Thesis Submitted to the Bharathidasan University in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Dr

Thesis submitted to the Bharathidasan University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Dr. A. VALLIAMMAI, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.F.G.M., M.H.R.M., M.B.A., Research Supervisor, A.D.M. College for Women, Nagapattinam.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “A STUDY ON THE

IMPACT OF TSUNAMI ON THE LIVELIHOOD PATTERN OF

FISHERMEN COMMUNITY IN NAGPATTINAM DISTRICT OF

TAMILNADU” is a bonafide record of research work done by

Mrs. M. MAHALAKSHMI submitted to A.D.M. College for Women,

Nagapattinam for the award of the DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS under my guidance and supervision and the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award to the candidate of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or any other similar titles.

I further certify that the thesis represents independent work on the part of the candidate.

Date : Research Supervisor Place: (Dr. A. VALLIAMMAI)

DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that the thesis has been originally carried out by me at the P.G and Research Department of Economics, A.D.M. College for women

(Autonomous), Nagapattinam, under the guidance and supervision of

Dr. A. VALLIAMMAI, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.F.G.M., M.H.R.M.,

M.B.A., Associate Professor and Head, Department of Economics, A.D.M.

College for Women, Nagapattinam. This work has not been submitted in whole or in part for any Degree or Diploma at any University.

Date: Signature of the candidate Place: (M. MAHALAKSHMI)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I consider myself very fortunate to have Dr. A. Valliammai, Head and

Associate Professor in Economics, A.D.M. College for Women (Autonomous),

Nagapattinam as my research guide. Right from the day, the decision to study on this title was taken she took active and personal interest in my work and guided me with utmost interest and patience at every stage of this work. I found her an illustrious example of intellectual honesty and excellent model of a guide. It was a rewarding experience to do research under her. Her suggestions and critical comments widened the horizons of my knowledge and enriched the contents of this work.

I am indebted to my beloved Management who enabled me to carry out the research work.

My special thanks are due to Dr. (Mrs.) A. Sivakama Sundari,

Principal, A.D.M. College for Women, for her encouragement.

I should acknowledge with thanks the useful discussions I had with an expert in the field Dr. D. Kumar, Associate Professor in Economics, Jamal

Mohamed College, Tirchirapalli.

I acknowledge the following Institutions that rendered me their services and provided the required data for the study. Office of the Assistant

Director of Fisheries, Nagapattinam, Churches Auxiliary for Social Action

(South Zone) (CASA) , Nagapattinam, NGO Co-ordination and Resource

Centre (ICRC) , Nagapattinam, Social Need Education and Human Awareness

(SNEHA) , Nagapattinam, Tamilnadu Directorate of Fisheries Office,

Nagapattinam, Civil Society Organization (CSO) in the Fishery sector of

Nagapattinam and Nagapattinam Collectorate.

I record my deep sense of gratitude for the help rendered by

Mr. G. Vengatasamy Assistant Director of Fisheries (Marine) Nagapattinam, for his help during my research period.

I should acknowledge with deep sense of gratitude the help rendered by

Mrs. G. Malathi, Associate Professor in Statistics, A.D.M. College for women, Nagapattinam, for her valuable help in Statistical Analysis.

I am indebted to Dr. S. Dinesh kumar, Bank Manager, Ammaiappan

Tiruvarur, for his valuable suggestions in the study.

I profusely acknowledge the help rendered by Mr. C. Jesu Rethinam,

Director of SNEHA , Mr. R. Devarajulu (SNEHA) and Mr. G. Murugananthan,

NCRC for secondary data collection.

I should acknowledge with deep sense of gratitude the help rendered

Mrs. S. Manimegalai, Associate Professor in Mathematics, A.D.M. College for women, Nagapattinam, for her valuable help in completion of this thesis.

The help rendered by other colleagues in the department is greatly acknowledged.

I express my sincere thanks to my uncle Mr. M. Sivaraj, Ex. Army

Tiruvaiarur, for his help and moral support during my research period.

I am particularly thankful to Mr . S. Balasubramanian, Nagapattinam for his encouragement for this study.

The help rendered by Mr. S. Arockiasamy, St. Antony Higher

Secondary School, Nagapattnam, and Mr. S. Vetriselvam, Assistant Engineer

TNEB, Nagapattinam for their help and encouragement.

I record my deep sense of gratitude for the help rendered by the

Mr. J.R. Kishore Kumar, Photographer, Nagapattinam.

I am indebted to all the fishermen covered in my sample study for their fullest co-operation during my field visit.

I owe a great debt to my beloved mother-in-law, mother, sisters, brothers, brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law for all their encouragement.

I will be failing in my duty if I do not mention the help rendered by my husband Mr. M. Senthil Siva Kumar, who encouraged me in all my endeavours.

My son S. Parthi lessened the hardship involved in bringing out this thesis by his affection and forbearance.

Finally, I thank each and everyone who helped me in the successful completion of this thesis.

M.M.M. Mahalakshmi

CONTENTS

Page Chapter Title No.

I Introduction and Design of the Study 1

II Review of Literature 19

III Profile of the Study Area 83

IV Analysis on Fish Catch before and after Tsunami at 103 Nagapattinam District

V Analysis on the Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen 131 in Nagapattinam District

VI Findings, Conclusion and Suggestions 222

Bibliography B 1

Appendices A 1

(i) Questionnaire

(ii) Photos

(iii) Publications Reprint

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page Title No. No. 3.1 Population Details of Nagapattinam District 89 3.2 School Particulars of Nagapattinam District 93 3.3 History of Natural Disasters in the Past Five Decades in 97 Nagapattinam district 3.4 The Devastation in Tamilnadu and Nagapattinam 99 3.5 Statement of Total Damages (initial assessment) in Nagapattinam 100 district 4.1 The Trend and Growth in Craft-wise Fish-catch in Nagapattinam 113 district 4.2 The Trend and Growth in Net-wise Fish-Catch in Nagapattinam 116 district 4.3 Specification of Fishing Boats / Motors with Prices (Nagapattinam) 118 4.4 Specification of Fishing Nets in Nagapattinam 119 4.5 Village Wise Available Boats (Catamaran and Vallam) Pre-tsunami 120 and Post-tsunami Period 4.6 Relief Amount Disbursed (as on 15.12.2005) in Nagapattinam 121 District 4.7 Status of Resumption of Fishing in Nagapattinam March 122 1.15.2006 4.8 Average Number of Fishing Days in Peak Month / Lean Month 123 4.9 Fishing Hours by Craft & Gear Combinations 124 4.10 Average Crew Size by Type of Crafts 126 4.11 Average Fish Catch per Trip 127 5.1 Distribution of Sample Households According to Size of the 136 Family 5.2 Age Distribution of Sample Households 137

5.3 Distribution of Head of Sample Households 138 5.4 Caste Wise Distribution of Sample Households 139 5.5 Marital Statuses of the Sample Households 10 5.6 Earners, Dependants and Earner Dependants of Sample Households 141 5.7 Educational Status of Sample Households 142 5.8 Educational Status of the Sample Members 143 5.9 Occupation of the Sample Households 144 5.10 Types of House of the Sample Households 145 5.11 Boat Particulars of the Sample Households 146 5.12 Monthly Income of Sample Households 147 5.13 Monthly Expenses of Sample Households 148 5.14 Status of Insurance among the Sample Households 149 5.15 Savings of the Sample Households 150 5.16 Occupational Wise Expenses in Sample Households 151 5.17 Source Wise Debt position of the Sample Households 152 5.18 Purpose Wise Debt position of the Sample Households 153 5.19 Assets of the Sample Households 155 5.20 School Particulars of the Sample Villages 156 5.21 General Particulars of the Sample Villages 158 5.22 Fully and Partly Damaged Houses of the Sample Villages 159 (After Tsunami) 5.23 Akkaraipettai Street Wise Damage of Houses 160 5.24 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Akkaraipettai 161 5.25 Nambiyar Nagar Street Wise Damage of Houses 162 5.26 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Nambiyar Nagar 163 5.27 Arkattuthurai Street Wise Damage of Houses 164

5.28 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Arkattuthurai 165 5.29 Kallar Street Wise Damage of Houses 166 5.30 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kallar 167 5.31 Kameswaram Street Wise Damage of Houses 168 5.32 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kameshwaram 169 5.33 KeechanKuppam Street Wise Damage of Houses 170 5.34 Damage of Fishing Crafts in KeechanKuppam 171 5.35 Pushphavanam Street Wise Damage of Houses 172 5.36 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Puspavanam 173 5.37 SamanthanPettai Street Wise Damage of Houses 174 5.38 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Samanthanpettai 175 5.39 Seruthur Street Wise Damage of Houses 176 5.40 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Seruthur 177 5.41 Vanavan Mahadevi Street Wise Damage of Houses 178 5.42 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vanavan Mahadevi 179 5.43 Vellapallam Street Wise Damage of Houses 180 5.44 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vellapallam 181 5.45 Velankanni Street Wise Damage of Houses 182 5.46 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Velankanni 183 5.47 Vizhunthamavadi Street Wise Damage of Houses 184 5.48 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vizhunthamavadi 185 5.49 Pattinachery Street Wise Damage of Houses 186 5.50 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Pattinachery 187 5.51 Kodiyakarai Street Wise Damage of Houses 188 5.52 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kodiyakarai 189 5.53 Allotment of Permanent Shelters made by NGOs 190

5.54 The Boats, Engines and Nets Distributed by various NGOs in 191 Sample Villages 5.55 NGO Wise Public Infrastructure and Repair in Damaged 192 Houses of the sample Villages 5.56 Distribution of Book sets / Toy kits in Sample Villages by 193 ASHA Foundation 5.57 Death and Missing list of the Sample Villages 194 5.58 Village Wise damaged fishing Instrument Particulars of after 195 Tsunami (31.03.05) Position 5.59 Details of fishing unit in the Sample Villages 196 5.60 Details of Micro Enterprises in the Sample Villages 197 5.61 Number of Boats available in Pre-Tsunami and Post-Tsunami 198 of the Sample villages 5.62 Bodies Recovered of the Sample Villages 199 5.63 Membership in Different Community Based Organizations 200 5.64 PDS Card Holding of the Sample Villages 201 5.65 Distribution of Agricultural Land in the Sample Villages 202 5.66 A Sample Worksheet on Relief Materials 203 5.67 Restoration Work Carried out in Tsunami affected Habitations 204 in Nagapattinam District 5.68 Immunization Activities Carried out in Nagapattinam District 205 5.69 Relief Packages Disbursed in Government in Nagapattinam 206 District 5.70 Details of Relief to Differently abled in Government 207 5.71 Details of Relief to Differently abled in NGOs 208 5.72 Skill Training for New SHGs 209

ABBREVIATIONS

UNO - United Nations Organization

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organizations

NGOs - Non Governmental Organizations

HRD - Human Resource Development

CIFE - Central Institute of Fisheries Education

CMFRI - Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

CIFT - Central Institute of Fisheries Technology

ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research

PHFP - Post-Harvest Fisheries Project

KDFSF - Kanyakumari District Fishermen's Sangams Federation

FRP - Fibre Reinforced Plastic

CRZ - Coastal Regulation Zone

DRM - Disaster Risk Management

GGF - Global Greengrants Fund

ADPC - Asian Disaster Preparedness Center

NDWC - National Disaster Warning Center

WWF - World Wildlife Fund

SSE - Stop Stansted Expansion

CPCL - Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited

PHCs - Primary Health Centres

OBMs - Out Board Motors

SHGs - Shelf Help Groups

TRC - Truth and Reconciliation Commission

TMSSS - Thoothukudi Multi-purpose Social Service Society

PCI - Project Concern International

DPG - Development Partners Group (Tanzania)

PDA - Population and Community Development Association

ICCWTN - Indian Council for Child Welfare Tamil Nadu

Chapter - I

Introduction and Design of Study 1

CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF STUDY

1.1. BACKGROUND AND THE PROBLEM

The Tsunami, an extraordinary calamity of unprecedented proportions, is a reminder that no matter how much wealth or power man acquires, he is still at the mercy of the elements. The havoc created by Tsunami can never be forgotten. The most powerful earthquake in 40 years quickly turned into one of the worst disasters in a century, as walls of water crashed ashore across South

Asia. The number of human casualties, mostly children and women, is horrible and is increasing with the passage of time.

In terms of the number of casualties, India was the 3 rd worst hit country partly because a large section of its coastline was hard hit by the Tsunami. The areas that were hit included the state of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,

Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

The costal marine fisheries were affected directly or indirectly by that shattered their only means of earning namely the craft and gear. The loss of aquaculture sector mostly owned by small / marginal farmers in South Indian region were severely affected and total loss of shrimp production. One of the major concerns is the availability of adequate brood stock (the mother shrimp) from the sea in the context of reduction in fishing due to the Tsunami. Though the initial reports have been on serious hit by the Tsunami, later assessments

2 have shown extensive damage caused to the marine fisheries sector and showed the structural changes that took place both on and off-shore.

The economic impact of Tsunami extends to damage to the houses, boats and fishing nets, loss of household possessions, other livelihood options and livestock. The social impact before and after tsunami has rapidly changed.

Relief and rehabilitation were provided by the Government and NGOs.

Tamilnadu has a long 1,076 km coastline with continental shelf of

41,000 km supporting 54,420 fishing crafts of which 24,448 were traditional non-motorized crafts, 22,312 were motorized and 7,618 mechanized vessels

(5,256 trawlers; 2,361 gillnetters, purse seiners, liners, dol-netters), catamarans

(63%), plank built boats (34%) and dugout canoes (3%) are the main fishing craft in the artisanal sector. With the exception of mesh size violations in the mechanized sector and inter-sectoral conflicts between trawlers and artisanal craft, majority of fishing regulations are enforced well for fishing vessels operating in Tamilnadu. Similar observations were made by state that the closed season is implemented well in Tamilnadu due to close co-ordination between mechanized boat owners association and the Fisheries Department. In

Tamilnadu, the Government made provision for replacing or repairing all fishing equipment damaged by Tsunami. The package for rehabilitation of fishing livelihoods included, replacing fishing nets for vallams and catamarans; repair of engines (both outboard and inboard); and assistance for repair or reconstruction of vallams and catamarans, with the quantum of assistance being

100 percent of the unit cost in case of wooden catamarans and 50 percent in case of replacement of FRP, vallams and catamarans. The assistance to the mechanized sector was confined to 60 percent in case of repairs and to 35 percent in case of fully damage or lost boats. Provision was made for the mechanized boat owners to obtain bank loans at subsidized rates for the balance amount necessary for undertaking repair or reconstruction. In all cases, the Government’s support was confined to providing monetary assistance to the fishers. It also exempted payment of sales tax on the purchase of selected materials necessary in the repair and reconstruction of the boats damaged by the Tsunami.

The Nagapattinam district lies between the Bay of Bengal in the east of the district, Thanjavur and Trichy district in the West, Pudukkottai district and

Palk Strait in the South and Childambaram in the North. Nagapattinam is the

Head Quarters of the district; Nagapattinam is one of the fishing harbours in

Tamilnadu. Tamilnadu faced severe damage due to Tsunami. Known to be a cyclone prone area, its flat terrain and the unusually long 187 kms coast line and direct projection of its landmass into the Bay of Bengal made it easy target of Tsunami. Which was till then unknown in this part of the world and even after it was generated in the Sumatra lslands, it stealthily and ferociously decimated the entire coast leaving 6,065 dead and left over thousands of houses damaged or destroyed and brought to a standstill not only the coastal economy but also affected coastal agriculture and had a cascading effect on trade and tourism.

Fishing is the traditional occupation for fishermen community. Fishing and allied activities constitute an industry and have created employment for people having different skills in different fields of fisheries. It provides direct and indirect employment opportunities. Fisheries sector has to be given high priority since it has the potential of employment and income generation. The marine fish and its products have very good potential for earning considerable amount of foreign exchange. Fish is an important source of food next to agriculture and animal husbandry. To supplement the food shortage arising out of agriculture and animal husbandry, fish play an important role in the dietary needs of people. It has 60 per cent of protein, rich vitamins, fat, calcium, phosphorous and other nutrients.

Indian fisheries consist of two major operations, namely traditional fishery and industrial or large scale fishery. The traditional fishery is called artisanal or small scale fishery, in which catamarans, stitched boats, dugout canoes are used. On the other hand in the industrial fishery, mechanized boats and trawlers are used. In fishing, they use modern nylon bottom gill nets and trawl nets. These are owned and operated mostly by non fishing communities, industrialists and multinational corporations.

Fisheries sector has suffered a lot in terms of asset and livelihood loss in the Tsunami. Nagapattinam was the worst affected in the Indian mainland with

6,582 Catamarans, 2,977 FRP boats and 677 Mechanized Boats fully or partly damaged. The whole sector was paralyzed for the first three months, without

5 anyone venturing into the sea. The income loss has crippled the fishing community making them highly dependent upon relief from the Government and NGOs. However the sector started building itself with the generous help extended by people from all walks of life.

The economy of the affected area was primarily dependent on fishing.

The foremost task was on restoring the fishing activities. Moreover the fishing communities were psychologically affected as they could not digest the fact that the Mother sea which was their source of life could destroyed them. Not like the earlier disasters such as heavy winds and cyclone, Tsunami was new to coastal Nagapattinam and this had created a fear psychosis in the minds of the brave fishermen and their families. This was evident from their act of not going to the sea even though few boats and vallams were not affected and were fit for going into the sea. In the case of cyclones, which periodically affects

Nagapattinam district, the losses were limited to one particular area and except the fishermen, the family of the fishermen were safe in the shore, whereas in the case of Tsunami, the losses were heavy on the shore rather than in the sea and this had caused a sense of uncertainty in the lives of family members. In order to bring them back to normal, lot of counseling were given by means of awareness camps, folk dances, puppet shows and seminars arranged through various Government departments and NGOs, the fisher folk were educated about the myth surrounding Tsunami. With the fishing activities back to normal it was time to move on to other sectors such as agriculture, horticulture,

6 petty trade and others. The Tamilnadu Government was prompt in announcing relief packages covering fisheries, agriculture, horticulture, small scale industries and traders. This greatly enabled the affected population to get back to their feet.

1.2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the thesis is to make a detailed study on the effects of

Tsunami, damages of human lives and property, their economy and status of business before and after Tsunami. It also discusses the role of government in rebuilding the Tsunami damaged areas, the life of fishermen and the change in climate after Tsunami in Nagapattinam district.

1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The Tsunami waves triggered by underwater earthquake with a focal depth of 30 km near the Sumatra Island distressed the entire coast of

Tamilnadu. The worst affected coastal region is Nagapattinam, particularly from Nagore to Velankanni. The impact of Tsunami had multidimensional effect, killing most of the fishermen communities, devastating the coastal huts and damaging the coastal aquaculture resources. The present study has been carried out to find the impact of Tsunami on the livelihood pattern of the fishermen community in Nagapattinam district of Tamilnadu.

Nagapattinam district has been scene of destruction due to natural disasters several times be it floods or cyclones. However, the devastation

7 unleashed by the fury of Tsunami waves on 26 th December, 2004 was unprecedented in nature. The death toll of 6,065 was several times more than the cumulative figure of all the natural disasters of Tamilnadu before this.

Apart from death toll, the loss of homes and livelihood of thousands of people posed a great challenge to the relief and rehabilitation efforts. Like the disaster, the relief efforts in Nagapattinam have been unprecedented not only in terms of scale but also in terms of logistics of men and material and multiplicity of problems which it tackled.

Socio-economic conditions are closely related to the development of fisheries and fishermen community. Despite the government policy to improve the socio economic condition of downtrodden fishermen, they by and large remained at a lower level. The assistance given by the public sector banks and financing agents are not sufficient to reach all the fishermen. Good sanitary conditions, medical facilities, reasonable price for their fish catch and protected drinking water facilities are all absent. The growing population does not allow them to enjoy these benefits fully. Basically academicians are now interested in problems associated with long term policies which focus on bringing about improvement in the standards of living of vulnerable section of the population, creation of employment opportunities and thereby generating additional income for the poor narrowing regional imbalance.

The main focus of this study is the issue of distribution of fishing assets; it also tries to understand the post-tsunami fishery situation and the status of

8 different working groups along with the social dynamics in fishing hamlets.

The study identifies that the total number of FRP boats has increased more than twofold, while the number of catamarans dwindled into less than half. It also observes a one fifth reduction in mechanized boats the reason being the belief of some owners that replacement of mechanized boats would not be profitable.

The unstructured asset distribution process has resulted in many of the

FRP units not getting adequate sets of different fishing nets to enable them to venture into the sea through the different seasons. The available data shows that there is a decrease in the total and per unit catch of the FRP units and the number of trips they used to operate.

A majority of the labourers became co-owners of FRP boats in the post

Tsunami relief and rehab process with the result the old owners are now finding it difficult to get labourers to do fishing in traditional fishing villages.

Traditional Fishermen Panchayats played an arbitrator’s role in distribution of fishing assets, by taking over the custody of the fishing units that were given to the hamlets and redistributing them among the fishermen using their own formula derived from their ethical and traditional values and culture, which sometimes seems quite unjustifiable to an outsider. At times this became a weakening point as far as the age old traditional Panchayat system is concerned with the formation of various groups with conflicting interests.

The distribution of fishing units has become a cardinal point of internal conflicts in many hamlets. The conflicts worked either explicitly wherever the

9 strengths of the opponents are at par or high enough to challenge the existing

Panchayat or implicitly wherever they don’t have it. In few hamlets, the

Panchayats in existence were overthrown due to this conflict in asset distribution, whereas in some other hamlets a new consensus formula was worked out that incorporated the representatives of opponent groups.

The interest of the post-harvest area was largely ignored in the rush for fishing asset distribution. A large number of women are involved in fish vending, the merchants and commission agents and others who depended upon fishing, albeit indirectly, come in this category. Fear of the sea has translated into idleness of a section of the fishermen with the result that they prefer to be on land rather than go for fishing.

The increasing number of FRP boats brought for repair being reported from many fishing hamlets on the one hand exposes the low quality of newly given boats, while showing disproportionate power combination between the engines used and the capacity of the boats to absorb the increased vibrations.

