (London: Routledge, 2004), page 612. Perrin, Robert G. (1995). Labor's Emile Durkheim and shadow Herbert Spencer. Sociological quarterly. 36 (4): 791–808. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1995.tb00465.x. Gertrude Himmelfarb, Darwin and the Darwin Revolution, 1968, page 222; cited in Robert J. Richards, Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of reason and behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 243. Richard Hofstadter, Social darwinism in American thought (1944; Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), p. 32. ^ Francis, Herbert Spencer and the Invention of Modern Life (Newcastle, United Kingdom: Acumen Publishing, 2007). Stewart (2011). Plekhanov, Georgiĭ Valentinovich (1912), trance. Aveling, Eleanor Marks. Anarchism and Socialism, page 143. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr and company. (See here.) Benjamin Schwartz, in Search of Wealth and Power (Belknap Press Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1964). Jin, Xiaojuan (March 27, 2019). Translation and transmutation: the origin of species in China. British Journal of Science History. 52 (1): 117–141. doi:10.1017/S0007087418000808. PMID 30587253. Kenneth Pyle, New Generation in Meiji, Japan (Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1969). Spencer Kaneko Kentaro, August 26, 1892 in the life and letters of Herbert Spencer with the support of David Duncan (1908), p. 296. Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar. Inside the enemy camp. page 35. Sinclair, Upton; One clear challenge; R.I. R. Clark, Ltd., Edinburgh; August 1949 References Carneiro, Robert L. and Perrin, Robert G. Herbert Spencer Principles of Sociology: Centennial Retrospective and Evaluation . Annals of Science 2002 59 (3): 221-261 online at Ebsko Duncan, David. The Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer (1908) online edition of Elliot, Hugh. Herbert Spencer. London: Constable and Company, Ltd., 1917 Elwick, James (2003). Herbert Spencer and the Disunity of the Social Organism (PDF). History of science. 41: 35–72. doi:10.1177/007327530304100102. S2CID 140734426. Archive from the original (PDF) dated June 15, 2007. Elliot, Paul. Erasmus Darwin, Herbert Spencer and the origins of the evolutionary worldview in British provincial scientific culture, Isis 94 (2003), 1-29 Francis, Mark. Herbert Spencer and the invention of modern life. Newcastle United Kingdom: Acumen Publishing, 2007 ISBN 0-8014-4590-6 Harris, Jose. Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) online, standard short biography of Hodgson, Jeffrey M. Social Darwinism in English-language academic journals: contribution to the history of the term (2004) 17 Journal of Historical Sociology 428. Hofstadter, Richard. Social Darwinism in American thought. (1944) Boston: Beacon Press, 1992 ISBN 0-8070-5503-4. Kennedy, James Herbert Spencer. Boston: G.K. Hall and Co., 1978 Mandelbaum, Maurice. History, Man and Reason: A Study of nineteenth-century thought. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971. Parsons, Talcott. The structure of social action. (1937) New York: Free Press, 1968. Rafferty, Edward K. Right to use the Earth. Herbert Spencer, Washington Intellectual Community, and American Conservation in the late nineteenth century. Richards, Robert Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of reason and behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Smith, George H. (2008). Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903). In the Ronald ( encyclopedia of libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE; . 483-85. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n295. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Stuart, Ian. Time of Command: The Ideological Status of Time in Social Darwinism by Herbert Spencer (2011) 57 Australian Journal of Politics and History 389. Taylor, Michael W. Men vs. State: Herbert Spencer and The Late Victorian Individualism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Taylor, Michael W. Philosophy Herbert Spencer. London: Continuum, 2007. Turner, Jonathan Herbert Spencer: Renewed appreciation. Sage Publications, 1985. ISBN 0-8039-2426-7 Versen, Christopher R. Optimistic Liberals: Herbert Spencer, Ethical Association, and the integration of moral philosophy and evolution into the Victorian Transatlantic Community. Florida State University, 2006. Duncan, David. The Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer (1908) online edition of Spencer, Herbert. Spencer: Political Letters (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought) edited by John Proposal (1993) Spencer, Herbert. Social Static: Man vs. State Spencer, Herbert. Study of sociology; full text online free Spencer, Herbert. Principles of psychology; full text online Spencer, Herbert. Social Static, abbreviated and revised: Along with Man Vs. State (1896), highly influential among libertarians full text online free Spencer, Herbert. Education: Intelligent, Moral and Physical (1891) 283pp full text online By Spencer, Herbert. Autobiography (1905, 2 vol) full text of Spencer's online online writing Further reading of Burrow, J. W. Herbert Spencer: Development Philosopher History today (1958) 8'10 pp 676-683 online Harrison, Frederic (1905). Lecture by Herbert Spencer (1 Oxford: Clarendon Press. External references of the Commons have media related to Herbert Spencer. Wikiquote has quotes related to: Herbert Spencer Wikisource has original work written or about: Herbert Spencer Library Resources about Herbert Spencer Resources in your resource library at other Herbert Spencer Resources Libraries in your library of resources in your library of resources in other libraries biographical Weinstein, David (February 27, 2008). Herbert Spencer. In Salte, Edward N. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Sweet, William, Herbert Spencer entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Sources of Herbert Spencer's works on the Biodiversity Heritage Library of Herbert Spencer's Project Gutenberg Works or about Herbert Spencer's Online Archive of Works by Herbert Spencer in LibriVox (Public Domain Audiobook) On Moral Education herbert spencer theory of evolution. herbert spencer theory of social evolution. herbert spencer theory of social darwinism. herbert spencer theory of education. herbert spencer theory of functionalism. herbert spencer theory survival of the fittest. herbert spencer theory of organic analogy. herbert spencer theory in hindi

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