The study includes the nature and extent of Tsunami in the study area, socio-economic conditions of fishermen families and find out the damages and losses of properties of fishermen community in Nagapattinam district. Hence the research is identifying the problems of fishermen livelihood in post-tsunami period in particular by selecting 15 villages in Nagapattinam district of

Tamilnadu.

1.4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The major objective of the present study is to analyze the impact on the livelihood of fishermen communities in Nagapattinam.

The following are the specific objectives

1. To analyze the socio-economic conditions and livelihood pattern of the

fishermen community.

2. To study the nature and extent of Tsunami in the study area.

3. To find out the damages and losses of life and properties of fishermen

community.

4. To study and examine the relief packages offered by the Government

and NGOs.

5. To identify the constraints and problems faced by fishermen in the study

area and suggest suitable remedies.

1.5. HYPOTHESES

The present study is carried out with the purpose of testing following hypotheses.

1. Expenditure on food is independent among the respondents’ income.

2. Expenditure on fuel is independent of the respondents’ income through

different methods of fish catching.

3. Expenditure on medical is independent among the respondents’ income.

4. Expenditure on social function is independent among respondents’

income.

5. Number of FRP boats and income of the respondents are independent.

6. Income and expenditure are independent among the respondents.

7. Occupational status and amount of saving among the respondents are

independent.

8. Number of fish catchers by craft-wise before and after Tsunami are

independent.

9. Number of fish catchers in catamaran is influenced by Tsunami.

10. Number of fish catchers by vallam before and after Tsunami is same.

1.6. METHODOLOGY 1.6.1. Sample Selection

The study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected from sample respondents in the Akkaraipettai, Nambiyar

Nagar, Kallar, Arkattuthurai, Kameswaram, Pushpavanam, Seruthur,

Vellapallam, Keechankuppam, Samanthanpettai, Vanavan Mahadevi,

Velankanni, Vizhunthanmavadi, Kodiyakarai, Pattinacherry selected villages of

Nagapattinam district. To select sample for the survey, the stratified random sampling technique is used in this study. Based on the number of villages which were affected in Tsunami in Nagapattinam district is stratified first.

Secondly, random sampling technique is used to select both fishermen villages as well as to select the sample respondents. Out of 51 villages, 15 villages were selected and from each village, 15-20 fishermen were selected randomly and were approached personally by the researcher with well structured schedule. A

12 pretested schedule was prepared and information was collected from 150 respondents with proper addition and scheduled interview.

This study is aimed at exploring various aspects of impact of Tsunami on livelihood pattern of fishermen communities in Nagapattinam district of

Tamilnadu. To have equal distribution, 150 samples were collected for the study. 15 villages were selected based on the principle of representation from traditional fishing dominant hamlets, mechanized fishing dominant hamlets and hamlets having strong presence of both traditional and mechanized fishing practices along with their geographical location.

The interview schedule is divided into four parts. In the first part of the schedule, the general information questions and statements regarding the view points of the impact of Tsunami and its immediate consequences. The second part of the schedule consists of damages due to Tsunami apart from the loss of life, Tsunami caused heavy damage to property as well in addition to human loss, all kinds of boats, catamarans, FRP boats and mechanized boats were smashed by waves and suffered irreparable damage. The third part of the schedule is on the sources of income, assets and livelihood condition of fishermen communities. The final part of the schedule consists, the distribution of relief materials and amount directly by Government, NGOs and voluntary organizations at the Tsunami affected villages. The secondary data needed for the study were collected from Journals and Magazines from various institutions and agencies. Published materials, internet and the following institutions are also important sources for collecting the secondary data.

(i) District Collectorate Office, Nagapattinam.

(ii) Directorate of Fisheries, Tamil Nadu.

(iii) Tamilnadu Directorate of Fisheries Office, Teynampet, Chennai.

(iv) NGOs Co-ordination and Resource Centre (NCRC), Nagapattinam.

(v) Marine Products Export Development Agency (MPEDA), Thanjavur.

(vi) Office of the Assistant Director of Fisheries, Nagapattinam.

(vii) Civil Society Organization (CSO) in the Fishery sector of Nagapattinam.

(viii) Churches Auxiliary for Social Action (South Zone), (CASA) Nagapattinam.

(ix) Office of the Assistant Director of Fisheries, Nagapattinam.

(x) Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), Cochin.

(xi) Social Need Education and Human Awareness (SNEHA), Nagapattinam.

1.6.2. Area of Study

Dissertation highlights fishermen families lives, their activities and impact of Tsunami with their fishing business. Hence it is apt to select

Nagapattinam district to study the effect of Tsunami.

The study focuses at 15 villages in Nagapattinam district of Tamilnadu

1. Akkaraipettai 2. Nambiyar nagar

3. Arkattuthurai 4. Kallar

5. Kameswaram 6. Keechankuppam

7. Pushpavanam 8. Samanthanpettai

9. Seruthur 10. Vanavan Mahadevi

11. Vellapallam 12. Velankanni

13. Vizhunthanmavadi 14. Pattinacherry

15. Kodiyakarai

1.7. PERIOD OF THE STUDY

This study analyses the impact of Tsunami on livelihood condition of fishermen based on the secondary data for the period from 1998-99 to

2010-2011. The primary data collection was carried out in the selected villages during the year 2009-10. This period of the study was normal, free from abnormalities in climatic and monsoon conditions.

1.8. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES

Descriptive Statistics like frequency, percentage calculated to present the profit of the variables in the study. The association between any two factors was carried out with cross tabulation analysis and statistical significance of the association between two factors is tested with non-parametric statistical tools such as Simple regression, Chi-square test, t-test, ANOVA test for variable (factor) with more than two groups. In order to find out the statistical significance of the difference in mean perception scores of the respondents groups, F test was applied.

To analyze the data the following Statistical tools were applied

1. Simple Regression model

2. Correlation

3. Chi-square test

4. ANOVA test

5. t-test

1.8.1. Regression

Regression analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of relationships between variables. Regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables.

The simple regression equation of Y on X is,

Y-Y=byx( X-X) where 1 ()() cor() X,Y Σ X-X Y-Y byx = = N () 1 2 V X Σ()X - X N

1.8.2. Correlation

Correlation is a measure of the relation between two or more variables.

The correlation coefficient (r) represents the linear relationship between two variables. In order to evaluate the correlation between variables, it is important to know this "magnitude" or "strength" as well as the significance of the correlation. The significance level calculated for each correlation is a primary source of information about the reliability of the correlation.

Correlation coefficient between the related variables X and Y is, 1 ()() cov( X,Y ) Σ X-X Y-Y r = = N V()() X .V Y 12  1 2  Σ()X - X × Σ()Y - Y N  N 

1.8.3. ANOVA

The Friedman ANOVA is similar to the parametric repeated measures

ANOVA used to detect difference in treatments across multiple test attempts.

The heart of analysis variance lies in the following fact: If the groups are random samples from the same population, the two variances within and between are unbiased estimates of the same population variance, the test for the significance of the difference of the two types by the use of F test. The analysis of variance techniques is used, the following assumptions should be met.

1. The individuals in the various sub groups should be selected on the basis

of random sampling from normally distributed population.

2. The variance of the subgroups should be homogeneous.

3. The samples comprising the groups should be independent.

The F-ratio can be calculated as follows:

2 SB The F-ratio = 2 SW where SB 2 = Between group variance

SW 2 = Within group variance

1.8.4. Chi-square test or χ2 test

Chi square test is applied in Statistics to test the goodness of fit to verify the distribution of observed data with assumed theoretical distribution. It is measure to study the divergence of actual and expected frequencies .

The test statistics is,

2 2 4 (O - E ) 2 ij ij χ2 α χ C = ∑∑ ~ -distribution with (R – 4) (C – 1) d.f. at % level i=1 j=1 Eij

1.8.5. Paired t-test

To test the statistical significance of the difference between two population means of dependent groups, paired t-test is applied. In practice the observations are taken paired wise before and after.

The test statistics is,

|d|× n tc = ~ t-distribution with (n – 1) d.f. at α% level. S where

2 Σ()d - d S = n -1

d = X1 – X2

Σd d = n

1.9. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The study was done based upon informations collected orally from the fishermen communities, some facts may not be true to the fullest extent. Out of

51 coastal villages of Nagapattinam, the study is confined only to 15 villages limiting the sample size to 150 fishermen households.

The value of input and output mentioned here are subject to change. The total damages, loss of lives, sources of income of fishermen and the distribution of relief materials and amount may vary. It is very difficult to cover all damages, infrastructural facilities offered by Government and NGOs. There is an amount of censorship exerted by the traditional Panchayat representatives in providing information, which may affect the judgments of this study.

1.10. CHAPTER SCHEME

Chapter I is the Introductory one that gives a brief introduction about the present study, statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses, limitations and chapter scheme.

Chapter II , Reviews earlier research work related to fisheries and impact of

Tsunami on the livelihood pattern of fishermen and about natural disasters.

Chapter III deals with the Profile of the study area.

Chapter IV is devoted to explain the level of fish catch before and after

Tsunami at Nagapattinam District.

Chapter V analyzed the socio-economic and the livelihood conditions of the fishermen communities.

Chapter VI covers the findings, problems faced by fishermen, suggestions and conclusion.

Chapter – II

Review of Literature 19

CHAPTER – II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of earlier research in the area of fisheries is a pre requisite to plan this study in the proper perspective. It is an essential task to understand existing literature on fisheries and allied sectors. This will help the researcher to have an in-depth idea on the important issues on fisheries. Various literatures are reviewed in order to device a suitable methodology for analyzing the Tsunami impact on the livelihood pattern of fishermen of Nagapattinam district. Present chapter brings for the related literature, which is divided into two parts. First part deals with the existing literature on socio-economic conditions of fishermen and the second half shows the literature on Tsunami.

Fisheries economics emerged as an important field of research after the

Second World War. Till then, studies relating to fisheries were almost completely confined to social aspects of fisheries. The third world countries interest in fisheries was aroused in 50s and 60s of 20 th century when most such countries embarked upon ambitious schemes of economic development. At this juncture, world development agencies like UNO through FAO took active interest in the development of fisheries as it turned out to be potential source of food and nutrition for the rapidly growing population of the world.

2.1. REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS OF FISHERIES The review presents the socio-economic environment in which most of fishermen live. The review highlights the importance of the socio-economic programmes on economic life of the fishermen community.

Selvaraj (1975) on behalf of the Madras Institute of Development

Studies has undertaken a socio-economic study of small fishermen in

Tamilnadu. The sample size was 125 of 50,000 families spread over in seven districts of the State. The study found that the landings by the catamarans are poor and inadequate to maintain the small fishing families even at the subsistence level. They are exploited by the motor-boat owners. The co-operative societies serve only the motor-boat owners and are not beneficial to small fishermen. There is a wide and widening divergence between motor- boat owners and catamaran fishermen in respect of their income levels. This is due to the varying productivity of their crafts.

Joan Galtung (1975) has analyzed the implications of capital intensive nature of fishing technology on primitive fishermen. He found that the new technology in fishing had benefited only a few and accentuated inequality of income and living conditions of the fishermen. He also doubted that the impact of new technology on small fishermen.

Panikkar and Alagaraj (1981) analyzed the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen at the Puthappa-Putiangadi region in Kozhikode district. This study revealed that there were clear improvements in the socio-economic

21 conditions of the fishermen. It also recognized the prevalence of the indebtedness among the fishermen households.

Sathiadhas and Venkataraman (1981) studied the impact of mechanised fishing on the socio-economic condition of the fishermen of

Sakthikulangar-Neendakara area of Kerala. This study found that there was an improvement in housing, literacy, employment, infrastructure, production, exports and earnings of the region. It, however, recognized the rise in the level of indebtedness of the fishermen households which was attributed to the bank loans taken by the households for purchase of fishing vessels. The study further pointed out the lack of a fishing harbour as the major constraint affecting the development of the project area.

Rao (1983) analyzed the fishery resources, earning of fishing boats, fish marketing and management. He had also reviewed the socio-economic conditions of fishermen and the role of co-operative societies. He had advocated the formation of co-operatives societies to play a significant role in acquiring fishing boats, marketing and loans settlement.

Saxena (1984) studied the management aspects of shrimp fishery with particular reference to India in 1984. According to him, the Indian shrimp fishery after 1975 has been experiencing a decline, which has been substantiated by reduction in catch per unit effort. In the light of the decline of the Indian shrimp fishery, three types of tools to manage the same has been suggested:

(i) an exhaustive techno-economic survey should be undertaken to study

the production, processing and marketing costs, margins, practices and

channels. along with the socio-economic conditions to the local

fishermen in order to provide alternative employment opportunities and

financial compensation,

(ii) the type of management tools includes regulatory measures and

(iii) relate to the encouragement of shrimp culture.

Bennet and Arumugam (1987) in their paper revealed that the traditional fishermen operation indigenous crafts and gears along the Tuticorin coast were greatly benefited by mechanization of Tuticorin type of boats. The benefits of introduction of motors to the traditional crafts were much. It saved time in reaching the fishing ground and returning to the shore. The vagaries of wind and current were overcome to a large extent and the fish could be reached to the market in time to fetch higher prices.

However, the socio-economic conditions placed the traditional sector no a lower footing than the fully mechanized industrial sector. A significant improvement in the socio-economic structure of the traditional sector was the creation of mechanization to the existing crafts. It was partial mechanization in its true sense the fitting of motors to the boats added new dimension in the exploitation of fishery resources.

Srinath Krishna (1988) conducted a study on the efficiency of the technology based on the perception of fishermen of their present and future

23 status in relation to their living conditions prior to motorization. The study was conducted in Vypeenkara during August-October 1985. From the study, it was concluded that motorization can be instrumental in bringing about significant changes in the living conditions of fishermen and their outlook and inculcating the spirit of unity and co-operation among them. The fishermen in general felt that their status has improved as a result of motorization and were more optimistic about their future.

John Kurien (1990) made an attempt to study the impact of new technology introduced into Kerala’s fishing over the past three decades of fisheries development planning. The period from 1956-1966 considered being the slow phase of modernization, from 1976-1980 as the rapid period of modernization.

After 1980, it was a dilemma phase of modernization. He observed that in the slow modernization phase (1956-66) the step was taken to upgrade the existing traditional technologies. The efforts were taken to supply wood for traditional boats, cotton for nets and setting up of fish curing yards for processing. Secondly there was the introduction of small mechanized gill nets boats. By the mid 1960’s the efforts of the Indo Norwegian Project showed that it was possible to exploit the coastal prawn resources more efficiently by using small mechanized boats fitted with more powerful engines and bottom trawl nets in order to cater the international market which would earn foreign exchange. Attention was focused on techniques like freezing and canning.

Despite the continued rapid introduction of new trawlers, there was an around decline in the growth of fish production.

Pauly (1994) has given a brief review of the demersal and pelagic fisheries of Southeast Asia, with emphasis on biological and socio-economic factors (such as, the presence of inshore shrimp stocks and mass unemployment respectively) and which tend to promote over-exploitation of marine fish resources. It is shown that several models routinely used by fishery biologists to assess Southeast Asian fish stocks tend to lead to management advice that is less conservative than warranted. Straightforward remedies exist for the latter set of problems. On the other hand, non-traditional approaches will have to be identified to deal with problems related to resource over-exploitation.

Ahmed (1996) analyzed the commercial, economic and even some social activities in Bangladesh. The family arrangement in the village is invariably unequal in terms of sharing the burden of housework and childcare.

The males remain engaged in fishing and non-fishing activities for 8-10 hours a day, while the housewives are busy for almost 15 hours a day, on the average in maintaining the entire household. Even then, the society shows utmost reluctance to recognize their selfless sacrifice to the family. A housewife may often be subjected to physical punishment by the husband for minor faults or squabbles. Even if housewives earn some money through income-generating activities like poultry raising and milk cow rearing in many cases, they do not possess the freedom to spend the money for themselves or even for something of their own choice.

Tewari, Acharya and Singh (1997) described the findings of a macro-level study and a participatory appraisal study of demographic characteristics of fishing communities in India, carried out in the context of the project strengthening of research and training in population and development dynamics of rural fishing communities. The marine fishing fleet, marine fisher-folk population, marine fish production, coastal environmental problems, and perceptions and views of the fisher-folk are outlined. Findings indicate that production has increased along with the increase in the number of fishermen and boats. However, overexploitation, deterioration in environment quality, fall in catch per unit effort, high price of fuel and equipment, and high labour and service charges are detrimental to the rate of growth of fisheries. It is concluded that proper management of resources and judicious exploitation are necessary.

Panda (1997) examined that, the industry was developed solely by the traditional community of fishermen for centuries, prior to independence the fisheries development programmed in the state, the improvement of socio-economic status of poor fishermen who have remained poverty stricken for centuries while the traders and middlemen flourished at their cost. The socio- economic life of fishermen has low per capita income, mounting indebtedness, inadequate possession of fishing crafts and gears, poor social and educational standards. Indian Fishermen Co-operative Federation as the Apex society, new PFCs in marine, inland and chilka area were started their

26 membership increased. The present state of affairs may be ascribed to ineffective and poor management of societies, lack of timely and proper supervision and control by the government agencies and political interference.

Paarada (1998) emphasized the human resources needs in agriculture and particularly in fishery sector was a very high priority and an HRD project had been started under World Bank. It was emphasized that the resources must be used responsibly so that future generation will not be affected adversely.

Development of work force for fisheries sector with greater accent on developing their professional competency was highly stressed upon. It was also suggested to constitute a team of experienced Management Institutes to chalk out the details of course contents, suggest ways for development of course manuals to take care of these management courses in fisheries. The harvest and post harvest technology emphasize was laid on responsible fishing and value added ready to eat or ready to cook fishery products. Responsible fishing combined with responsible trade was stated as the best option for sustainable fishery in the 21 st Century.

Thampy (1998) studied, the poor development of fisheries education at the university level was that fisheries and fishery related courses were offered only at Post Graduate level in few Arts / Science universities whereas the courses in agriculture and veterinary sciences 2. The fisheries education in

India, though rather well organized and developed is not fully geared to meet the requirements and challenges faced by this sector at present. The Central

Institutes namely, the CIFE, CMFRI and CIFT conduct several Post Graduate and in service training course on inland and marine fisheries aspects. In India all the fishery related ICAR Central Institutes have extension units. This unit are headed and dominated by scientists the basic degrees from agriculture, veterinary and dairying sciences. This is because only 25 percent of the generated technologies by the fisheries research system is being utilized by the fishermen and fish farmers.

Paroda (1998) while the speaking in a seminar on ‘Vision on Indian

Fisheries of 21 st Century’. Fish export worth one million US dollar constitute one-third of the total export of the country. India has several favourable factors to improve this growth in this sector and with good manpower training the quality of the export product can also be improved ICAR was also planning to introduce a department of at-least a subject on fisheries at the post graduate and undergraduate level in the universities and had already introduced two extra courses from this center for fisheries education.

Chennubhotla et al. (1999) have conducted a study about the different kinds of non-mechanised and mechanised crafts used and gear employed along the Andhra Pradesh coast. They have observed that until the middle of 1960’s fishing for marine finfishes and shellfishes along the Andhra Pradesh coast used to be carried out by employing indigenous non-mechanised crafts.

Subsequently, trawlers and later mechanised vessels operating gillnets came into use which resulted in the increased fish production. Use of outboard

28 engine on indigenous crafts for reaching fishing grounds is a recent feature of near the coast fishing.

Devaraj (1999) applauded the dramatic advances in Indian marine fisheries for the past 50 years. He observed certain problems of the fishery sector like socio-economic problems and clashes between the traditional and mechanized fishermen. The author found that all along the Indian coast commercial shrimp hatcheries and growouts have come up. The CRZ rules and regulations have helped to evolve eco-friendly and diverse aquaculture practices. Further, the investment climate is ripe enough for rapid growth in certain key sectors such as oceanic fisheries and sea farming.

Maarten Bavinck (2001) in his study on Caste Panchayats and the regulation of fisheries along Tamilnadu’s Coromandal Coast has considered the ramifications of non-state panchayat action in the field of marine resource management. He investigated how fishermen panchayats are involved in regulating access to and usage of fish resource, and also examined the mechanization regulation and other occupational settings. His main point of contention is that the establishment of a strong mechanized boat fishing sector and state involvement in the fishery field are now putting caste panchayat under pressure. However, panchayats continue to play a critical role in whatever resource management is taking place.

Kishor Samal (2002) examined, the fish economy of the Chillka Lake underwent a series of dramatic changes from the early 1990. Liberalization that

29 boosted exports and modernized techniques has also seen shifts in the Chllika

Lease Policy and the entry for the first time of non-fishermen into the shrimp culture industry. The infrastructure facility for education and healthy delivery is poor in the villages. The month of December 2001 the fishermen of Chilka started agitation against these illegal and unauthorized shrimp culture in the lake. The government of Orissa has recently banned shrimp culture in Chilika.

The non-fishermen in the area are demanding the continuance of shrimp culture.

Shiyani (2002) has made an analysis on district-wise and species-wise growth and instability of marine fisheries in Gujarat. It has been concluded from the study that relative share of Junagadh, Kutch and Jamnagar districts in the total marine fish production of the state increased substantially over a period of time, whereas a drastic decline in the case of Valsad and Amreli districts was noticed. The instability indices were comparatively higher during

1970-80 in all the districts except Kutch, Amreli and Jamnagar. The compound growth rates of fish production of almost all the species were positive and significant. It has been suggested that awareness campaign among the fishermen on the importance of mesh size regulation would be useful for the sustainable benefit of marine fisheries in the long run. The Government should take necessary steps to enforce sea law demarcating different fishing grounds for different craft gear combination which will help maintaining socio- economic balance instead of creating socio-economic conflicts among the fishermen.

2.2. THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE DISCUSSED UNDER VARIOUS HEADS AT MACRO LEVEL BEFORE TSUNAMI

Singh and Gupta (1983) conducted a study on marine fish marketing, and fisheries development in India in the year 1983. They pointed out that the transportation of fish is very inefficient in India. Due to inadequate transportation, no fresh fish is available in potential markets located away from the landing centres, whereas surplus fish at harbours is being sent to fish meal plants. Further, it has been observed that the catches of certain varieties like sardines and mackerels are landed in a large quantity in fishing season which results in the glut at producing centres.

Desai (1986) found that, fishery has an important role to play in the farm sector of rural India. There is huge potential in India of fish crop, which is also useful not only for supplementing income but also for improving nutritional standard because of high protein content and minerals in fish. Fish catching especially in the case of inland fishery is highly labour-intensive activity and can provide employment to a vast number of people in rural areas.

Fish is also good foreign exchange earner. Fish is a rapidly renewable resource and almost inexhaustible. But marine fishing requires careful harvesting and improvements in techniques of catching.

Joshi (1987) emancipated that the fishing is seasonal industry in India, in the sea as well as in freshwater regarding sea fish, and the season starts more or less simultaneously after the conclusion of the south-west monsoon and reaches its height in some years in October, other in November. The fisher

31 people play only a small part in the actual distribution of fish from their catches except to the creditors. The fishermen in most parts of the country are practically the middlemen. Fish and fish products are highly perishable. The fishermen made to dispose of stocks as quickly as possible even at a small margin of profit. The traditional fish marketing system and methods followed in our country have to be organized on efficient lines. Adoption of better marketing practices would primarily help the fishermen to get a better price for their product.

James (1990) had studied the total marine potential and the average production in the mechanized and traditional fishery sector. According to him the coastal area had been more or less fished at optimum level. But the potential in off-shore and deep sea fishing had not been fully tapped. He suggested that for joint ventures with countries having expertise in high sea fishing for tapping the vast off-shore and deep sea fishery resources.

Shukla (1990) examined the basic characteristics of the Indian fishery sector and stated that the continuation of the Indian fisheries to world fisheries was just 3 percentage even though investment to employment ratio was very high. According to him, necessary provisions were to be made with regard to infrastructure, technological, financial, and managerial, policy strategy and other such inputs. A correct National Fishery Policy was to be evolved.

Biswall (1993) found that the fisheries are divided into three types inland fisheries, estuarine and back water fisheries and marine fisheries.

Marine fisheries including the coastal fisheries and off shore and deep sea fisheries emerge as the most important source of fishing in India. India is the world’s seventh largest producer of fish. The government has taken a number of steps to boost the export of marine products. It is encouraging that the Indian entrepreneurs to go for technical and financial collaboration with foreign fishing companies to exploit the natural resources in a better way.

Vedavyasa Rao and Sriramachandra Murthy (1993) have elaborately discussed various controversies and complexities in management of inshore fishery resources of India. The management measures adopted in the country can be considered as successful. Taking into various complexities of issues in management of fishery resources such as heavy fishing pressure in the inshore fisheries of the country, its impact on sustainability of resource and deepening conflicts among the resources users, they put-forth the following suggestions in policy making:

(a) provide increased role to the local or regional fishing corn unities in the

formulation of regulatory measures and their managerial responsibility.

(b) ensure positive access in favor of local fishing communities.

careful regulation of fishing effort and restrictions on gears and

(d) incorporate a system of fishing zones within the regional management

scheme transmitting the conflict to co-existence or even symbiosis.

Divedi (1993) analyzed, that the increasing population, thereby increasing pressure on agricultural land led to search for alternate source of food, and this turned the attention to the water resources and fisheries development for tapping utilized and underutilized water resources for higher production and productivity through scientific methods of agriculture for ushering in a Blue Revolution. Fish is a high protein food. A female carp lays about 2 lakhs eggs per year, each of which has the potential to become in one year a fish weighing 1 kg. The supply is wide with good prospects for entrepreneur to enter into fish farming as an occupation to uplift the socio economic conditions of rural poor.

Srivasta (1993) identified that the fishery sector along with sea food and ancillary industries are providing gainful employment to over 4 million people offering immense employment opportunities. In terms of India’s export earning it contributed to the extent of Rs.1,767 crore during the year 1992-93.

Fish are either consumed fresh or preserved to maintain its palatability and nutritive value. A large number of value added fish product both for export and internal market have also been identified and the technology for their production is available. The value addition not only makes food convenient for consumption and increase life of product but also converts low value fish into high value product with consumer acceptance.

Suresh Kumar (1995) found that the fisheries sector occupies an important place in Indian economy. This sector along with sea food and

34 ancillary industries provides employment to over four million people. With a vast coastline of 6,000 km and inland waters of over 1.4 million hectares, the fishing industry in India has a bright future. Also the growing consumption of fishery products the world over has not kept pace with production. Fishing sector have traditional coastal fishing, deep sea fishing, inland fisheries, lakes ponds, river sources, aquaculture, comprising brackish water aquaculture and fresh water aquaculture, reservoir fisheries, integrated fish culture with crops.

India was the fifth largest producer of shrimp in 1980 contributing

15 per cent of the worlds shrimp catch. The percentage came down to

9 per cent in 1990-91, prominent shrimp producing countries are, China,

Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, India and Singapore. 75 per cent of the world’s shrimp production comes from Asia. The fish exports rose sharply from Rs.8.67 billion in 1990-91 to Rs.17.67 billion in 1992-93 marine products are becoming an important source of foreign exchange for the country. The government has taken several measures in the past to step up fish production.

These include de licensing of the industry and lifting of restrictions on foreign investment.

Sathya Sundaram (1995) discussed that, India is endowed with a long coastline and hence offers ample scope for the large scale exploitation of marine wealth, marine products are capable of earning substantial foreign exchange. Fishermen started concentrating on catching prawns as these have high export value. The Indian sea food industry mainly depends for its raw

35 material for export production on the traditional and nontraditional fishing sectors which together contribute about 86 per cent of the total export. The sea food processing industry is a diversified and decentralized one. The sea food processing units have been mainly located in and around the fish landing centers.

Vijayan (1995) reported that, the small scale fishing communities in developing countries is community-evolved mechanisms to ensure that the resources, livelihood opportunities and revenues from the common property fishery are spread as widely as possible in the whole community. He also examines the case of an income spreading mechanism which has been practiced in the coastal encircling net fishery of India for about half a century and increasingly common pattern of state patronage of rural product. Often combined to create open access conditions in Common Property Resources and thus put eminently desirable communitarian system of sharing and caring under great strain. In India the social relations of production in the small scale sector are shaped more by non-economic factors. The ownership patterns of division of labour and sharing system assures more distributive justice in income and more equal access to fish resources. The larger number of fishermen therefore in effect reduced the income of the working fishermen.

Goyal (1997) found out that, the farmers had realized that fish farming was more remunerative than agricultural farming and the state was gearing up for blue revolution. It was imperative that fish was integrated with commercial

36 farming. The development of fisheries in running canals and development of fisheries in brackish water is given equal priority.

Salagrarna (1997) explained the experience of a firm established in

1996 in Orissa in marketing of dried fish. The firm (oriental dry fish industries) engaged in processing of fish hygienically into high-quality products in order to get high price than that of traditionally processed fish. The firm marketed its product in the North-Eastern region since the market price in that region was more than three times the price elsewhere. But the firm took risks such as:

(i) high transportation costs

(ii) uncertainties in transporting to the distant markets through hilly terrain

(iii) delays in getting payment for the products and

(iv) prevailing instability and tension in the area because of terrorism. The

experience made the firm to search for other markets, as it is essential to

cater to local markets before dealing with distant markets that seem

lucrative but loaded with risks.

George Mathew (1997) evaluated the project jointly undertaken by the

PHFP and the KDFSF on commercial operation for marketing rack-dried anchovies on a pilot scale in the year 1992 in Kanyakumari district. The main aim of the project was to promote the use drying racks for drying anchovies in order to avoid the physical and value losses sustained by Kanyakumari district fishermen through sand-drying of anchovies. The rack dried fish got good prices 10 times more than that of sand-drying fish because of its high quality,

37 but the market potential is very limited. Only the metropolitan markets of

Chennai and Hyderabad require such a superior quality product. Even though, the project's planning, problem shooting and precautionary foresight were just right, but failed in its effort to market the anchovy product on its own and replace the middlemen since the anchovy fishery collapsed in 1994.

Consequently, two years after the project wound up the anchovy-drying activity. But one positive outcome is that some individual fishermen have taken up rack-drying of anchovies. The rack-drying fishes will definitely get high prices for its high quality than that of sand-drying fish.

Sutton (1998) in his article presented a series of necessary reforms and suggested how by working together, conservationists, scientists, fishers, industry and Governments can help shape the future of world fisheries. WWF and Unilever Corporation have taken the first step by launching the Marine

Stewardship Council, an innovative plan to bring market forces and the power of consumer choice to bear in favour of sustainable, well managed fisheries. If marine fish populations are to be sustained-both as an important source of food and as a vital component of ecosystems-increased public support and consumer power must be used to create social, economic, and political incentives for fishing that is both sustainable and clean. That will not be easy, fish neither sing like whales nor look like pandas. But the stakes are high, the future of the world's fisheries their associated marine ecosystems and the millions of people that depend on them for food and employment.

Devadasan (2003) has given an account of a good potential for India to increase its share in international fish trade by exporting value added fish products. It has been concluded that most of the market channels currently used are not suitable to trade value added products. A new and an appropriate channel would be the super market chain, which would want to procure directly from the source of supply. Appearance, packaging and display are all important factors leading to successful marketing of any new value added product. The retail pack must be clean, crisp and clear and make the contents appear attractive to the consumer. The customer must be given confidence to experiment with a new product launched in the market.

2.3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED ON TSUNAMI DISASTER

A tremendous shift took place after the destructive Tsunami that struck over South Asia on 26 th of December 2004 causing severe damage to the lives and livelihoods of fisheries.

Aarthi Sridhar (2005) analysed the Tsunami of December 2004 in the

Indian Ocean affected the state of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and the Union Territory of Pondicherry on the mainland Indian coast and had a major impact on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Tsunami caused a water level rise all over the Indian coast with inundation of coastal lands ranging from between 300 meters to 3 kms inland. Destruction was of a serious nature and meant loss of lives and damage to property in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the southern Bay of Bengal coast from Southern Andhra

Pradesh halfway down Tamilnadu, Kanyakumari district on the Southern extreme of the Arabian Sea and a small stretch of coastline bordering the

Quilon-Alleppey districts in Kerala on the Arabian sea coast of the above four areas, the areas with major impacts are clearly the first three other than the

Nicobar group of islands and several parts of the Andaman Islands, the badly affected districts are on the mainland Nagapattinam, Cuddalore and

Kanyakumari.

Monica Escaleras (2005) identified the mega thrust earthquake centered near Sumatra, generated a Tsunami that resulted in an estimated

150,000 deaths in Indonesia alone. In response, commitments have been made to extend the existing Tsunami early warning systems in the Pacific to the remainder of the world subject to Tsunamis. Important in determining a

Tsunami’s death toll, such as socioeconomic condition to be important in other natural disasters.

Tsunamis have plagued humankind for as long as written records exist.

Their devastating potential was made clear to all in December 2004 when an estimated 2,90,000 lives were lost, primarily in Indonesia, as a massive

Tsunami rolled through that region. While Tsunamis are most common in the

"Ring of Fire" of the Pacific basin, any site near a large body of water may be subject to their wrath. Since the mid-1940s, attempts have been made to mitigate the effects of Tsunamis through the creation of early warning systems.

The first of these was established by the U.S. Government and initially covered

40 most of the northern Pacific region. Since that time, the U.S. system in the

Pacific has been expanded and refined and other countries, most notably Japan, the Soviet Union / Russia, and Chile, have developed and deployed their own warning systems.

Laura Roper (2005) examined this deadliest natural disaster in recorded history, with twelve countries directly affected. Two of the hardest-hit areas Aceh on the island of Sumatra and Eastern Sri Lanka were immersed in violent civil conflicts, adding additional obstacles to an already complex crisis.

The world’s response to this tragedy was unprecedented, and donations from all public and private sources topped US $ 13.4 billion. US-based private foundations and grant making public charities were among the many donors to step forward with financial support. Yet even for the most experienced of grant makers, the enormous scope of this catastrophe posed an array of decision-making challenges.

Beth Green Hough et al. (2005) claimed the lives of least 2,90,000 people and displaced a further 1.1 million in the region. Intense and sustained global media coverage of the immediate aftermath ensured that the destruction, loss and pain of distant strangers were never far from the minds and eyes of people the world over. Like most in those following months, geographers around the world were deeply affected, both personally and subsequently professionally as well. Nearly one year on, although the disaster has slipped a little from the media’s attention, in most of the affected areas the work of

41 rebuilding lives, resources, homes and understandings goes on and will continue to do so for many years to come. The magnitude of the Indian Ocean

Tsunami brings sharply into focus the necessity for such holistic engagements with a lively and volatile world that refuse the most persistent efforts to be obstinately categorized as either human or physical. Despite geography’s institutional infrastructure within academies, its unique position as a discipline that straddles the social and physical sciences positions it will to offer such a response.

Narayan (2005) observed that, the Tsunami caused severe damage and claimed many victims in the coastal areas of eleven countries bordering the

Indian Ocean. The damage survey revealed large variation in damage along the coastal region of Tamilnadu (India). The most severe damage was observed in the Nagapattinam district on the east coast and the west coast of

Kanyakumari district. Distress of damage from Nagapattinam to Kanchipuram district was observed. Intense damage again appeared to the north of Adyar

River. Almost, no damage was observed along the coast of Thanjavur,

Puddukkotai and Ramanathapuram districts in Palk Strait, situated in the shadow zone of Sri Lanka. It was concluded that the width of continental shelf has played a major role in the pattern of Tsunami damage. During the damage survey, it was also noted that there was almost no damage or much lesser damage to houses situated on or behind the Mede. Many people observed the first arrival. The largest Tsunami amplitude occurred as the first arrival on the eastern coast and in the second arrival on the western coast.

Ram Kumar and Sasi Kumar (2005) attributed that, in Nagapattinam many of those who had lost loved ones are in a state of despair, their desperate plight compounded by the slow-moving response of state and federal government. About 4,000 to 5,000 people, including traders from the neighbouring state of Kerala, come to Keechankuppam fish market every

Sunday. At least 4,000 people would have been killed when the waves hit,

People can live if the government provided them with at least half that sum, but they don’t believe that it is going to give them the required compensation. Ten days after tidal waves hit south India on December 26 th , corpses were still being recovered from the sand and wreckage in Nagapttinam district when

World Socialist Web Site reporters visited the area on January 6. Eight thousand people in the district were killed by the Tsunami, most of them from poor fishing families, 73 villages were damaged, 36,860 houses smashed and

1,96,184 people seriously affected. The tidal waves also destroyed around

10,200 fishing vessels and damaged another 893 boats. Over 10,500 families are now living in temporary accommodation in the Seruthur, Poompuhar and

Nagapattinam areas. According to official figures released on January 20,

India’s Tsunami death toll has risen to 16,413 with the number of confirmed deaths at 10,744 and 5,669 people reported missing, presumed dead. India’s home ministry has estimated total damage from the Tsunami to be $ 1.6 billion.

Wilder-Smith (2005) reported that, the World Health Organization has warned that in the aftermath of the recent tsunami, infectious disease outbreaks will add to the heavy toll of the disaster itself, possibly even doubling the

43 number of casualties. The risks of infectious disease outbreaks following natural disasters have been overemphasized and have led to unnecessary and potentially harmful public health activities. Infectious disease outbreaks, if any, will most likely be the consequence of post-tsunami camp situations involving large displaced populations rather than the tidal wave itself. Lessons have been learned from previous large-scale humanitarian crises about the provision of aid and the mitigation of epidemics. This examines the risk and preventive strategies of vector and food / water borne diseases, measles, acute respiratory infections.

Prathap Tharyan (2005) noted that the disaster of this magnitude raises the specter of epidemics of infectious diseases and many other potential healthcare problems. The working party, in consultation with all Cochrane entities and around 200 individuals from affected countries listed as contributors to the work of the Cochrane Collaboration, and members of other agencies such as the World Health Organization, Oxfam, and the publishers of BMJ’s Clinical

Evidence, drew up a list of over 200 interventions considered relevant to health care in the aftermath of the Tsunami.

Takashi Kume et al. (2005) analysed that, the Tsunami of 26 th

December 2004 struck the Nagapattinam district, Tamilnadu, India sea water inundation from the Tsunami caused stalinization problems for soil and groundwater in coastal areas of the district, and also induced salt injuries in crops. To document the recovery of agricultural environment from the

Tsunami, they conducted observation of the soil, groundwater, and vegetation.

Soil electrical conductivity increased sharply after the Tsunami, but returned to pre-tsunami levels in the following year. Groundwater salinity returned to pre-tsunami levels by 2006. These rapid rates of recovery were due to the monsoon rainfall leaching salt from the highly permeable soils in the area.

The important management implications for soil, groundwater, and vegetation are as follows:

1. due to the heavy monsoon rainfall and the high permeability of soils in

this region, anthropogenic inputs like fertilizer should be applied

carefully to minimize pollution, and the use of green manure is

recommended.

2. areas that were contaminated by sea water extended up to 1000 m from

the sea shore and over pumping of groundwater should be carefully

avoided to prevent inducing sea water intrusion, the impact assessment

in widespread paddy field areas like the Nagapattinam district.

Guha-sapir (2005) informed that, numerous studies have found that higher mortality rates from natural disasters than to occur in areas with the lowest socioeconomic conditions. The literature on earthquake risk factors suggests that individuals with lower socio-economic status may be more at risk of dying due to their greater exposure to environmental risk factors such as poor housing. Even when controlling for demographic, health and area characteristics, the risk of earthquake death increased with decreasing monthly

45 wage. Many houses and buildings along the coastal communities of the

Tsunami-affected countries were poorly constructed.

Poor construction compounds the threat of natural hazards, as their failure to withstand extreme wind and/or water forces raises the risk of injury and mortality for inhabitants. In post-cyclone studies in Bangladesh for example, death rates varied by the types of pre-cyclone housing, with the greatest death rates occurring for kutcha houses with tin roofs, followed by kutcha houses with thatched roofs. The death rate was low for pucca houses, while double-storied houses recorded no deaths.

Sonya Le Jeune (2005) noted that, the welfare of children depends on the ability of their parents to provide for them. Following the Tsunami many parents of children have lost their usual means of earning an income. People are currently in shock and relief operations are currently under way. At the moment most peoples initial and immediate needs are being met either through the relief effort of through their own strategies. To enable parents to retain their dignity and adequately feed and clothe their children, ensure they have appropriate health care and go to school, they need suitable livelihood opportunities which do not put either themselves of livelihoods within part of the affected south India coast to understand the economic impact of the

Tsunami.

Santhanam (2005) recognized the fault that, relates to the manner in which victims were identified affected families immediately after the Tsunami.

Soon after the Tsunami, every week there were more and more people

46 clamoring for relief. More personnel would have been engaged in enumeration exercise have identified sooner all the affected people, some of the complaints for instance, those relating to the exclusion of Dalits-could have been avoided the analysis the enumeration better and with the involvement of all categories of people. The second failing relates to the temporary shelters. Better structures for people with better planning. These shelters had to be constructed quickly since schools had to be reopened and Kalyana Mandapams (Marriage

Halls) had to be vacated.

Srivastava (2005) enumerated the Andaman and Nicobar Island popularly known as the Bay Islands are situated 1,200 km away from Indian mainland and are well known for their wide range of biodiversity. The dreaded

Tsunami hit the Island on 26 th December 2004 leading to devastation of livelihood, biodiversity, water and land resources. In post Tsunami scenario, the life of the people was devastated due to loss of natural resources and they were serving on the doles given by the government / NGO as relief measures and on their earlier savings with their self confidence levels at lowest level.

The government / NGO initiated work for Cash programme for providing livelihood to them through Cash for work programme. They felt that agriculture based on the damaged / degraded natural resources cannot provide them sustainable livelihood.

Chandrasekara Naidu (2005) examines the pressing challenges faced by survivors of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in the Indian state of

Tamilnadu. Most of the Tsunami deaths and destruction in the country occurred

47 in this area. Living near the coast depends on the sea directly or indirectly for their livelihood and the destruction of their communities presents several important challenges for rebuilding. In Tamilnadu directly affects the manner in which relief and reconstruction are conducted and, critically, who is served and who is excluded in this process.

The social structure of these community-highly hierarchical based on caste status excludes subordinated castes and tribes from access to emergency relief. In addition, distribution of assistance from the state is politicized, lacks transparency, and results in discrimination against or exclusion of eligible survivors. Finally, reconstruction after the Tsunami offers a unique opportunity to rebuild communities to address underlying social inequities and to strengthen human rights protections for vulnerable groups.

Zoltan Grossman (2005) observed that, after the devastating Tsunami struck the coastal regions of the eastern Indian Ocean, families grew apprehensive as fathers, husbands and sons did not return home from the ocean.

Communities along the coastal region depend largely on fishing, tourism, and agriculture as their sources of income. Because of specific logistical disadvantages, lack of arable land and other factors, many areas rely heavily on fishing as their main source of income.

The Tsunami most affected what the Oakland Press termed the "poor nations." In these particular regions, little hope for future income after the disaster. Fishing in the Indian Ocean has always played a major role in the

48 lives of coastal communities. The Indian Ocean has two sectors of fishing fleets in the Indian Ocean artisanal and industrial. Artisanal fishing consists of small-scale fishing, using boats 5 meters (or less) that are usually family-owned and operated. These particular fisher folk are amongst the poorest communities in the region. Industrial fishing is large-vessel production, using trawlers, heavier duty equipment, and salaried crews.

Krishanan (2005) analyzed that, the damages due to Tsunami on shrimp grow out system was not as high as shrimp hatcheries. This is mainly because most of the shrimp forms are reek based rather than sea based.

However, corresponding with the rise of water level in the sea, creak/river water has also been raised. This sudden and unexpected rise in creek water has inundated many shrimp farms of the district. The district has 731 ha of shrimp culture area with 300 shrimp forms. This polluted water entered the neighboring farms and allegedly caused the major damage to the shrimp reared in the ponds.

Ben Fertig et al. (2005) examined links between environmental and economic issues. Ecosystem disruption may hinder mariculture, agriculture, and tourism, as well as create local pollution, ruining otherwise clean water.

The technological and political infrastructure required for an international

Tsunami monitoring and warning system is already partly in place, but must be expanded to the Indian Ocean. The effect of the Indian Ocean Tsunami on marine fisheries varies geographically, and is as yet incomplete for many of the

49 affected areas, in large part due to inaccessibility. Nevertheless, initial reports indicate that marine fishery and aquaculture harvests across affected nations have been severely depressed in some areas as a result of the Tsunami. This may be due to stock mortality, but more often damage to fishing boats and gear, or other resources, is the cause. To avoid damage, fishermen may evade larger waves by going out to deep water, or mooring their boats with long ropes during small Tsunamis. Many fishermen have been unable or reluctant to return to the water, due to heavy losses or fearing unpredictable ocean conditions. In India, seafood markets dropped considerably because of public anxiousness of widespread disease and contamination, despite refutation by health officials.

2.4. REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED ON REHABILITATION BY GOVERNMENT/NGOS AND RETRIEVED LIVES OF THE TSUNAMI VICTIMS

The impact of Tsunami on the coastal ecosystem and how it has affected the coastal population and further aggrevating the environmental conditions in two most affected villages of Akkaraipettai and Keechankuppam villages were calculated. The destruction caused by the December Tsunami had taken several lives and given a parallel struggle for the rest of the fishermen community for survival. The analysis performed for the fishing hamlets along the coast zone of Nagapttinam was the worst affected in India, particularly the

Akkaraipettai and Keechankuppam which were driven away by the violent

Tsunami waves. It has also caused a major hazard for the physical landscape

50 by dumping huge sand parcels over the areas of agricultural, aqua cultural ponds and major inland water bodies. Many NGOs plunged into immediate remedial measures to rehabilitate the affected victims.

Tsunami has taught a lesson to the coastal communities those who are living adjacent to coast as well as in low lying areas, the destruction is unavoidable. The district administration have to first demarcate the coastal regulation zone and from the study the sea water intrusion levels and provide the coastal communities to shift their temporary residences wherein there should be devoid of such type of natural calamity in future.

Appanaswamy (2006) studied the partial restoration of traditional livelihoods is perhaps the most significant achievement of the rehabilitation efforts. The process has not been without its problems, nor is rehabilitation complete, but fishermen have gone back to the sea and agricultural livelihoods are being restored. The Tsunami destroyed or damaged most fishing craft, from catamarans to mechanized boats and trawlers, and brought all fishing activity to a standstill for a few months. Fish vendors, head load workers at ports and harbours, and small traders and businessmen were all put out of jobs. The injection of massive relief by the government and NGOs, in the form of money, food and household items, helped the coastal communities survive the initial crisis.

Venkatesh Salagarama (2006) felt for the losses to economic infrastructure-access to roads and bridges, transport systems, communication

51 facilities, harbours and jetties, fish landing, processing, marketing, packing and transporting infrastructure were quite significant on the Coromandel Coast.

This proved to be a serious handicap to undertake rescue and rehabilitation activities as well as to resume fishing operation subsequently. The Tsunami also highlighted the fact that, for many fishing communities along the

Coromandel Coast (as elsewhere), poor access to infrastructure continued to be a serious handicap, adding significantly to their physical and economic vulnerability.

Sudarshan Rodriguez (2007) noted that, the stagnation of fish production in the Tsunami affected areas especially Tamilnadu coupled with increase in craft and gear over the last two decades, warrants the need for a combination of management measures, precautionary approaches and the livelihood strategies towards restoration and rehabilitation of fisheries in the affected districts of post-tsunami.

The fishing community, in particular, known for their self-reliance rarely sought assistance from outsiders or the government. Post-tsunami they were not interested in merely being passive recipients of relief and rehabilitation efforts, but instead wanted to get involved and take responsibility for relief and rehabilitation. Many communities were finding creative ways to take their own initiative in the restoration of their livelihoods. This along with their remarkable trademark of independence and self-reliance is a strong indication of their resilience.

Carla Prater (2006) suggested that, the Nagapattinam had no pre disaster recovery plan in place, and the disaster response plan was not closely tied to the district’s needs or administrative realities. The district has been able to externalize some of the economic costs of disaster response and recovery through special banking rules as well as the disaster relief packages provided by the state government and the efforts of community-based organizations and

NGOs. Local and state governments have demonstrated good capacity to identify and respond to specific problems during the response, which was characterized by a great deal of improvisation. This solution is not very satisfactory because it relies heavily on the ability of key Eleventh day after the disaster shows that there were problems with leadership at the district level, as does the quality of the district Contingency Plan.

Walter Peacock et al. (2006) suggested the local government officials, community-based organizations, and nongovernmental organizations to assess community capacity and emergency response to the Tsunami. In addition,

1,000 households on the Nagapattinam coast were randomly surveyed to assess household capacity and disaster response. The results presented show that the district government did have an emergency plan in place, but it was modeled on a neighbouring district’s plan and focused almost exclusively on floods and drought relief. As an immediate response to the Tsunami of December 2004,

Swiss Red Cross with the financial contribution of Swiss solidarity supported a reconstruction project with the objective of rebuilding and improving physical

53 habitat conditions and community infrastructure in the villages of Karaikal and

Pondicherry, (India).

Veera Murangsin (2006) suggested that, the Tsunami on 26 th

December 2004 was the first time that Thailand had experienced this kind of disaster. It addressed urgent need for the country to be prepared should it ever occur again. Tsunami warning system based on Tsunami simulation database for the NDWC, the developing a real-time Tsunami simulation program using a parallel computing technique. Another on-going project is to develop a

Tsunami warning system based on real-time water level data and an inversion technique for the Disaster ADPC.

Bob Alexander (2006) recommended, the Government of Indonesia

Tsunami Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Plan by applying a sustainable livelihood framework for DRM for improvement in understanding potential livelihood strategies for the specific context of vulnerable people previously involved in fisheries livelihoods in Ache. The institutional and vulnerability context of fisheries activities, preliminary recommendations of important considerations in developing appropriate vulnerability-reducing livelihood strategies are listed under the categories of resource provisions.

Rengalakshmi et al. (2006) found that, the 26 th December 2004, a major earthquake of magnitude nine on the Richter scale occurred in the Indian

Ocean on the northern tip of Sumatra Island. This led to fast moving, giant

Tsunami waves that lashed the coastal line the Tamilnadu and Pondicherry, and

54 caused severe damage. Similar Tsunami waves had occurred in the Tamilnadu coasts during 1881 and 1941, but the details of damage were not available.

However, in 2004, the Tsunami ravaged the coastal areas and the living in the coastal districts in multiple ways. There was a colossal loss of life and assets, damage to soil and water in the agricultural lands, loss of cattle and cash crops.

In the context of agriculture, the Tsunami caused extensive damage to standing crops, as well as agricultural fields, in Kancheepuram, Vilupuram, Cuddalore,

Nagapattinam, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts of Tamilnadu. The type and extent of damage varied across these coastal districts. Coupled with the damage to crops and soil, the loss of livestock was very severe. Most of the households lost their animals which were the major or supplementary contributors to household income.

Raja Selvam (2006) evaluated that, the most severely affected district of Nagapattinam that accounted for 6,500 of the 10,000 Indian lives lost to the

Tsunami. ICCWTN, NGO, provided the primary support for the February

2006 team in India. In all, team treated 186 Tsunami survivors for symptoms of traumatic stress at three sites (Keechanguppam, Chinnangudi, and Nagore

ITI Shelters), treating 54 of them twice, offering a total of 240 sessions in six days find and support self-healing capacities in their nervous systems to resolve trauma symptoms in themselves and others, has been received will by those affected as well as by organizations that serve them. 73 per cent of the 463 presenting symptoms treated in 210 survivors during the first trip in June 2005

55 showed significant and lasting symptom reduction four weeks after the treatments.

Sundar (2006) analyzed the new approach towards the mitigation of major disasters, such as Tsunami, is to promote dual-use technologies to improve the resiliency of the biophysical and socioeconomic systems. The groins that have been designed for coastal protection have proved beneficial in the mitigation of the adverse consequences of Tsunami. The post-tsunami survey clearly indicates that the coastal protection structures (engineering structures and vegetation) helped in the mitigation of the adverse consequences of the Tsunamis. They would be equally protective against extreme weather events, such as tidal waves and hurricanes when they happen. The Tamilnadu coast, groins gave protection against the Tsunami, and how the structures that are planned will serve the double purpose of giving protection against continuous processes such as erosion, and episodic processes such as sea surges and Tsunamis.

David Alexander (2006) analyzed the post-disaster relief appeals so copiously that all the money could not be spent quickly enough to justify the reasons for which it was donated. For other contemporary disasters, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, there was an alarming dearth of funds and a general failure to respond to international relief appeals. As worldwide involvement in the relief and mitigation of catastrophe deepens and becomes more complex, so the approach becomes more fragmentary in some respects, particularly those

56 that relate to global security strategies, and more uniform in others, especially in terms of where the international political system directs its limited attention.

Over the last half-century the massive growth of worldwide travel and telecommunications has brought what were once essentially regional and local problems on to the world stage September 2005 and South Asia earthquake of

October 2005, and what they reveal about the international community's policies and practices regarding aid. Subsequently, the article considers disaster mitigation in relation to world economic trends and the changing structure of global financial power.

Murali (2006) reported that, the coastal hydrodynamics is a subject consisting of a variety of physical processes. By variety, one means a range of physical and temporal scales. Typically, the physical scales vary from an order of 1 meter to an order of 100 km. Similarly, the temporal scales vary from a few seconds to days and months. These wide variations in range of physical and temporal scales are dictated by various natural forcing that influence the coastal setting. The offshore winds generate waves of lengths in the range of l00-200 m and periods in the range of 5-20s. On the other hand, the gravitational balance between earth, moon and the sun causes tides that rise up and down around the globe in a predictable manner. A cyclonic swirling wind the storms and cyclones for example-rhesus in a surge of water mass, of the order of up to 10 m, in the near shore zone during the cyclonic landfall, on the other hand, sudden release of energy underwater, due to sub-marine landslides;

57 earthquakes; and eruptions; generates Tsunamis that travel around the globe at speeds of sound and cause devastating effects to their high speeds and tall heights. Then there are currents generated be various imbalances in the physical setting of the ocean waters namely temperature, salinity and density.

Kumaran, et al. (2006) studied the experiences of some rural and urban areas of Tamil Nadu in the aftermath of the Tsunami, focusing on issues in their rebuilding and rehabilitation, in the rural districts of Nagapattinam and

Cuddalore and also in the settlement of Tsunami Nagar. Some 2000 urban households from five slums have found shelter for more than a year, the rural and urban settlements where rehabilitation is under way, housing, livelihoods and infrastructure. It explores the self-help rebuilding experiences of these communities and also the work of local NGOs, international agency partners and local and regional governments.

Thamizoli et al. (2006) suggested that the recent earthquake-triggered

Tsunami waves in the Indian Ocean caused unprecedented damage to humanity and environment in the coastal areas of several South Asian countries. Indian shores were devastated by the surging tidal waves. With regard to damage in terms of agriculture and livestock, Nagapattinam was the worst affected district in Tamilnadu. The small and marginal farmers lost their primary livelihoods, land, water, standing crops, fodder and livestock. Unfortunately, reviving normalcy in the context of agronomic rehabilitation is a slow process.

Improving the soil, groundwater aquifer and irrigation facilities would take

58 some more time. The strategy requires medium and long term perspectives.

The farmers need to cope with the situation with available strength and resources.

Senthil et al. (2007) analysed the Tsunami claimed more than 2,50,000 human lives in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, East Coast of India, South

Kerala in India and several other countries like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand and Somalia in the Indian Ocean. The Tsunami waves have brought out tremendous damage to Nagapattinam, which is a coastal belt with a stretch of

190 km. The Tsunami left nearly 2,00,000 peoples homeless due to the mass destruction of coastal hamlets. Among the affected 87 per cent are from fishermen communities, the rest of them are from agricultural labourers, traders and tourists / pilgrims. The affected were from 38 revenue villages and 73 coastal habitations. Among the confirmed human loss of 8081 people in

Tamilnadu.

De Silvam Masahiro Yamao (2007) assessed the Tsunami of 26 th

December 2004 crippled many of the livelihood assets (human, social, physical, financial and natural) available to assist those directly affected.

Assessments are also making of the impact of the Tsunami on coastal communities and the impact of government policy on rebuilding. A livelihood asset score was calculated for each village by comparing their strengths in capacity building. In all aspects of capacity building, including human, social, financial, physical and natural capital, the fishing community in Tangalle was

59 significantly ahead of the fishing communities in Hikkaduwa and Weligama and threatened to disrupt their community bonds and social networks.

Chandrasekharan et al. (2007) found that, the Tsunami caused deterioration of soil and groundwater quality in the agricultural fields of coastal Nagapattinam district of Tamilnadu state in India is presented by analyzing their salinity and sodality parameters. To accomplish this, three sets of soil samples up to a depth of 30 cm from the land surface were collected for the first six months of the year 2005 from 28 locations and the ground water samples were monitored from seven existing dug wells and hand pumps covering the study region at intervals of 3 months. The Tsunami occurred on

26 th December 2004 and in India more people were killed due to the massive attack. The worst affected districts in the Tamilnadu were Viz., Vellankanni,

Nagapattinam, Cuddalore, Tamilnadu, Pondicherry.

Neupane (2007) focussed his attention on the Tsunami impacts on the tourist coasts, the recovery of the beaches and infrastructures and the lesson learnt from the recovery and reconstruction process. Emphasis was given to the recovery of Phuket Island, particularly to Beach which recovered within a year. Phi Phi Island had previous land use problems and less progress was made. Khao Lake was most affected by the Tsunami and has not fully recovered. One particular beach, Bang Niang, illustrates measures taken by the developers who have almost protected the entire beach with sea walls with consequences for dramatic beach change between the monsoons. While

60 beaches recovered through natural processes in the post-tsunami period, the resilience of beaches had also improved by measures such as raising the backshore, the filling-in depressions behind sand dunes and the replanting of coastal biobelts. Overall, the tourist coasts have Tsunami warning towers, supplemented by evacuation routes and signs and, more recently, the construction of Tsunami shelters at Khao Lake.

Srinivasalu (2007) observed the Tsunami sediments undergo various changes from deposition to observation. Post depositional alterations of

Tsunami deposits by wave action, stream erosion, winnowing by wind, rain, biogenic alteration and human activities may decrease their preservation potential in some areas and increase it in others, thus causing erroneous calculation of Tsunami inundation estimates for ancient event In many cases, the alterations change the lateral extent, thickness and complex internal stratigraphy of the Tsunami deposits. These distortions of the original stratigraphy could also be caused by bio and pedo-turbation, selective winnowing of fine grain sizes and outright dissolution of grains. Hence, there is a need to understand the factors that contribute to the alteration of recent sediment deposits and quantify the rate / magnitude of those changes to make possible estimates of ancient Tsunami inundation.

Kumaraperumal (2007) found that, the Tsunami caused heavy damage to houses, tourist resorts, fishing boats, prawn culture ponds, soil and crops, and consequently affected the livelihood of large numbers of the coastal

61 communities. The Tsunami affected villages in the coastal Nagapattinam with the help of remote sensing and geographical information science tools. The lands were affected by soil erosion, salt deposition, water logging and other deposited sediments and debris. The maximum run-up height of 6.1 m and the maximum seawater inundation distance of 2.2 km were observed at

Vadakkupoyyur village in coastal Nagapattinam.

Mubarak (2007) investigates the livelihoods recovery process of masons living in Polhena village,Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the 2004 Asian

Tsunami. A disaster that distinguished and defined the year 2005 in Sri Lanka was the Asian Tsunami of 26 th December 2004. When the series of giant waves, spawned by a submarine convulsion off the coast of Sumatra, swept across the Indian Ocean it killed more than 31,000 people in Sri Lanka, it alsowashed away the livelihoods of an estimated 1,50,000 people. The loss of lives and infrastructure along the country’s coastline, with many affected districts having poverty levels higher than the national average, has plunged large numbers of people into poverty. As Sri Lanka’s reconstruction and rehabilitation effort gathered pace, however, it faced the daunting task of assisting affected households to recover their livelihoods.

Martin Deva Prasath and Hidayathullakhan (2007) revealed that, marine ecosystems are highly complex, dynamic and subject to many internal and external relationships that are subject to change over time. The pollutants that enter the inshore waters and estuaries create serious problems causing

62 extensive damage to the life and activities of the living aquatic organisms and even to mass mortality. Among the pollutants, accumulation of heavy metals in marine ecosystems is of global importance. The marine environment is certainly brought about by the recent Tsunami as similar type of variations in the physic chemical characters were observed in the coastal water quality of

Nagapattinam coasts. Many of the earlier works revealed that heavy metals were more concentrated in the tissues of marine animals than in seawater due to bio magnification. It may also be expected that the high concentration of metals in water can be gradually accumulated on the sediments and in due course it may get transferred to fish. When monthly and seasonal monitoring of heavy metals is done using finfish and shellfish as monitors, the exact effect of Tsunami in this area can be ascertained.

Thirumalai et al. (2007) examined the Tsunami waves triggered by underwater earthquake with a focal depth of 30 km near the Sumatra Island distressed the entire coast of Tamilnadu. The worst affected coastal region is

Nagapattinam, particularly from Nagoore to Velankanni. The impact of

Tsunami had multidimensional effect, killing most of the fishermen communities, devastating the coastal huts and damaging the coastal aquaculture resources. Damage caused to the farms by saltwater intrusion; sand inundation, total destruction of farms. The results indicate that, there has been incredible damage caused to the farmers beyond recovery in short span of time.

Palanisamy (2008) showed that, the fishing community is the single biggest section of people in Tamilnadu affected by the Tsunami.

Nagapattinam was the worst affected with 76 per cent of the deaths while

Kanayakumari and Cuddalore were also severally affected. Apart from death and destruction of houses, thousands of mechanized boats and catamarans, fishing harbours at Nagapattinam. Pazhayar and Kodiakarai and fish landing centers all along the coastline were completely destroyed. Damages to ice plants, marine repair shops and other trades were also severe. The damages due to Tsunami had a cascading effect on the coastal economy and also religious tourism in places like Velankanni and Nagaore apart from its impact on wildlife sanctuaries along the coast and overall impact on tourism.

Ravisankar and Poongothai (2008) revealed that the 26 th , December

2004 Tsunami had major impact on the quality of groundwater along the southeast coast of India, but especially in the Tsunami-affected areas of the

Nagapattinam district of Tamilnadu. Major pollution resulted primarily from increases in the salinity of groundwater. The post-tsunami water quality posed problems to general health and contributed significantly to agricultural and environmental degradation in the Sirkazhi taluk and Nagapattinam districts.

The adverse impact was particularly significant in the areas Pazaiyar,

Madavaimedu, Thirumuaivasal, Thoduvai, Koozaiyar, Puthupattinam,

Kizhamoovarkarai, Poombhukar and Vanagiri.

Sudarshan Rodriguez (2008) analyzed the December 2004 earthquake and Tsunami that swept through the Indian Ocean region had unprecedented consequences for human populations and natural systems along the coasts and island of the region. The coastline of India was seriously impacted and led to large-scale destruction of not only housing and infrastructure but also affected the fragile coastal ecosystems and resulted in the loss of thousands of lives, assets, livestock and crops. Rehabilitation efforts that are based on poor socio- economic status could have the potential to promote inequity and also adversely affected resource use. The various rehabilitation efforts must also be evaluated to assess the impact of such actions on the coastal and marine ecosystem. Thus it was felt important to document what the local communities views on resources, resource management, state policies, rehabilitation, and the impacts of the Tsunami were important.

Shanmugasundaram (2008) revealed that, the damage due to Tsunami in the rice fields in the increasing order was soil damage followed by water damage, crop damage and lives stock damage. The socio-economic changes with respect to area, yield, income, farm changes, home changes, material changes, social changes, economic changes, health education and spiritual changes were assessed, Awareness and adoption of Post Tsunami rice cultivation practices shows that the respondents fall in the medium and high categories. Technological, psychological, social, environmental and personal cause were the reasons for non-adoption of post Tsunami rice cultivation

65 practices, Strategies for government system, research System, Extension

System and Client System are also formulated.

Darienzo and Peterson (2008) studied recent Tsunami deposits is important for recognition of similar events in the geological record and understanding their effects on the coastal regions, i.e. by calculating inundation limits (the distance to which Tsunami deposits were transported inland) and run up (the maximum height of the Tsunami wave). Based on sediment logical characteristics, prehistoric Tsunamis are identified in the Pacific Northwest,

Cascadian sub duction zone Hawaii northern Sumatra and Thailand.

Chieko Umetsu et al. (2008) found that, the Tsunami of 26 th December

2004 struck the Nagapattinam District, Tamilnadu, and India. Sea water inundation from the Tsunami caused saliination problems for soil and groundwater in coastal areas of the district, and also induced salt injuries in crops. The recovery of the agricultural environment from the Tsunami, conducted observations of the soil, groundwater, and vegetation. Soil electrical conductivity increased sharply after the Tsunami, but returned to pre-tsunami levels by 2006. These rapid rates of recovery were due to the monsoon rainfall leaching salt from the highly permeable soils in the area. The agricultural environment of the district has now fully recovered from the Tsunami. Based on the results, it is also identified important management implications for soil, groundwater, and vegetation due to the heavy monsoon rainfall and the high permeability of soils in this region, anthropogenic inputs like fertilizer should

66 be applied carefully to minimize pollution, and the use of green manure is recommended. The areas that were contaminated by sea water extended up to

1,000 m from the sea shore and over pumping of groundwater should be carefully avoided to prevent inducing sea water intrusion.

Singarasubramanian et al. (2008) analyzed, the characteristics in the

Vellar River and the M.G.R. Island in the Cuddalore district, of Tamilnadu,

India, caused by the 26 th December, 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. The island has an mainland by a channel. It is bounded to the east by the Vellar River and to the north and south by the Muzhukkuthurai lagoon. A vegetated coastal dune with a length of about 1.5 km protected the Island. Tsunami waves ranging in height from 4 to 6 meters breached the dunes, caused erosion and carried debris of destroyed coastal buildings westward to more than 50 m inland. The Tsunami run up was up to 1.3m. Very fine sand with a thickness of one meter filled the Muzhukkuthurai lagoon in the west Heavy erosion resulted in a steep beach gradient. Sediments transported from the SE and the SSE direction resulted in greater accretion along the inertial region. The sediment layer exhibited trampled and load structures, indicating deposition by the flooding and receding motion of the water, moving at high velocity. The sediments ranged from fine to medium in size and were well sorted.

Di Jin and Jian Lin (2008) suggested to identify the key factors that will make a Tsunami warning system most effective, to develop a framework in which results of natural science and engineering research can be effectively

67 integrated into coastal natural hazard planning, and to develop a numerical example that illustrates how benefit-cost analysis may be used to assess early warning systems. Results of the study suggest that while the science of

Tsunami wave propagation and inundation is relatively advanced, our knowledge on the relationships between Tsunami generation and undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides remains poor, resulting in significant uncertainties in tsunami forecasting. Probabilities of damaging

Tsunamis for many coastal regions are still unknown, making Tsunami risk assessment and management difficult. Thus it is essential to develop new techniques to identify paleo-tsunami events and to compile and develop size and frequency information on historical Tsunamis for different locations. An effective tsunami early warning system must include not only the ocean technologies for accurately detecting an emerging Tsunami, but also a civil communication system through which the population can be timely warned by the local government and other sources. Since minimizing the evacuation time is a key factor to make a warning system effective, adequate pre-event education and preparation of the population must be a critical component of the system. Results of a numerical example of the South Pacific region suggest that investments in a Tsunami warning system in the region may lead to significant economic benefits.

Rajkumar et al. (2008) found that the Asian Tsunami of December

26 th , 2004 wreaked havoc along the southeastern coast of India and resulted in

68 devastating losses. The high rates of long-term mental health consequences in adult survivors predicted immediately after the disaster. In spite of incomplete reconstruction of their lives, participants reconstructed meaning for the causes and the aftermath of the disaster in their cultural idiom. Qualitative changes in their social structure, processes and attitudes towards different aspects of life were revealed. Survivors valued their unique individual, social and spiritual coping strategies more than formal mental health services. Their stories confirm the assertion that the collective response to massive trauma need not necessarily result in social collapse but also includes positive effects. The results of this study suggest that interventions after disaster should be grounded in ethno-cultural beliefs and practices and should be aimed at strengthening prevailing community coping strategies.

Daniel Vastfjall et al. (2008) analyzed that the environmental events such as natural disasters may influence the public’s affective reactions and decisions. Shortly after the 2004 Tsunami disaster they assessed how affect elicited by thinking about this disaster influenced risk perceptions and future time perspective in Swedish undergraduates not directly affected by the disaster. An experimental manipulation was used to increase the salience of affect associated with the disaster. Major societal events such as natural disasters and terrorist attacks influence people’s thoughts and feelings. In the face of a major environmental event, many people tend to react with emotion and emotion-laden decisions. The 2004 East Asian Tsunami disaster had a

69 pro-found psychological impact on many countries, not only those that were directly hit by the Tsunami waves, unusually high number of tourists visiting the area at the time of the disaster, resulting in over six hundred Swedes being killed or missing. The Tsunami disaster was therefore considered a major national tragedy in Sweden.

Subramanian (2009) studied Tsunami is one among the catastrophic tectonic phenomena of the crystal part of the earth created mostly by a submarine earthquake. They occur at plate boundaries due to interaction of two convergent plates resulting seduction of an oceanic plate at depth of tens of kilometers in the Asthenosphere. Tsunami cause damage up to a few thousand kilometers from its origin, so there might be several hours between its creation and impact on a coast. Nearly three-fourths of sub marine seismic activities do not result in a Tsunami. Tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted. In some Tsunami prone countries precautionary measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on the shore and loss of life. Though Tsunami occurs more frequently in the Pacific Ocean, they are a global phenomena.

Number of past occurrence of Tsunamis originating from other oceans have been reported. In the Indian Ocean one among the most disastrous Tsunami has occurred on December 2004. In the light of this Tsunami UNESCO and other world bodies have called for a global Tsunami monitoring system and a consolidated effort to go in depth not only detailed research on this “secondary seismological event” but also on the measures to reduce the damage to property and loss of life by educating the people of the Tsunami prone regions.

Thorburn and Craig (2009) recommended the livelihood recovery assistance and achievements in Ache since the December 2004 Tsunami.

‘Livelihood’ programs were intended to help Tsunami-affected households quickly resume productive activities and return to ‘normal’ life. They formed and important component of the Tsunami recovery portfolios of the Indonesian government and many international donors, distributing millions of dollars worth of equipment, cash and other forms of support to Tsunami victims.

Ramir Sarmiento (2009) analyzed that Tsunami has become one of the most devastating calamities that nature has. The recent record of an awful attack hits Asia and citizens living in the area have become aware of the possible danger Tsunami can give. Tsunami is the product of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other tectonic displacements on the seafloor. Tsunami will develop if earthquakes reached an intensity of 6.5 magnitudes or more. Its wave speed average is 300 mph that will last from five minutes to one hour.

People living in coastal areas are at risk of the Tsunami attack. Places next to the Pacific's Rim of fire and some other countries like Hawaii, Tsunami is one destructive force that can destroy everything and it has enough power to kill human lives in just a second. To avoid this from happening, people and travelers in coastal areas should have an urgent response regarding the said calamity.

Agug Budi Sutiono (2009) found that an earthquake infectious disease is an additional problem in disaster-affected areas. Typhoid fever may cause

71 serious complications after a disaster. It is a water-borne disease due to contamination. Typhoid in human excreta and transmitted via hands. Post- disaster typhoid fever outbreaks were reported in Puerto Rico following

Hurricane Betsy in 1956 and in Mauritius following a cyclone in 1980. Manila,

Philippines in March 2008, approximately 1,400 people displayed typhoid symptoms, with the most serious complications being intestinal bleeding and typhoid perforation. During these disasters, there are usually disruption of availability of clean water for food preparation and hand washing as well disruption of existing medical services.

Heller and Heller (2009) noted that, the lower brain centers become engaged during threatening events and executive functions become less active.

A dominant neurological reaction occurs involving orienting, fight, and flight of freeze reactions. These reactions are conditioned to aspects of the life-threatening event and subsequent exposure to similar events can trigger an involuntary portion of the terror reaction in the body. Body oriented approaches, such as Somatic Experiencing Therapy attempt to gain careful access to these involuntary responses, build awareness of the bodily reactions, and actually “process” them to an “adaptive resolution” Experiencing Therapy showed that immediately after this therapy 67 per cent of the participants reported partial or complete remission and 90 per cent reported partial or complete improvement.

Catherine Parker et al. (2009) discussed the outcome effects of a somatically based therapy with Tsunami victims in southern India. One hundred and fifty participants, prescreened for trauma symptoms, received 75 minutes of somatic therapy and training in affect modulation and self-regulation. The results indicate a reliable and significant treatment effect at immediate, 4-week, and 8-month follow-up assessments. At the 8-month follow-up, 90 per cent of participants reported significant improvement or being completely free of symptoms of intrusion, arousal, and avoidance

Somatic Experiencing Therapy in working with trauma reactions and invite future controlled trials of this therapy.

Kume and Umetsu (2009) found that the Tsunami of 26 th December

2004 struck the Nagapattinam District, Tamilnadu, India. Sea water inundation from the Tsunami caused salinization problems for soil and groundwater in coastal areas of the district, and also induced salt injuries in crops. The recovery of the agricultural environment from the Tsunami, they conducted observations of the soil, groundwater, and vegetation. Soil electrical conductivity increased sharply after the Tsunami, but returned to pre-tsunami levels the following year. Groundwater salinity returned to pre-tsunami levels by 2006. These rapid rates of recovery were due to the monsoon rainfall leaching salt from the highly permeable soils in the area.

Divya Chandrasekhar (2010) studied the aftermath of disasters, different types of activities are set into motion. Residents are evacuated to

73 safety, and provided with food, temporary shelter and other basic life service, damages are assessed and debris removed, basic infrastructure facilities are restored to serve returning populations. The nature of these activities differs significantly depending on the hazard, the immediate goals of the activities, the actors they engage, the resources they require, and the mechanism by which they come about moreover, while some of these actions have clear start and end characteristics (for example, evacuation) others have only identifiable start or end points (such as temporary shelter), and others have neither for example, permanent reconstruction.

Anil Sagar et al. (2010) indicated that, a Tsunami is a series of water waves that is caused when a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. It is a Japanese word with the English translation “harbour wave”. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions

(detonations of nuclear devices at sea), landslides and other mass movements, bolides impacts, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a Tsunami. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, the effects of Tsunamis can be devastating. Tsunamis are among the most terrifying natural hazards known to man and have been responsible for tremendous loss of life and property throughout history.

Because of their destructiveness, Tsunamis have notable impact on the human, social and economic sectors of our societies. In the Pacific Ocean, where the majority of these waves have been generated, the historical record shows wide

74 scale destruction. In Japan, which has one of the most populated coastal regions in the world and a long history of earthquake activity, Tsunami has destroyed large coastal populations. There is also a history of Tsunami destruction in

Alaska, in the Hawaiian Islands in South America, Japan and elsewhere in the

Pacific.

Hornbach Matthew et al. (2010) found that earthquakes on strike-slip faults can produce devastating natural hazards. However, because they consist predominantly of lateral motion, these faults are rarely associated with significant uplift or Tsunami generation. And although submarine slides can generate Tsunami, only a few per cent of all Tsunami are believed to be triggered in this way. The 12 th January Mw 7.0 Haiti earthquake exhibited primarily strike-slip motion but nevertheless generated a Tsunami. Submarine landslides caused the most severe Tsunami locally. The earthquakes also caused liquefaction at several river deltas that prograde rapidly and are prone to failure. The coastal strike-slip fault systems such as the Enriquillo-Plantain

Garden fault produce relief conducive to rapid sedimentation, erosion and slope failure, so that even modest predominantly strike-slip earthquakes can cause potentially catastrophic slide-generated Tsunami-a risk that is underestimated at present.

Yuriko Minamoto (2010) suggested, the factors which best prescribe people's perceptions of livelihood recovery are formal network in the community, and leadership and trust ship of community-based organizations.

The negative coefficient for newly established community-based NGOs after the Tsunami assumed a serious aspect of “elite capture”, which implies a dark side of collective action with semi-forced participation. Participatory design process in the organizations was another negative factor for livelihood recovery.

Chris Wang-Wai Chen and Thomas Wai-kee Yuen (2010) noted that,

Income and wealth are also key indicators of risk tolerance. Wealthy investors may be able to afford losses if they have sufficient income or assets to recover the loss. However, that wealth and income levels are often correlated with the other factors such as the age of an individual, little difference between self-reported investment risk tolerance before and after the financial Tsunami of 2008. One reason for this is wealth and income gradually increases with a person’s age. This means that age is still a major factor for classifying the risk tolerance of individuals. Indeed, it is essential that financial planners evaluate their clients through these demographic factors. Demographic variables, however, tend to be inadequate in explaining risk tolerance. Hence, it is suggested that sociological and psychological factors should be taken into consideration when assessing an individual’s risk tolerance.

Steven Milbrandt (2010) explained that people instinctively seem to know how important weather is to their daily lives, especially in areas where it changes often. This is important because an unprotected individual in the face of severe weather can be significantly injured or killed by its effects. Having at

76 least a cursory understanding of what the weather will mean that you are not only more informed and educated, but will be better able to determine what, if any actions you can take to protect yourself and make wise decisions concerning the weather around you at any given time. Broadly defined, weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time.

It occurs in the hydrosphere and troposphere. The hydrosphere is any part of the earth or its atmosphere in which water or water vapour is found. The troposphere, on the other hand, is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and contains about 95 per cent of the mass of air in the earth's atmosphere. The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10 to 15 kilometres.

William Clark (2010) suggested in a Tsunami event human casualties and infrastructure damage are determined predominantly by seaquake intensity and offshore properties. On land, wave energy is attenuated by gravitation

(elevation) and friction (land cover). Tree belts have been promoted as

“bioshields” against wave impact. However, given the lack of quantitative evidence of their performance in such extreme events, tree belts have been criticized for creating a false sense of security. Satellite imagery; land cover maps; land use characteristics; stem diameter, height, and planting density; and a literature review were used to develop a land cover roughness coefficient accounting for the resistance offered by different land uses to the wave advance. For sustainable and effective coastal risk management, location of settlements is essential, while the protective potential of coastal vegetation, as

77 determined by its spatial arrangement, should be regarded as an important livelihood provider rather than just as a bioshield.

Roland Cochard (2010) found that the coastal ecosystems provide goods and services to billions of people. In the aftermath of a series of recent natural disasters, including the Indian Ocean Tsunami, Hurricane, Katrina and

Cyclone Nargis, coastal vegetation has been widely promoted for the purpose of reducing the impact of large storm surges and Tsunami. Bioshield policy and reduce the long-term negative consequences for biodiversity and human capital. Since the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 and discusses the science of wave attenuation by vegetation. The Indian subcontinent and evaluate the detrimental impacts of bioshield plantations can have upon native ecosystems, drawing a distinction between coastal restoration and the introduction of exotic species in inappropriate locations. Finally, they place bioshield policies into a political context, and outline a new direction for coastal vegetation policy and research.

Soichiro Nagamatsu (2011) studied that, Japan was struck by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a Tsunami on 11 th March 2011. Although this catastrophe has caused the most devastating damage to Japan since

World War II, people believe that systematic preparation for disasters somewhat alleviated the damage. In this earthquake of 2011, hundreds of medical teams were successfully deployed and started operations within the first 72 hours. Furthermore, the internet, which was not commonly used in

1995, made significant contributions in communication among clinicians and enabled them to promptly identify the needs of the affected hospitals. In addition, medical professional societies took leadership in the logistics of transferring victims away from the disaster zone. It was observed that the spectrum of causes of death is distinct between the earthquakes of 1995 and

2011. In 1995, many victims died from trauma, including crash injury, and delays in providing haemodialysis contributed to additional deaths. In 2011, in contrast, many victims died from drowning in the Tsunami, and most survivors did not have life-threatening injuries.

Daniel Aldrich (2011) has enunciated that social capital functions as an unqualified “public good”, enhancing governance, economic performance, and quality of life. Scholars of disaster have extended this concept to posit that social capital provides no excludable benefits to whole communities after major crises. Using qualitative methods to analyze data from villages in Tamil

Nadu, India following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, demonstrates that high levels of social capital simultaneously provided strong benefits and equally strong negative externalities, especially to those already on the periphery of society. In high levels of social capital reduced barriers to collective action for members of the panchayats (hamlet councils) and parish councils, speeding up their recovery and connecting them to aid organizations, but at the same time reinforced obstacles to recovery for women, migrants, and Muslims. These localized have important implications for academic of social capital and policy formation for future disasters and recovery schemes.

Charles Jeeva et al. (2011) found that, the devastating Tsunami in

December 2004 that swept along the coast of Indian Ocean region had unprecedented consequences on human populations and natural systems along the coasts and islands of the region. The coastline of India was seriously impacted and led not only to a large-scale destruction of housing and infrastructure but also affected the fragile coastal ecosystems and resulted in the loss of thousands of human lives, assets, livestock and crop. Several significant changes followed the Tsunami, influencing many facets of coastal planning and governance. The magnitude of damages in the coastal districts of

Nagapattinam, Kanniyakumari and Cuddalore was very severe and in the coastal areas in Chennai, Kancheepuram and Tiruvallur districts it was severe.

Due to this sudden attack of Tsunami, a large number of fishermen living in coastal areas have been affected severely and thousands of them lost their lives and their means of livelihood. In this catastrophe, lakhs of people lost their houses/huts and were rendered homeless. This Tsunami caused heavy damages both to the belongings of fishermen, catamarans vallams, mechanized boats, fishing nets and belongings / properties of the non-fishermen communities living along the coast of Tamilnadu.

Mridu Khullar (2011) examined the mode of operation, people continue to live like refugees. In most places, the land for construction of permanent Tens of thousands of lives lost. Many millions more rendered homeless. Thousands of families cramped into temporary shelters that were

80 built to house survivors for a brief period. While the state and central governments may have declared the relief phase over, and the state machinery has entered into the rehabilitation houses for survivors of the South Asian

Tsunami has yet to be identified, and there is little hope in the eyes of people who have lost homes, families, and livelihoods. After a span of one year, it was expected that there would be quick distribution of compensation and relief, completion of permanent housing structures, and people reaching closure.

Instead, the landscape is covered with debris-filled, desolate beaches, halves of boats buried in the sand, and people are desperately clinging to the hope that help will come, sooner rater than later.

Raja Harish Swamy, (2011) identified the impacts of the Tsunami of

2004 on economic development priorities in Nagapattinam, South India. By focusing on the manner in which the disaster was cost as an opportunity by the state and multilateral agencies, the unprecedented scale and ambiguous character of involvement by NGOs in reconstruction, and the distinction drawn between economic development and humanitarian aid in the constitution of a reconstruction agenda predicated on the relocation of artisanal fisher communities from the coast, at the same time the processes that unfold are also characterized by significant complexities particularly on account of efforts by affected populations to deploy various strategies to defend their interests, and substantive differences in the approach of NGOs. In terms of its socio-cultural, economic and historical aspects, and provided a summary of the distinct

81 features of the artisanal fisher economy and its relationship to the wider political economy of fishing. Two important challenges facing fishers in the district described by scholars as “blue revolutions,” represented two distinct orientations of state-led development. The first was geared towards a national program of technological and technical modernization devoted to increasing yields of marine produce by fishers, while the second driven by an export oriented model of commercial aquaculture tied to a economic dispensation.

Fisher society enjoys a degree of autonomy in relation to other terrestrially bound socio-economic groups on account of its presence at the literal outreaches of the state's terrestrial sovereignty. Historically, communities engaged in fishing have been constructed by sovereigns as both marginal and troublesome subjects, and fishers in Nagapattinam and Karaikal went from being subjects of economic development to impediments to growth.

The review of literature also reveals that studies relating to economic aspects of the marine fisheries and impact of Tsunami of our country were not many and most of them were conducted selected at micro level. They could not help much in deriving policy perspectives either at State and National level.

Hence the present study on the impact of Tsunami on the socio-economic status of fishermen in Nagapattinam district of Tamilnadu, and the literature review attempted above is not exhaustive though substantial. The review reveals that while several studies are available on the fisheries of a few regions states, there is hardly any noteworthy work relating to fisheries development in other

82 regions, states, India being a country of continental size, the very long coast line and enormously vast continental shelf, very large fishing population, characterized by widely varying geographical, demographic, social, cultural, educational and economic background and states with different levels of economic development and fishery potential, inter-regional differences in fisheries development are quite likely to occur. The Nagapattinam is a Tsunami affected with unique problems and features, no comprehensive and systematic study on fisheries development of this carried out till date. The ensuing chapters are the outcome of humble effort to fill up this research gap.

Chapter – III

Profile of the Study Area 83

CHAPTER - III PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

The Tsunami on 26 th December 2004, that struck the Nagapattinam

District, Tamilnadu, and India. Sea water inundation due to Tsunami caused salinisation problems in soil and groundwater in coastal areas of the district, and also induced salt injuries in crops. Nagapattinam which was the worst affected district in India with 6,065 confirmed deaths has witnessed non-stop activity in the past one year.

Nagapattinam district was carved out by bifurcating the composite

Thanjavur district on 18.10.1991. Nagappatinam is a unique district with all its historical and cultural significance. Nagappattinam is one of the constituents of

Cholamandalam, acclaimed as the most prominent among the ancient Tamil

Kingdoms. Its salient features more than anything else have contributed to the glory of the Cholamandalam.

Costal town Nagappattinam was the Headquarters of a region during the period this region has been named after Kshathiriya Sigamani, one of the titles of Raja Raja Cholan. Nagappattinam was also known as ‘Cholakula

Vallippatinam’. The same text gives evidences of a Budha Vihar built by the great Ashoka. The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang, also mentioned about the

Budha Vihar in his book. Nagappattinam is mentioned as Padarithitha in ancient Buddhist literature. According to scholars avurithidal the name of one

84 part of Nagappattinam might have been derived from the word ‘’Padarithitha” is the name of the fruit tree “Bhirtree” very common in this region.

In ancient times, “Naga Nadu”, “Nagappattinam” referred only to Sri

Lanka. Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka had close links with this town

Nagappattinam. “Animangalam Copperplate” of Kulothungachola note that

“Kasiba Thera” (Buddhist Monk) Renovated the Buddhist temple in 6 th century

AD with the help of Buddhist monks of ‘Naganadu’, This ‘Nagar Annam

Vihar’ later came to be known as ‘Nagananavihar’.

Pallava King Rajasimha permitted a Chinese king to build Buddha

Vihar in Nagappattinam. Hence there existed a Chinese built Buddha Vihar in

Nagappattinam. Sri Vijayathunga Varman of Sri Vijaya Kingdom built Raja

Raja Perumpalli in the name of Raja Raja Cholanand (Rajendra Chola

Perumpalli) in the name of Rajendra Chola in 1090. His Buddha Vihar also called ‘Sudamani Vihar’. Excavations were conducted by the Archaeological department at Vellipalayam in Nagapattinam and more than 300 Buddha statues were unearthed and kept at the Museum in Chennai. This dilapidated

Buddhist tower was razed down 200 years ago.

District Collector, Nagapattinam is the supreme authority of the district.

He controls the Revenue unit and Panchayat Development units of the district administration through his Personal Assistants, General and Panchayat

Development at his Head Quarters. District Supply officer, manages the Public

Distribution System in co-ordination with the Joint Registrar of Co-operatives, while

85 the Special Deputy Collector for Public Grievance Redressed Cell, and attends to the grievances submitted to the Collector. District Collector is having two district level officers, one for the welfare of the Adi Dravidar and another for the Backward Classes and Minorities District Revenue Officer. He is the authority for the land matters of the district. Revenue Collection in the district is regulated by the District Revenue Officer. The DRO grants various licenses, in the capacity of Additional District Magistrate.

The Public Health System in the district and the maintenance of

Government Hospitals are supervised by the District Collector through the

Joint Director of Public Health, Nagapattinam. The Deputy Director of Public

Health, Nagapattinam is maintaining the rural health system and Primary

Health Centres available at the villages under the supervision of the District

Collector. The District Collector monitors the Agricultural and Animal

Husbandry activities in this district through the Joint Director of Agriculture and Assistant Director of Animal Husbandry respectively at Nagapattinam.

Likewise, Assistant Director of Fisheries Nagapattinam is responsible for the inland and marine fishing activities in this district. District Collector also commands the works of the Chief Educational Officer, District Educational

Officer and District Elementary Educational Officer who are managing the

Educational Institutions up to Higher Secondary level. District Collector executing works relating to irrigation through the PWD authorities and road management through the Divisional Engineer, Highways, Nagapattinam.

District Collector monitors the welfare actions of the Banking units in the district, the capacity of the District Magistrate, the Collector granting various licenses. The Superintendent of Police, Nagapattinam is responsible for maintaining Law and Order and exercises the prohibition in the district. The

Project Officer, District Rural Development Agency, Nagapattinam is implementing the various schemes of the Government for the rural welfare in the district. The District Collector has authorised the Project Officer to extend the basic needs such as drinking water, street light. Rural Housing Scheme to the people.

Nagapattinam district was a moderately developed one. It lies in the

Cauvery delta area and, with plenty of water, farmers raised two or even three crops per year. There were no mechanized boats and fishermen on country crafts were thriving. Nagapattinam harbour handled both passenger and cargo ships. However, all these changed in the last three decades, with the implementation of the Land Ceiling Act and fragmentation of the holdings, followed by partitions over two generations, the number of marginal and small farmers increased and most of the holdings became totally unviable. The

Cauvery releases by Karnataka were much below the requirements and in one or two years, no crops could be raised at all. The protest by the environmentalists about the aquaculture farms resulted in hostility among two groups of farmers. Large number of mechanized fishing boats is being operated and the catches have been declining over the last few years. Strict

87 pollution control norms and local opposition to chemical units in general ensured that no new chemical units were to be put up in this area. The near closure of the Nagapattinam harbour and the railway system for about 10 years added to the woes of the public in general and industries in particular. The

Tsunami of 2004 was a cruel shock and the district is yet to recover from the same. The various relief agencies assisted the people in recovering from the

Tsunami damage. The UN Agencies rendered valuable service in relief and rehabilitation. Now the stage has come when efforts have to be taken to generate sustainable long term income sources for the affected poor people.

3.1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE DISTRICT

Nagapattinam is bounded by Thanjavur district and Thiruvarur district on the West, Cuddalore district on the North and the Bay of Bengal on the

South and the East. The district lies between 10.25° and 11.4° North Latitude and 76.49° and 80.01° East Longitude. The general geological formation of the district is plain coastal. Cauvery and its tributaries are the principal rivers. The district occupies a major portion of the Cauvery river delta consisting of narrow strips of wet lands split by various rivers and channels. The coastal land is generally plain except for a few sand dunes. Apart from these, the Vedaranyam

Salt Swamp (the largest Swamp in Tamilnadu) also lies in this district. There are no hills in this District. The total geographical area of the district is

3,536.38 Sq. Kms (2.08 percentage of the State area).

3.2. DEMOGRAPHICS

As per provisional reports of Census India, population of Nagapattinam in 2011 is 1,02,838 of which male and female are 50,809 and 52,029 respectively. The sex ratio of Nagapattinam city is 1,024 per 1,000 males. In education section, total literates in Nagapattinam city are 81,913 of which

42,374 are males while 39,539 are females. Average literacy rate of

Nagapattinam city is 89.49 percent of which male and female literacy is 94.27 and 84.89 percent. Total children (0-6) in Nagapattinam city are 11,308 as per figure from Census India report on 2011. There were 5,858 boys while 5,450 are girls. Child sex ratio of girls is 930 per 1,000 boys.

Table - 3.1 Population details of Nagapattinam District

Nagapattinam City (2011) Total Male Female Population 102,838 50,809 52,029 Literates 81,913 42,374 39,539 Children (0-6) 11,308 5,858 5,450 Average Literacy (%) 89.49 94.27 84.89 Sex ratio 1024 Child Sex ratio 930 Source: Secondary data (Census 2011)

The main occupation of Nagapattinam is fishing in the waters of Bay of

Bengal and selling them in the local fish markets. There are large number of ice factories for preserving the fishes. The fishing Industry was severely damaged by the Tsunami. Away from the coast of Nagapattinam, agriculture, education

90 and food packing, are practiced. Agriculture is the most important occupation in the villages surrounding the town. It has vast farmlands where rice is cultivated. These farmlands are irrigated through an extensive network of canals from the tributaries of the river Cauvery. The produce is transported by rail to other parts of the country. Cauvery Basin Refinery, a subsidiary of

CPCL is located near Nagapattinam.

3.3. CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

The average maximum temperature of the district, as a whole, is

32.46°C and the average minimum temperature is 24.75 oC. The North East monsoon is main monsoon and it (October to December) contributes about

60 per cent of the total annual rainfall. The second one viz., the South West monsoon (June to September) contributes about 20 percent of the total annual rainfall. The summer rains account for the rest of the rainfall. The total average rainfall for the district is 1341.7 mm (2006). The district is prone to cyclonic storms during the North East monsoon season. Once in three or four years, these storms bring very heavy rains with violent winds and affect the crops severely.

3.4. AGRICULTURE

The total geographical area of the district is 3536.38 Sq. Kms. The cropped area accounts for 65.53 percent of that area. 74.5 percent of the agricultural holdings are less than 1 hectare. The Forest cover is very

91 minimum accounting for only 1.31 percent of the total area. The district has

10,054 ha of waterlogged lands and 11,047 ha of land totally affected by salinity. Paddy is the main crop of the district and depending on water availability and other factors. Kuruvai and Thaladi (both short term) or Samba

(long term) crops. Other cereal crops like Kambu, Raghi and Cholam, account for a very small area only. Similarly, some pulses like Red gram, Green gram and Black gram are grown in small bits of land. Among the commercial crops,

Cotton, Groundnut, Gingelly and Coconut are grown in many parts of the district.

3.5. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND DAIRYING

Though this is an agricultural district, the development on the Animal

Husbandry sector is not impressive. The population of cattle is 3.26 lakh accounting for 2.8 percent of the State total. The dairy animal population consists of 2,92,335 cows and 56,666 buffaloes while the plough animals account for 81,461. The milk production is about 1.3 lakh tonnes per year accounting for only 2.6 per cent of the State production. The area available for grazing is also limited. There are 56 Milk Producers Co-operative Societies, most of them are non-viable. Aavin, which is the State’s Co-operative Milk

Marketing Federation, is operating three milk collection routes in the district.

3.6. FISHERIES

The district has got a total coastal line of 189.9 Kms. making it one of the important districts from the point of view of Fisheries development. The

92 total inland fresh water spread area is 371 hectares. The estuaries and brackish water area is 2422.43 hectares. A variety of fish is available in the district though the catch is not very substantial. There are a large number of aqua culture farms in the district. There are 60 fishing villages with a fishermen population of about 70,000. On any day about 30,000 of them are active fishermen. There are 1,463 mechanised boats and 3,859 catamarans that use 4 major and 42 minor landing centres. The annual marine fish / production is estimated to be 80,000 tonnes (18 per cent of the State production) and the annual inland fish production is estimated to be 4,900 tonnes (14 per cent of the

State production).

3.6.1. Marine Fishing

Fisheries, the economic backbone of this coastal district, having a long coastal area, district plays a major role in marine commodities. The marine ecosystem provides mankind with food, medicines, industrial products and pleasure. This ecosystem has to be maintained in a healthy state, if it is to provide people the benefits in a sustained manner. Natural, healthy ecosystems have evolved over millions of years, resulting in complex interactions of the environment and all the species living in them. Such interactions allow the optimal utilization of the ecosystem resources by a maximum number of species that includes the human beings. The waters along the Bay of Bengal coast of India are biologically very productive and possess several unique environmental features.

3.7. INDUSTRIES

There are only three large scale industrial units and six medium scale units in the district. The large ones produce power, chemicals and petroleum products. The medium scale units produce a variety of light engineering and household articles. There are more than 4,000 registered small scale units in the district. But many of them are very small. There are some cottage units producing cane, bamboo and coir products. The industry density of the district is 1.7 as compared to the State density of 3.2.

Table - 3.2 School particulars of Nagapattinam District Government Others S. No. Category Total (in nos.) (in nos.) 1 Higher secondary School 33 46 79 2 High School 51 32 83 3 Middle School 1 184 185 4 Primary School 2 888 890 Total 87 1150 1237 Source: Secondary data (Directorate of Statistics, Chennai)

There are also 8 Arts and Science Colleges, 4 Polytechnics, 11 ITIs and

2 Engineering Colleges in the district.

3.8. HEALTH SERVICES

There is one District Headquarters Hospital and 11 Government

Hospitals with total bed strength of 919. Further, there are 43 Primary Health

Centres with combined bed strength of 270 beds. Apart from these, there are a number of private hospitals also.

3.9. TRANSPORT

The present road structures in the district consist of 193.100 Kms of

National Highways, 283.420 Kms of State Highways and 741.835 Kms of other district roads apart from Village roads. There are no coastal or inland water transport services.

3.10. POWER

The District is served by the Tamilnadu Electricity Board with 36 sub-stations. The Board does not have a power generation plant in the district.

However, there is one 330 MW Private Power generation plant at

Pillaiperumanallur. There are no plants producing power through Non conventional Energy Sources.

3.11. COMMUNICATIONS

There are 34 Post Offices in the District All the major telecom service providers provide telephone and cellular phone services throughout the district.

3.12. PORT

Nagapattinam Port is classified as a minor port and as such maintained by Tamilnadu Maritime Board of the State Government. It is being restored and modernized with the assistance from the Asian Development Bank. It handles mainly Crude Oil, Edible Oil, (Imports) and Naphtha (Exports). In

2005-2006 handled 42,142 tonnes of import and 12,896 tonnes of exports. The

Private Sector power plant has got a small captive Port at Thirukadaiyur for handling their imports. The CPCL refinery has also got a captive oil jetty.

3.13. TOURISM

The district has got a large number of Tourist spots both religious and recreational. Some of the famous places of worship are Velankanni Church,

Nagore Durgah, and Temples at Sirkali, Thirukadaiyur, Vaideeswaran Koil,

Sikkal, Mayiladuthurai, Ettukkudi. The nationally renowned Thirunallar

Temple for Lord Saneeswara is also nearby. As regards recreational tourism, mention may be made about Point Calimere Bird Sanctuary, Poombuhar Art

Galleries, Tharangampadi Fort.

3.14. ADMINISTRATION

For administrative purposes, the district is divided into 7 taluks coming under 2 revenue divisions. There are 4 municipalities, 11 panchayat unions, 9 town panchayats and 434 village panchayats. The Headquarters for all the important departments including Revenue, Police, Judiciary, Ports, and

Industry are located at Nagapattinam.

3.15. ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

In Tamilnadu, districts like Dharmapuri and Sivaganga, are traditionally regarded as backward districts. Nagapattinam does not fall into this category.

However, it has slipped into backwardness (while other districts were growing faster) due to a number of factors. Some of these are man made and some nature made. Consequently, the existing infrastructure facilities have suffered and the new initiatives could not be implemented with the desired speed. Under

96 these circumstances, Nagapattinam is deemed to be a backward district at present with a crying need to develop agriculture and allied services, industries and infrastructure.

3.16. NATURAL DISASTER (TSUNAMI)

December of 2004, the phenomena of Tsunami ways not on the minds of most of the world’s population, that changed on the morning of December 26 th ,

2004 when an earthquake of moment magnitude 9.1 Richter scale occurred along the oceanic trench off the coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. This large earthquake resulted in vertical displacement of the sea floor and generated a

Tsunami that eventually killed about many people and affected the lives of several million people. Although people living on the coastline near the epicenter of the earthquake had little time or warning of the approaching

Tsunami those living farther away along the coasts of Thailand, Srilanka, India and East Africa had plenty of time to move higher ground to escape. But there was no Tsunami warning system in place in the Indian Ocean, and although other Tsunami warning centers attempted to provide a warning, there was no effective communication system in place. Unfortunately, it has taken a disaster of great magnitude to point out the failings of the world’s scientific community and to educate almost every person on the planet about Tsunami.

Table - 3.3 History of Natural Disasters in the past five decades in Nagapattinam district Date of Calamity Damages caused occurrence Storm surge in 30.11.1952 400 lives land up to 5 miles 08.12.1967 Cyclone 7 lives lost and 15,000 rendered homeless 560 lives lost and 196 missing. Damages to port, irrigation systems, road, power 12.11.1977 Cyclone supply and communication including large number of houses Floods due to Crops damaged in large scale and normal 01.12.1984 heavy rain life affected due to heavy floods 15.11.1991 Heavy rainfall Crops damaged Cyclone speed 1100 people lost their lives, severe 04.12.1993 188 kmph damage to crops 29.10.2004 / Floods due to Crops damaged, around 12,000 houses Nov 2004 heavy rain damaged 6,065 dead and 1,922 injured. 12,821 Tsunami (Indian 26.12.2004 cattle lost, large number of houses, boats Ocean) and infrastructure damaged Source: Secondary data

As is evident from the above table, Nagapattinam is a multi-hazard prone district with heavy winds, cyclones, floods being a regular feature. It has varied experience in handling these disasters but what happened on 26 th

December, 2004 was something beyond expectations.

3.16.1. The Black Sunday

An earthquake of severe intensity with a reported magnitude of 9.0 on the Ritcher scale at 6.29 AM on 26.12.2004 with its epicenter off the coast of

Sumatra, Indonesia triggered giant tidal waves hitting as many as 14 countries

98 across Asia and beyond. These giant tidal waves later identified as Tsunami hit the Indian coastline including Tamilnadu, which was the most affected state in

India.

In Tamilnadu, the coastline is 1,076 km long, which is twelve percent of entire Indian coastline and has 13 coastal districts. All these districts were affected due to the Tsunami. Due to its long coastline and peculiar location,

Nagapattinam district was the worst affected district. Multiple waves hit the district-direct as well as those deflected from the Sri Lankan landmass. The disaster was unknown to the Indian sub continent till then.

3.16.2. Scale of damage

The Tsunami left around 6,065 people dead and the entire coastline devastated in the district. Around 73 habitations in 38 Revenue Villages and 5

Taluks were affected. Out of these, 1,776 were children (887 male, 889 females) which is approximately one-third of the total dead and 2,406 were women. The high death toll of children and women highlighted the fact that

Tsunami had caught people unawares. A possible explanation for the high number of deaths among women was that the Tsunami struck at a time when most of them were in the shore receiving their men folk returning from the sea.

Added to this was the fact that it was a day after the Christmas and a Sunday morning, which had a large number of people, enjoying the morning breeze.

Nagapattinam district alone accounted for 76 percent of the deaths of entire state and was the worst affected district in India. In the education front,

41 Elementary / Primary Schools, 2 High Schools and 1 Higher Secondary

School were damaged. On the health side 4 PHCs and one Government

Hospital was damaged.

Table - 3.4 The devastation in Tamilnadu and Nagapattinam

Tamilnadu Nagapattinam Details Percentage (no’s) (no’s) Human Loss 8018 6065 76 Missing* 1126 791* 70 Cattle Loss 17404 11899 73 Injured 3446 2375 69 No. of persons Evacuated 4.70 lakhs 1.96 lakhs 42 Source: Secondary data

*Missing persons have since been reconciled with the dead and the confirmed death toll remains at 6,065.

Tsunami caused heavy damage to property as well. It flattened thousands of houses rendering thousands of people homeless. The coastal economy was the worst hit with fisheries sector taking the brunt of the damage.

Thousands of boats of all kinds-catamarans, FRP boats and mechanized boats were smashed by waves and suffered irreparable damage. Thousands of kgs of precious nets of fishermen were also washed away of damage. Fisheries infrastructure like harbours and landing centres also suffered damages.

Fisheries department alone reported a damage of Rs.479 crores. Other sectors like agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, highways, trade and tourism, reported damage worth Rs.254 crores. Tsunami had not only taken away lives but also livelihoods of those who had survived.

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Table - 3.5 Statement of Total Damages (Initial Assessment) in Nagapattinam district Amount S. No. Details (Rs. in Crores) 1. Fisheries (Boats & Nets) 479.08 2. Agriculture Crops 5.83 3. Horticulture Crops 0.26 4. Nagapattinam Municipality Assets 18.69 5. Village Panchayat Assets 45.29 6. Special Panchayat Assets 4.57 7. TWAD Board Assets 4.70 8. Port Trust Assets 50.60 9. Highways Roads 60.52 10. PWD (Irrigation Structures) 1.00 11. PWD Buildings 2.29 12. Education (High School& Elementary Schools) 46.10 13. TNEB infrastructure 3.26 14. TNHB Assets 0.26 15. Salt pans & Machinery (9500 Acres) 5.00 16. Forest 1.18 17. Health Services (DD Health) 1.19 18. District Industries Centre (DIC) 5.00 19. Vedaranyam Municipality Assets 6.46 20. Agriculture Engineering Department 1.48 Total 742.76 Source: Secondary data

The table reveals the total damages in Nagapattinam district. Apart from loss of life, Tsunami caused heavy damage to property as well. Fisheries infrastructure like harbours and landing centres also suffered damages.

Tsunami had not only taken away lives but also livelihoods.

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In the great disaster of Tsunami, lots of relief materials arrived. There were plenty of relief materials from all over the country. In the initial few days food and water pockets started pouring in from nearby residents and districts.

Most of the NGOs and voluntary organizations started distributing relief materials, including food pockets to the affected people directly. In the process most of the relief materials were initially delivered to the people who were close to the good road link and the people in the interior affected areas were not given adequate coverage. Special steps were taken to pump relief materials to the interior areas by deploying vehicles. Then in some of the feeding centers, the NGOs gave food packets. The rescue and relief efforts launched in the district were unparalleled in the annals of Nagapattinam history and the formation of area to cover all affected habitations and the co-ordination with the NGOs was perhaps pivotal to its success.

Again new competition by way of air cargo transport has also picked up recently. Without freezing it is now possible to export fresh fish in cold containers through air and reach the European and American destinations in about 12 to 20 hours. As regards cold storages, many such units were put up by the Government and all of them have closed down for lack of viability. The market for fish within the State is expanding fast and the catches are not adequate to meet them. In these circumstances it is better to concentrate on skill up-gradation and improvement of the existing plant and machineries, drying facilities and auction arrangements. The local fishermen have been supplied

102 with a large number of mechanized boats after tsunami. These boats have got facilities for five or ten day’s cold storage to last one voyage. Diesel is supplied to them at a subsidized rate. The landing facilities at Nagapattinam and Palayar have been recently created. However, the recently constructed auction halls have not been put to use for more than one year due to local politics among the fishermen. However, a number of educated youngsters from the fishermen community are willing to invest in a small scale fish processing plant. They are confident of meeting the local social and political constraints.

There is a feeling that there is over exploitation of the sea by fishermen in Nagapattinam. Too many mechanised boats are operating in this area. The fishermen are not able to go to sea on a number of occasions due to adverse seasonal conditions. The Fisheries Department or a local NGOs can be requested to select enterprising fishermen who would like to undertake new activity. Under the overall guidance, fishermen can be trained in seaweed cultivation by local NGOs, who is familiar with their way of life. There will be no marketing problems since willing to buy back the entire production offered by the fishermen.

Chapter – IV

Analysis on Fish Catch before and after Tsunami at Nagapattinam District 103

CHAPTER - IV ANALYSIS ON FISH CATCH BEFORE AND AFTER TSUNAMI AT NAGAPATTINAM DISTRICT

The marine fishing industry is one of the premier natural resources industries which provide employment and earnings to a large section of the population and an acceptable source of protein to the majority of the people. It is also a major earner of foreign exchange for the country and a potential source of promoting regional development in the state. So, marine fishing industry is of vital importance to the economy of a country / state.

The marine ecosystem provides mankind with food, medicines, industrial products and pleasure. This ecosystem has to be maintained in a healthy state, if it is to provide people the benefits in a sustained manner.

Natural, healthy ecosystems have evolved over millions of years, resulting in complex interactions of the environment and all the species living in them.

Such interactions allow the optimal utilization of the ecosystem resources by a maximum number of species that includes the human beings. The waters along the Bay of Bengal coast of India are biologically very productive and possess several unique environmental features. However, little is known on the marine biodiversity resources along the Bay of Bengal coast near Sirkali Taluk,

Nagapattinam District, Tamilnadu State.

The Bay of Bengal Coast is located in Tamilnadu State, lies in the monsoon belt and receives high rainfall. In near shore areas, the mixing of

104 nutrient rich bottom waters and warms surface waters creates conditions similar to up-welling and the number and intensity of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal are likely to increase due to global warming. The input of freshwater and silt impacts the salinity of the coastal and estuarine waters as well as coastal circulation patterns. Some coastal areas serving as nursery grounds for commercially valuable species of prawns are polluted. The areas of critical biological diversity are the mangrove rich habitat along the coast of

Nagapattinam district.

In marine fisheries sector, there is a need to establish coastal aquaculture units for shrimp, crab, lobster, mussels, sea weed, pearl oyster. There is also a need to prepare a comprehensive coastal area development and management plan that will take into account techno-economic feasibility, environmental sustainability and social acceptability. The fishermen, provide additional source of livelihood, ensure some income even during closed season. Such an attempt will help in ensuring scale of economy in operation and focused dissemination of technology.

Fishermen form one of the poorest segments of the population. The number of fulltime fishermen who are generally landless, has increased by about 3 percent per year over the last 15 years. In addition fisheries generate part-time employment for some 11 million people through subsistence fishing, whose numbers peak in the flood seasons from June to October, and through related activities such as net manufacturing, processing, marketing, seed collection and distribution, and other ancillary activities.

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Nagapattinam has a coastline of 187.9 KM and the entire stretch comprising 51 fishing hamlets. The industry supports around 21,000 families and accounted for fishermen population of about 87,000. About 470 Self Help

Groups mainly comprising fisher women from the coastal areas were involved in ancillary activities and mainly selling the fish, dry fish making . The mechanized fishing vessels operated from the district was one of the highest among the Tsunami hit districts in Tamilnadu. To support the marine fishing activities there are many subsidiary industries and retail outlets like base work shops, ice plants, boat builders, sale of spare parts, net mending and diesel bunks. In the sphere of culture fisheries also, Nagapattinam accounted for 50 percent of the shrimp farming area in the state. Fisheries are next to agriculture in contribution to the economy and livelihood.

Fishing is a highly complex activity involving catching, processing and marketing the infrastructure require for the facilities for the development is vast. Infrastructure required for the facilities for landing, berthing, repairs, maintenance, storage, transportation, communication and marketing.

Progressive improvements in these facilities are considered a must for easing the bottlenecks in production and productivity.

The fishing harbours at Nagapattinam, Palazhayar and Kodiakarai were totally damaged in addition to more than 50 fish landing centres across the coastline. The damages to the houses of fishermen were total. Similarly other infrastructure like boat building /repair yards, net making units were wiped out and ice plants, fish sorting and grading units were also damaged to a great extent.

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4.1. FISHING UNITS

A fishing unit is a motor (not necessary for composed of the following components: A boat, sailing vessels), and fishing gear (nets, hooks, traps). The boat (with or without motor) is only useful to transport fishermen and fishing gear to the fishing grounds and to bring back the fish. It is the fishing gears that actually catches fish.

4.1.1. Four types of fishing units

The following are four types of fishing units in Nagapattinam that represent also a hierarchy in terms of scale, investment and incomes cattumaram with sail and small nets, cattumaram with motor and nets, maruti boat with motor and nets, and mechanized boat with trawl net. The sailing cattumaram is obviously the lowest in the hierarchy while the trawler is the highest.

4.1.2. Fishing gear

The fishing gear in Nagapattinam can be classified under the following groups small gillnet large drift net, hook & line, and trawl net. Gillnets are basically nets that are hung vertically in the sea and when a shoal of fish crosses them, the fish are caught in the mesh of the net around their gills. The fish caught depends on the mesh size of the net. So for every fish variety, a separate net is needed with the appropriate mesh size. The Nagapattinam fishermen use a variety of small gillnets to catch different fishes with their

107 catamarans or maruti boats. Each gillnet is made up of a “webbing” with ropes on top and bottom. While the top line is held up by floats, the bottom line is kept in place by sinkers or lead pieces.

4.2. MOTORS

Fishermen use “Out Board motors” or OBMs which are easy to fit on boats and can be removed. However, the OBM used by the Nagapattinam fishermen are not conventional OBMs that are entirely the monopoly of

Japanese manufacturers. They use small light diesel motors that have a long shaft with propeller attached to them. These ‘long tails’ are fitted on to a metal bracket at the end of the catamaran or maruti boat and there is a swiveling system that allows the shaft to be rotated horizontally for navigation and vertically for removing out of water. The long tails are mainly supplied by the

Greaves Company. The long tail OBM is also called as “lombardini” as the motor is a design by the Italian Lombardini Company. It is important to note that small boats using OBMs are called “motorized” to distinguish them from the larger category which are called “mechanized”.

4.3. OWNERS, WORKERS AND DIVISION OF EARNINGS

In the artisanal category (catamaran and maruti boats), ownership is essentially an individual / family affair with the owner also part of the crew.

The crew will be composed of family members as well as others not owning boats. The crew size is 5-15 fishermen depending on size of boat and type of

108 fishing operations. The crews are not paid a wage but a share of the net income

(after deducting trip expenses like fuel, marketing commission, contributions to village or temple). The sharing pattern varies according to type of boat and net and reflects the level of investment needed. The net income is divided into a number of shares with each crew receiving a share with an additional share for the owner. If the owner is also on board, he also takes a crew share. It is not appropriate to see the owner-worker relationship with an understanding borrowed from the agrarian sector with its well defined class relationships. As far as the mechanized boats are concerned, they also operate on a sharing system with the owners having a much higher share than on the artisanal boats in view of the substantially higher investment. The crew members however get bata which is a fixed amount per trip in addition to the share. This bata is due irrespective of whether there is catch or not. Therefore many crew members on mechanized boats have better incomes than owners of artisanal boats. In fact, in recent times with the proliferation of mechanized boats in Tamilnadu, many mechanized boats are making losses and struggling. The Nagapattinam trawlers are no exception.

4.4. FISHING PERIODS

All fishermen go out to sea throughout the year, except for the period between April 15 to May 31, which is the breeding season of Tamilnadu experiences, the North East monsoon which occurs during the months of

October and November. The rainfall and cyclonic depressions occurring during

109 this period sometimes hamper the daily routine of the fishermen. On and average basis, most fishermen go out to sea once a day, every day of the week.

During the closing period and periods of harsh weather conditions, some fishermen practice shore fishing with the catamaran.

4.5. CRAFTS

The type of fishing craft used along the coast of Nagapattinam is very wide, they can be grouped into a few basic types. However, only those which are widely used like Catamarans, FRP boats and Mechanized boats have been included in this study.

Catamaran is a light watercraft and is named from the Tamil language words kattu 'tie' and maram 'wood, tree': simply two trees tied together. The catamaran was the invention of the paravas, an aristocratic fishing community in the southern coast of Tamilnadu State, South India. Building a catamaran is a community affair in small fishing villages and it’s a decentralized labor- absorbing activity. This also helps distressed people be occupied in creative ways. The traditional coastal-fishing is considered a Globally Important

Agricultural Heritage System. The catamaran is the simplest from of a fishing craft that has been used in the Bay of Bengal by the fishermen of India and Sri

Lanka.

FRP Boat is a boat with variations in design and construction of plank- built boats that exist between different regions. The “Kettuvallam” of Southern

Tamilnadu, “Tuticorin type boat” in the Gulf of Mannar region and the

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“Masula boat” in northern Tamilnadu come under this category. At present there are about 254 motorized plank-built boats operating along the

Nagapattinam Coast. The life expectancy of a Plank built boat is about seven years. After Tsunami FRP boats have been used more by fishermen community in Nagapattinam district, because various NGOs have sponsored this type of boat only.

Mechanized Boats are the wooden boats of 8 to 12 meters in length widely used for trawl and gill net operations in the mechanized sector. There are about 1,540 mechanized boats operating along Nagapattinam Coast.

Mechanized boats are constructed with timber, marine plywood, fibre glass and steel. Wooden boats have been so far the cheapest and most popular in India.

Trawlers are mostly wooden boats with inboard diesel engines. They are manufactured also by boat yards in the informal sector. There is a huge stock of trawlers in Tamilnadu that is more than enough to match the fish resources available. It might be possible to redeploy some of the trawlers of

Madras in Nagapattinam and ease the fishing pressure in Madras. This of course needs policy support.

4.6. FISH CATCH

Fish catch was found to be approximately the same in most villages ranging, depending entirely on the size of the boats, types of fishing gear, types of nets and also the number of times the fishermen go to the sea in a day. The boats operated only once a day, but the catch was very large. Trawl and purse

111 nets were used in these boats and were operated by a larger group consisting of more than 5 to 15 fishermen on a single boat. These boats gave larger landings of fish and since they were docked at the harbor, there was scope of selling the fish off to fish exporters directly, which also increased the scope of earnings for fishermen. As a result, the lifestyle and the status of the fishermen were also better than the lifestyle and status of the people in the other villages that were surveyed. Some fishing villages had a leader who also served as a representative for the village. Most fishermen did not own boats. They were either part owners or daily workers. The small nets were owned individually and the larger nets were owned in groups. The maintenance costs for the boat and the fuel costs are set aside as a small portion from the earnings each day.

4.7. SALES AND MARKETING

The women of the fishing community are actively involved in fish processing and marketing. They cleaned and packed the fishes into boxes

(supplied by the department of fisheries), and carried them to the nearby markets or the city to sell them. The fish were transported by means of public buses and small vehicles.

4.8. ELECTRICITY AND ICE

Most of the villages surveyed did not have storage areas for the fish.

Small thatched roof huts served as a temporary storage place. The huts also doubled as fish processing centers (smoking and drying of fish) and centers for

112 storing fish that will be exported. The ice for storage purposes were purchased as blocks from small factories and brought into the fishing village.

4.9. REGISTRATION OF BOATS BEFORE AND AFTER TSUNAMI

Fishing boats should ensure life buoys and life jackets, along with emergency gadgets such as cell phones, battery lights, whistles and one white cloth for signalling before venturing into the sea. Trawlers are mandated to fly the tri-colour, and should host in bold black letters the registration numbers of the trawlers. The trawler should host fluorescent orange paint allotted for the district on either side, up to a height of 1to 1.5 feet. Fishermen are mandated to carry along identity cards. All FRP boats and country boats shall be duly registered by the Department of Fisheries, and the registration certificates carried along while fishing, all boats bought outside the district shall be produced before the department for due process of registration before being put to fishing. Suspicious objects found on sea, or suspicious boats and persons found within the territorial waters shall be immediately communicated to the police and the Department of Fisheries. Fishermen are forbidden from taking along women and children into the sea. An advisory forbidding fisherman from venturing into search operations unilaterally on the lookout for missing boats in times of bad weather has also baleen issued. Fishermen have been told to engage the coastal police and Department of Fisheries in search operations.

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4.10. CRAFT-WISE FISH CATCHING

Fishing operations are distinguished according to the location of fishing grounds and technology or type of fishing gears. Suitable craft and gear combinations are the basic requirement for fishing. A wide variety and type of fishing craft and gear have been used along our coast from time immemorial, each type have been evolved through generations of trial and error methods.

However, traditional crafts are declining in recent years, the technology of motorization of the existing traditional craft and mechanized boats are mainly used.

Table - 4.1 The Trend and Growth in Craft-Wise Fish-Catch in Nagapattinam District (in tonnes and percentage) Crafts Period Non- Shore Mechanized Motorized Total Mechanized seine 24309 32050 13517 336 70212 1998-1999 (34.6) (45.6) (19.3) (0.5) (100.0) 26814 30255 13850 365 71284 1999-2000 (37..6) (42.4) (19.4) (0.5) (100.0) 29260 27652 13214 296 70422 2000-2001 (41.5) (39.3) (18.8) (0.4) (100.0) 30767 19085 15971 179 66002 2001-2002 (46.6) (28.9) (24.2) (0.3) (100.0) 31237 16971 17832 208 66248 2002-2003 (47.2) (25.6) (26.9) (0.3) (100.0) 31355 15942 20831 349 68477 2003-2004 (45.8) (23.3) (30.4) (0.5) (100.0) 44413 8815 2853 381 56462 2004-2005 (78.7) (15.6) (5.1) (0.7) (100.0) 58533 2723 19644 80900 2005-2006 - (72.4) (3.4) (24.3) (100.0) 55902 2600 18761 77263 2006-2007 - (72.4) (3.4) (24.3) (100.0) 64287 2106 19699 86092 2007-2008 - (74.7) (2.4) (22.9) (100.0) Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

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From table 4.1 the craft wise catch before and after Tsunami is understood. The fish catch by mechanized boats were 24,309 tonnes in 1998-99 and catch by these types of boats has exhibited continuous increase since then.

Fish catch by non-mechanized boats have experienced with a continuous decline from 32,050 tonnes in 1998-99 to 2,106 tonnes in 2007-08. On the other hand, the catch by motorized boats, 13,517 tonnes in 1998-99 has increased to 19,699 tonnes in 2007-08, after a sharp decline in 2004-05 due to

Tsunami. Many boats were either washed away or damaged by tidal waves. A sharp decline in the year of Tsunami, can be noted during 10 year period, the rate of growth in fish catch by motorized boats have been increased every year.

4.11. Differentiating trends and growth in net wise fish catch in Nagapattinam district

Trawling is a method of fishing that involves pulling a fishing through the water behind one or more boats. The net that is used for trawling is called a trawl. The boats that are used for trawling are called trawlers or draggers.

Trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively.

Gill nets are the most important fishing gear widely used all along the

Indian Coast. There are 27,924 gill nets in operation in Nagapattinam district.

The gear is a long wall of netting laid across the sea, either on the surface, mid water or bottom. The mesh size and spread depends on the species to be caught. Trawl nets are essentially conical shaped bag nets, with long or short wings, depending on the design of the gear, which can be dragged in water,

115 with the help of a boat either in the bottom, mid-water or surface, the mouth of the net being kept open by various devices, when it is being dragged. The principle involved is to drag the gear through water either on the bottom, surface or mid water and sweep the area, collecting all the fish which come in the way of opening of the net. As per the latest census there are about 2,693 trawler nets in operation in the coast of Nagapattinam district.

Surrounding net is a fishing net which surrounds fish on the sides and underneath. It is typically used by commercial fishers, and pulled along the surface of the water. There is typically a purse line at the bottom, which is closed when the net is hauled in.

Seine is a large fishing net that hangs in the water due to weights along the bottom edge and floats along the top. Boats equipped for seine fishing are called seiners. Seine nets are usually long flat nets like a fence that are used to encircle a school of fish, with the boat driving around the fish in a circle.

Fishing net is a net that is used for fishing. Fishing nets are meshes usually formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used.

Tangle nets are single walled nets used to catch species such as monkfish, turbot and ray. While they resemble gill nets in their design they have a greater amount of slack netting and less flotation at the headline and a smaller vertical height of netting. The result is a much more loosely hung net, which effectively entangles species with protruding spines.

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Hook nets, the use of the hook in angling is descended, historically, from what would today be called a "gorge". The word "gorge", in this context, comes from an archaic word meaning "throat". Gorges were used by ancient peoples to capture fish. A gorge was a long, thin piece of bone or stone attached by its midpoint to a thin line. The gorge would be fixed with bait so that it would rest parallel to the lay of the line. When a fish swallowed the bait, a tug on the line caused the gorge to orient itself at right angles to the line, thereby sticking in the fish's gullet.

Table - 4.2 Trend and Growth in Net-wise Fish-Catch in Nagapattinam District (in tonnes and percentage) Fishing Gears Trawl Surrounding Seine Tangle Hook Period Gillnets Total nets nets nets nets Nets 29628 25641 726 638 12822 219 70212 1998-1999 (42.2) (36.5) (1.0) (0.9) (18.3) (0.3) (100.0) 30106 26634 631 588 12539 168 71284 1999-2000 (42.2) (37.4) (0.9) (0.8) (17.6) (0.2) (100.0) 32477 24821 583 476 11270 178 70422 2000-2001 (46.1) (35.2) (0.8) (0.7) (16.0) (0.3) (100.0) 33423 21615 569 388 9203 172 66002 2001-2002 (50.6) (32.7) (0.9) (0.6) (13.9) (0.3) (100.0) 33024 23029 487 463 8278 186 66248 2002-2003 (49.8) (34.8) (0.7) (0.7) (12.5) (0.3) (100.0) 34343 23883 492 612 8153 133 68477 2003-2004 (50.2) 34.9) (0.7) (0.9) (11.9) (0.2) (100.0) 29721 16425 506 0 8842 - 56462 2004-2005 (52.6) (29.1) (0.9) (0.0) (15.7) (100.0) 7286 70526 - 989 866 - 80900 2005-2006 (9.0) (87.2) (1.2) (1.1) (100.0) 25492 50693 - 89 798 191 77263 2006-2007 (33.0) (65.6) (0.1) (1.0) (0.2) (100.0) 28071 56401 342 168 - 242 86092 2007-2008 (32.6) (65.5) (0.4) (0.2) (0.3) (100.0) Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

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It can be observed from table 4.2 that the fish production by Trawl nets has exhibited a decline during the study period. The fish production using

Trawl nets, which stood at 29,628 tonnes in 1998-99, has declined to 7,286 tonnes in 2005-06 before crossing a five digit figure of 25,492 tonnes in

2006-07 and 28,071 tonnes in 2007-08. Catching fish using Gill nets has increased from 25,641 tonnes in 1998-99 to 56,401 tonnes in 2007-08 with a sudden decline in 2004-05 due to Tsunami before jumping to 70,526 tonnes aftermath of Tsunami in the year 2005-06.

4.12. TABULATION OF TYPES OF BOATS AND PRICES

Catamarans, country boats, shore seines, hook and line and cotton nets mainly constitute the technology in the traditional sector. In Nagapattinam catamaran is the main form of technology employed in the traditional sector.

Over the years the traditional fishermen of India improved techniques of fishing, evolved crafts and gears best suited to their local conditions.

The operation of trawlers potentially causes two kinds of harm to other gear users. Trawler crews actively seek out fishing grounds using mobile fishing gear. If trawling is carried out in the same area as catamaran fishing, there is a real risk of damage to the latter fishermen’s gear as well as to their lives.

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Table - 4.3 Specification of Fishing Boats / Motors with Prices (Nagapattinam)

Name Specifications Cost (Rs.) Catamaran Albizia logs 10,000-20,000 Maruti Boat 24 ft 60,000-75,000 Trawler Boats 36-42’ 10,00,000-15,00,000 Long tail 7-10 hp 32,000-42,000 Imported OBM Suzuki 9.9 hp 60,000 Source: Secondary Data

The table 4.3 reveals the specification of fishing boats and motors in

Nagapattiam. Maximum amount of cost is for trawler boats, and minimum amount of cost is needed catamaran boats.

4.13. FISHING NETS AND PRICES

The nethilee valai and suruku valai has distinct seasonality and are specific species. Nine nets were operated only in particular months like the

Kavala vala, vanjiram valai, valaa valai, thattakavala, thavukola valai. The nets operated the most were the kola, kavala, disko and the nandu valai. The highest numbers of gear were operated in the months of January, February and June.

The lesser number of nets observed in July was due to the completion of the 3 rd cycle of data collection around the same time. February shows the highest diversity in gear operated that is, 26 different gear operated in a single month, followed by March and June (20 different nets).

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Table - 4.4 Specification of Fishing Nets in Nagapattinam

Min. Twine Mesh size Mesh Name of net Material quantity size mm Depth kg.

Kavala vala Nylon 0.2 25-30 mm 300 20 (sardine net) monofilament

Thattakavala Nylon 0.2 36 mm 150 15 (lesser sardine net) monofilament

Kanankeluthi Vala Nylon 0.23 55-57 mm 100 20 (Mackerel net) Monofilament

Kola Vala (flying Nylon 0.23 42-48 mm 55 10 fish net) multifilament

Three layered net Salangai / mani Nylon 1/2 with 65 5 vala (trawl net) multifilament different mesh sizes

Source : Secondary data

The table 4.4 explains the specifications of fishing nets. All nets are made with nylon and only kolavala and salangi / manivala are multifilament nets. Size of mesh vary according to the variety of catch.

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Table - 4.5 Village-wise Available Boats (Catamaran and Vallam) Pre-tsunami and Post-tsunami Period

S. Vallam Villages No. Change in Catamaran Catamaran Catamaran Catamaran pre-tsunami post-tsunami Totalchange in Change in TsunamiVallam & Vallam Pre-tsunami numberofcraft post Vallam Post-tsunami 1 Akkaraipettai 179 119 -60 97 196 99 39 2 Nambiyar Nagar 142 127 -15 100 158 58 43 3 Areattuthurai 371 335 -36 66 252 186 150 4 Kallar 137 110 -27 15 99 84 57 5 Kameswaram 115 94 -21 51 100 49 28 6 Keechankuppam 60 53 -7 85 215 130 123 7 Pushpavanam 78 74 -4 53 44 -9 -13 8 Samanthanpettai 133 121 -12 183 269 85 73 9 Seruthur 180 155 -25 231 310 79 54 10 Vanavanmadevi 135 120 -15 122 107 -15 -30 11 Vellapallam 245 -216 -29 131 197 66 37 12 Velankanni 88 125 37 27 84 57 94 13 Vilundamavadi 106 160 54 61 94 33 87 14 Pattinacherry 245 196 -49 75 142 67 18 15 Kodiyakarai 6 4 -2 143 129 -14 -16 Total 2,220 2,009 -393 1441 2289 1031 862 Source: Secondary data, (NGO Coordination and Resource Centre Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India)

From the table 4.5 the change in number of crafts in the non-mechanized sector is clear. Numbers of catamarans have slowly decreased from 2,220 to

2,009 after Tsunami compared to before Tsunami. But vallam have largely increased 1,441 to 2,289 compared to before and after Tsunami.

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Table - 4.6 Relief Amount Disbursed (as on 15.12.2005) in Nagapattinam District

Relief amount No. of Relief announced by persons amount S. Description the received the disbursed No. Government relief (Rs. in (Per unit) amount crores)

1 Catamaran nets only 10,000 5,156 5.16

Fully Damaged Catamaran inclusive of 2 32,000 5,765 13.80 nets

3 Vallams nets only 20,000 2,535 4.95

4 Vallams partly damaged 15,000 1,574 2.32

5 Catamarans Damaged 10,000 408 0.37

6 Vallam fully damaged inclusive of nets 75,000 229 1.39 7 Vallam fully damaged exclusive of nets 55,000

8 Fully damaged Mechanised Boats 5,00,000 241 11.70

9 Partly damaged Mechanised Boats 3,00,000 613 12.00

10 Partly damaged Outboard Motors 5,000 1,433 0.72

Total 10,22,000 17,954 52.41 Source: Secondary data

In table 4.6 the total amount relief amount distributed by government is

discussed. The total of Rs.52.41 crores has been disbursed to total numbers

17,954 persons. 11.70 crores has been disbursed to fully damaged mechanized

boat followed by fully damaged catamaran inclusive of nets with 13.80 crores.

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Table - 4.7 Status of Resumption of Fishing in Nagapattinam March 1.15.2006

FRP Status Catamaran % % Trawlers % Total % boats

Unit doing 1739 74.03 1948 78.68 648 97.3 4335 78.95 fishing

Unit not 610 25.97 528 21.32 18 2.7 1156 21.05 fishing

Total 2349 100 2476 100 666 100 5491 100

Source: Ngo co-ordination and Resource centre (NCRC), Nagapattinam, 2005

There have been many reasons attributed to the resumption of fishing the main ones being the non-availability of crew for the increased number of crafts and the change in owner-crew relations. Thus, in some cases the number of fishing days per boat had reduced. Many of the boats were also sold and recycling of boats meant that the number of boats were actually less than those reported by NGOs. The other reasons have been that the quality of boats was poor and they had to be frequently landed for repairs. A FRP boat pre-tsunami that used to do 15-25 trips per month was now doing only 10 trips a month.

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Table - 4.8 Average Number of Fishing Days in Peak Month / Lean Month

Mechanized Mechanized Average no. Catamaran Catamaran Boat Boat of Fishing Owners Labourers Owners Labourers days (in no’s) (in no’s) (in no’s) (in no’s) Peak Month 20 20 15 15 Lean Month 10 10 5 5 Source: Primary Data

The Peak fishing season in Nagapattinam starts in April and lasts till

July end. This is followed by the normal season during August and September.

Soon after this, north east monsoon period starts which will normally be the poor season (October-January). In the next two months (February-March) also there will be normal catch.

4.14. FISHING HOURS USING CRAFT & GEAR COMBINATIONS

Catamaran groups do not have proper employment because of rough seasons, but even in peak season, they do not go for fishing daily like the mechanized sector fishermen, as they have to row the boat which is not possible daily. Generally after Tsunami fishing is reduced because the sea is rough due to Tsunami fear of fishermen community, so they do not like to go for fishing. Fear of the sea is still there in the fishermen’s Psyche. Fishermen are so scared about the rough weather that they try to avoid going into the sea, even when conditions are similar to what they were used to earlier. The fishermen observe a notable change in ocean weather. The wind has become more furious after Tsunami that makes the sea rougher than it used to be. So it

124 is clear that in fishing activity number of days of employment very according to change in seasons.

The fishermen in the selected areas are found to be using various types of gears depending upon the nature of crafts. Number of hours involved in marine fishing also varies by craft gear combination. The tripping time is 14 hours for Catamaran Craft with Drift Net, Lobster net and Rays net followed by

Hook and line with 13 hours. With Disco net, Sardine net and Prawn net, the tripping time for catamaran crafts ranges between 6-7 hours. For Gil-netters and trawlers with various types of nets, the tripping time is 12 and 72 hours respectively.

Table - 4.9 Fishing Hours by Craft & Gear Combinations

Tripping Percentage of Fishing Time Craft / Gear Time Fishing Time to (Hours) (Hours) Tripping Time Catamaran Hook / Line 13 7 53.8 Disco Net 6 3 50.0 Drift Net 14 10 71.4 Sardine Net 6 3 50.0 Prawn Net 7 5 71.4 Lobster Net 14 7 50.0 Rays Net 14 7 50.0 Gil-Netters Various Gears 12 7 58.3 Trawlers/Pair Trawlers Various Gears 72 30 41.7 Source: Secondary data.

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It is clear from table 4.9 that, far as the fishing hours for catamaran crafts is concerned, 71.4 per cent of the total tripping time is utilized for fishing when drift and prawn nets are used. For other type of nets, only around 50 per cent of the tripping time is spent for fishing with catamaran craft. While marine fishing is carried out with trawlers, maximum hours are consumed for sailing. Only 41.7 per cent of total 72 hours is utilized for fishing with various nets by Trawlers. If Gil-netters are the crafts, 58.3 per cent of the tripping time meant for fishing irrespective of the type of nets.

Catamaran crafts imply that the fishermen in the selected villages of

Nagapattinam district tend to have used disco net more frequently after

Tsunami. The significant decline in fishing hours for catamaran further reveals that most of catamarans have been washed away by the tidal waves during

Tsunami. At the same time, fishing hours for other type of crafts, like FRP boats, Gil-netters and Trawlers with appropriate craft-gear combination is higher than the fishing hours recorded by the fisheries department.

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Table - 4.10 Average Crew Size by Type of Crafts

S. Type of Craft No. of Persons No.

1 Trawlers & Gill-netters 6

2 FRP Boats 4

3 Purse Seiner Boat 23

4 Plank Built Boats 5-7

5 Dug Out Canoes 2-4

6 Catamarans 2-3

7 Beach Seine Operation >30

8 Pair Trawlers 8-12

Source: Secondary data

From the table 4.10 it is understood that the crew size, on an average is

6 persons for Trawlers / Gill-netters, 4 persons for FRP boats, 2-3 persons for catamarans, 2-4 persons for Dug out Canoes and 5-7 persons Plank Built boats.

The crew size is as much as 23 persons in the case of Purse Seiner Boat and more than 30 persons in respect of Beach Seine operation. The crew size ranges between 8 and 12 for Pair Trawlers. These type of boats are not available in the study area.

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Table - 4.11 Average Fish Catch per Trip

S. Catch / Annum Variety of Fish Catch / Trip (kg) No. (60 Trips / Year) 1 Prawns 50 3,000 2 Cuttlefish 100 6,000 3 Rays 50 3,000 4 Croakers 10 600 5 Ribbon Fishes 5 300 6 Carangids 50 3,000 7 Silver Bellies 100 6,000 8 Goat fish 100 6,000 9 Crab 20 1,200 10 Keluthi 30 1,800 11 Others 100 6,000 Total 615 36,900 Source: Secondary data

According to table 4.11 the catching quantity of Prawns, Rays and

Carangids per trip is 50 kg each whereas per trip catching Keluthi fish and crabs is 30 kg and 20 kg respectively. The average catches of fishes like

Croakers just 10 kg each. In all, total fish catch per trip is 615 kg per trip

36,900 tonnes per annum in Nagapattinam district.

The fishing communities in the light of Tsunami are able to resume fishing or restore status quo in terms of their livelihood. There is a need to analyze the factors and the context that influenced the resumption of fishing or

128 restoration of the status quo. As a result of the damage and loss of craft and gear, for at least three months there was not any fishing in the traditional sector and up to seven months in the mechanized sector in severely affected areas. In some cases, fishing did not resume till over 6 months the delay was mainly due to repair of boats, engines and procurement of new nets. The issue of compensation disbursement also played a role in the resumption of fishing For example, in Nagapattinam district, Arcottuthurai was the first fishing hamlet that resumed fishing after the Tsunami. The fisher folks in this village belonged to a community, which had no traditional interactions and links with other fishing hamlets in the district and their feeling of solidarity with the Pattinavar hamlets was weak. They neither waited for other fishing hamlets to take a collective decision nor waited for the District Administration to declare its fishery compensation policy (unlike the case of the Pattinavar hamlets, which waited for the policy and only then resumed fishing). This hamlet wanted to resume fishing as early as possible and was mentally prepared to do so. By 21 st

March, 2006 they ventured into the sea, while the other fishing hamlets were struggling to prepare themselves.

The stagnation of fish production in the Tsunami affected areas especially Tamilnadu coupled with increase in craft and gear over the last two decades, warrants the need for a combination of management measures, precautionary approaches and livelihood strategies towards restoration and rehabilitation of fisheries in the affected districts. The fishing community, in

129 particular, known for their self-reliance rarely sought assistance from outsiders or the government. They were not interested in merely being passive recipients of relief and rehabilitation efforts, but instead wanted to get involved and take responsibility for relief and rehabilitation. Many communities were finding creative ways to take their own initiative in the restoration of their livelihoods.

This along with their remarkable trademark of independence and self-reliance is a strong indication of their resilience.

The Panchayat in this village showed a special interest in sending the fishermen to sea as early as possible as they felt that earning an income was very important in a crisis. They also felt that going to sea would reduce tension within the village. In some villages, in the initial stages, when there was a shortage of craft, the NGOs intervention in craft donation was limited in scale, and the population of fishermen without craft was large. Minimum 6-7 persons were assigned per FRP income of fishing among more families. However, no information exists on the duration of this practice or the prevalence of this among all the Tsunami-affected villages.

In many hamlets, especially Pattinavar villages, there was a general rule that fishing would not resume till all members had seaworthy craft. This aspect of the sense of unity, social justice and equity within the community (in terms of assets and resources) is indeed worth exploring in studying its implications for socio-ecological resilience, even though it actually resulted in a delay in the resumption of fishing. It should be noted here that before the official

130 resumption of commercial fishing, subsistence fishing on Catamaran and FRP boats had resumed in February 2005 itself. Another reason for the delay in resumption of fishing that was mentioned that when the crafts were repaired / replaced, suitable nets were not available for a long time and in some cases boats were received / replaced but not engines and this resulted in many of the boats lying idle. Some micro level studies also cite that there was a fear of the sea in the fishermen’s psyche. Fishermen were scared and tried to avoid going to sea, even in conditions similar to what they were used to earlier. This has been reported by many studies, but systematic quantitative data on the same is absent. Many fishermen simply preferred being on land and the extended relief assistance and the compensation they received in cash made them cling on to this idleness.

The average increase in engine capacity, the fishing range and grounds of these boats still remains the same. The stabilisation of fishing might take place when people adapt to new craft and gear, change in fishing grounds, target species. It is also felt that the number of boats will stabilize after a year with excess boats that remain idle being sold. It must be noted here that this kind of monitoring of craft use and catch is being done only in Nagapattinam and not in all the other affected districts / states. Furthermore, the parameters are dynamic and need to be continuously be monitored for the next few years in order to get a better picture of the trend as well as the underlying reason for them.

Chapter – V

Analysis on the Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen in Nagapattinam District 131

CHAPTER – V ANALYSIS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF FISHERMEN IN NAGAPATTINAM DISTRICT

In Tamilnadu more than 6,035 people were found dead and double the numbers were reported missing in Nagapattinam. The Tsunami has left unrecoverable damages in the district. The ravage caused by Tsunami left many parents and children orphans and homeless. The loss in the district has stunned the State Authorities and the Army. Many affected villages could not even be reached after many days of Tsunami. Fisher folk and their families have suffered tremendous loss of life and also devastation to their livelihoods, homes as well as their fishing gears and boats. The aquatic diversity of the region has also been devastated by the Tsunami. Coral reefs have been destroyed by the force of the waves and are now choked with silt. Mangrove swamps and coastal breeding grounds for fish and other aquatic organisms have been severely damaged.

In Nagapattinam, Akkaraipettai is the worst affected area and then

Kallar and Keechankuppam are other areas. First tidal wave was not expected by the people and they didn’t realize that Tsunami struck the areas. Before they stabilize, in another 45 minutes gap, the second wave struck again and damaged the human lives, boats, houses. The death toll was very high in this district. Large stretches of agricultural lands were damaged. The standing crops were destroyed and land became unfit for cultivation due to the influx of sea water.

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Fishing is the main economic activity of the affected communities.

However, overexploitation of the fishing resources was already a reality before the Tsunami and the reconstruction efforts have actually increased the capacity of the fishing fleet, aggrevating the problem. Agriculture and livestock were less important as an economic activity, but the loss of standing crops and death of livestock may have had a disproportionate effect on the livelihoods of women and disadvantaged groups. The salinity of the lands affected have medium term impact on agricultural productivity.

Fisheries is one of the important food production sectors in India contributing to the livelihood as well as food security of a large section of the economically under-privileged population. In recent years, it has assumed greater significance and its contribution towards State and National economy, livelihood and nutritional security, rural employment generation and foreign exchange earnings have been enormous . Fisheries include marine, freshwater and brackish water sub-sectors.

In Nagapattinam district, the women are also involved in the occupation and usually handled the marketing and sales. The level of education, however, is not very high among the fishing community. However, the average literacy rate and awareness of social issues and government schemes and implementation of schemes, advances in fishing and current issues are high among the fishing community. The houses ranged from thatched roof huts to small settlements with tin or metal roofs or small to medium sized brick

133 houses. The houses lack basic amenities such as water and seweage system.

Electricity is available to only a few houses and hand operated water pumps are common. The fishing villages are concentrated settlements for fisher folk and their respective families. There are also noticeable differences between the rural and urban fishing villages, in terms of lifestyle, basic amenities and work pattern. The urban fishing villages are usually larger settlements. The family members living in the urban hamlets are also involved in various other occupations other than fishing, which is in contrast to the rural setup, where the entire family is supported by the income of a single member. The level of education among the children is also higher in the urban setup. Hence, awareness about new technological developments and government schemes and subsidies is also higher.

It is typical of fishery where changes in efficiency do not lead to increased catch and where additional fishermen will reduce the catch per day per person. The fishermen in the surveyed fishing villages lived within close proximity to one another, thereby forming the small settlements called

Kuppams. The housing in any hamlet ranges from thatched huts to solid brick houses. While the small thatched huts belonged to the daily wage workers, the larger brick houses mostly belonged to the fishermen who owned the boats or to families who had other members involved in different occupations. The lack of water and sanitary facilities was common to all families in almost all the villages, irrespective of being rural or urban. Water is either available from a

134 hand pump for the entire village or sometimes for every two or three houses, situated outside one of the houses in the village and public restrooms have been set up for the people by the government. In most villages, almost the entire family has adopted fishing as their main occupation. The family members are usually involved in various stages of occupation, ranging from mainstream fishing to processing, cleaning and sales. The work is also divided based on gender, the fishing by the men, and processing, cleaning and sales by the women.

Tsunami not only took away the life of the people and destroyed the villages. It really spoiled their dream and daily bread. All of their livelihoods, equipments, boats, catamarans, nets are all damaged and destroyed due to

Tsunami. There were multiple livelihood activities centred on fishing like selling, fish drying, artisans, poultry feed production from fishery waste, sea shell ornament makers, which are affected since the fishermen are unable to recommence fishing activities. The killer wave has rendered hundreds of hectares of cultivable land saline and useless and destroyed the last crop, which were due for harvest. Due to this, agrarian workers also lost their daily jobs.

The wave also caused extensive damage to the saltpans, which was the livelihood of hundreds of workers. Tourism industry in the area also has got a blow and deprived dependent livelihoods of small traders and tourist guides.

Creation of fishing assets, unfortunately, was preconceived as the only strategy of bringing normalcy in the fishery sector. Moreover, welfare of the

135 fishing community was envisaged on the borrowed perspective of the agrarian economy that ensuring welfare of the fisher folk is possible through converting the labour fishermen into owner fishermen. Captivated by this idea, NGO groups focused their interventions on repairing and replacing of fishing units alone, ignoring the complementary sectors. As too many sectors were involved in the relief activities, one point of time there arose a situation with surplus fishing units and new owners in the traditional fishing hamlets.

The present chapter analyses the primary informations collected regarding the size of families, age groups, sex composition, marital status, education level, annual income, annual expenses, saving, debt position, primary occupation of sample households, fishing unit, micro enterprises, damage to house distance from the sea, damage of fishing craft, boat distribution by

NGOs, immunization activities, skill training for new SHGs, relief packages offered by the Government and NGOs.

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Table - 5.1 Distribution of Sample Households According to Size of the Family

S. Size of Family Households Percentage No.

1 Below - 3 17 11.33

2 3 - 4 45 30

3 5 - 6 67 44.67

4 7 - 8 9 6

5 9 - 10 10 6.67

6 11 and above 2 1.33

Total 150 100

Source : Primary data

The table 5.1 shows the family size of the sample households in the study area. Out of 150 sample households only 21 (14%) families have more than 7 members. The remaining 129 (86%) of household have less than 6 members as the fisher folk have awareness on family planning programmes.

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Table - 5.2 Age Distribution of Sample Households

S. Age group in years No. of Members Percentage No.

1 Below - 10 156 22.32

2 11 - 20 181 25.89

3 21 - 30 139 19.89

4 31 - 40 112 16.02

5 41 - 50 88 12.59

6 51 - 60 22 3.15

7 61 and above 1 0.14

Total 699 100

Source : Primary data

From the observation of the table 5.2 it is clear that 156 (22.32%) of 699 members are less than 10 years of age. 432 (61.80%) of them belong to an age group between 11 - 40 years. Only one person (0.14%) in the sample is aged

64. It can be inferred that working population is more in sample members group than children and aged people.

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Table - 5.3 Distribution of Head of Sample Households S. No. Villages Male Female Total 9 1 1 Akkaraipettai 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 9 1 2 Nambiyar Nagar 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 10 3 Arkattuthurai - 10 (7.25%) 9 1 4 Kallar 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 9 1 5 Kameswaram 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 9 1 6 Keechankuppam 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 8 2 7 Pushpavanam 10 (5.80%) (16.67%) 9 1 8 Samanthanpettai 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 9 1 9 Seruthur 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 8 2 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 10 (5.80%) (16.67%) 9 1 11 Vellapallam 10 (6.52%) (8.33%) 10 12 Velankanni - 10 (7.25%) 10 13 Vizhunthamavadi - 10 (7.25%) 10 14 Pattinachery - 10 (7.25%) 10 15 Kodiyakarai - 10 (7.25%) Total 138 12 150 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages) From the table 5.3 it is inferred that the male headed families are 138 and, female headed constitute 12. It is clear that male headed families are more in numbers than the female headed are families in the sample households.

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Table - 5.4 Caste wise Distribution of Sample Households

S. Caste No. of Households Percentage No.

1 Veerakodivellalar 6 4

2 Meenava Chettiyar 120 80

3 Pattinavar 10 6.67

4 Seduled caste 2 1.33

5 Meenava Padayachi 10 6.67

6 Ravuthar 2 1.33

Total 150 100

Source: Primary data

From the table 5.4 it can be noted that 120 (80%) households belonging to Meenava Chettiyar caste followed by, Pattinavar and Meenava Padayachi caste by 10 (6.67%) and 10 (6.67%) respectively. 2 (1.32%) households belong to scheduled caste and another 2 (1.33%) households are Ravuthar families. It is interesting to note that Meenava Chettiar is the dominating community in the sample.

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Table - 5.5 Marital Statuses of the Sample Households

S. Marital Status No. of Members Percentage No.

1 Married 452 64.66

2 Unmarried 247 35.34

Total 699 100

Source: Primary data

Table 5.5 shows the marital status of the sample households. It is noted that 452 members are married (64.66%) and unmarried members constitute

247 (35.34%).

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Table - 5.6 Earners, Dependants and Earner Dependants of Sample Households S. Earner Group Earners Dependants Total No. Dependants (1.05%) (4.28%) Mechanized 1 3 16 boat owners - 19 (15.79%) (84.21%) (27.37%) (27.81%) (15%) FRP boat 2 78 104 6 owners 188 (41.49%) (55.32%) (3.19%) (25.96%) (25.40%) (25%) FRP boat 3 74 95 10 labourers 179 (41.34%) (53.07%) (5.59%) (22.81%) (21.39%) (25%) Catamaran boat 4 65 80 10 owners 155 (41.94%) (51.61%) (6.45%) (22.81%) (21.12%) (35%) Catamaran boat 5 65 79 14 labourers 158 (41.14%) (50%) (8.86%) Total 285 374 40 699 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.6 shows that earners, dependants and earner dependants of the sample households. The FRP owner and labourers have dependants very high compared to others, it is 152 earners and 199 dependant members. The catamaran owners and labourers have 159 dependants 130 members in earner groups. The mechanized owners have 3 earners and dependants members are

16 respectively. The dependency ratio is higher among fishermen owing to the lack of education, childhood and lack of awareness. Totally 40 member are earner dependents. Earners constitute 285 (40.8%), dependents are 374

(53.5%), and the remaining 40 (5.7%) are earner dependents.

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Table - 5.7 Educational Status of Sample Households S. Villages Illiterate Schooling Total No. 6 4 1 Akkaraipettai 10 (5.6%) (9.3%) 4 6 2 Nambiyar Nagar 10 (3.7%) (13.9%) 7 3 3 Arkattuthurai 10 (6.5%) (6.10%) 9 1 4 Kallar 10 (8.4%) (0.43%) 8 2 5 Kameswaram 10 (7.5%) (4.7%) 7 3 6 Keechankuppam 10 (6.5%) (6.10%) 6 4 7 Pushpavanam 10 (5.6%) (9.3%) 9 1 8 Samanthanpettai 10 (8.4%) (0.43%) 8 2 9 Seruthur 10 (7.5%) (4.7%) 9 1 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 10 (8.4%) (0.43%) 9 1 11 Vellapallam 10 (8.4%) (0.43%) 5 5 12 Velankanni 10 (4.7%) (11.63%) 7 3 13 Vizhunthamavadi 10 (6.5%) (6.10%) 6 4 14 Pattinachery 10 (5.6%) (9.3%) 7 3 15 Kodiyakarai 10 (6.5%) (6.10%) Total 107 43 150 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

From table 5.7 the educational status of the fishermen community can be noted. Out of the total, 107 samples are illiterates. Remaining 43 samples have Primary and Secondary level schooling education.

143

Table - 5.8 Educational Status of the Sample Members

S. Education Level No. of Members Percentage No. 1 Illiterate 283 40.49 2 Primary (1–5) 144 20.60 3 Middle (6–8) 151 21.60 4 Secondary 88 12.59 5 Under Graduate (U.G) 17 2.43 6 Post Graduate (P.G) 4 0.57 7 Technical qualification 12 1.72 Total 699 100 Source: Primary data

The table 5.8 shows the educational level of sample households. Out of

699, 283 are illiterates. 144 (20.60%) members have primary level education and 151 (21.60%) members have education up to middle school education.

The numbers of 88 members (12.59%) have secondary school educational level, 17 (2.43%) members have studied up to Graduate level U.G, and

(0.57%), four members have studied up to P.G., 12 (1.72%) members have

Technical qualification in the study area. Psychologically fishermen community children in the age group of 12 to 14 go for fishing instead of schooling for two reasons. One is to earn income and the other is to get experience in the art of their traditional work. But after Tsunami in many cases parents are compelling them to stop fishing and to go for schooling, because of their Tsunami fear and they have the awareness to educate their children.

144

Table - 5.9 Occupation of the Sample Households

S. Occupation No. of Households Percentage No.

1 Mechanized boat owners 3 2

2 FRP boat owners 85 56.67

3 FRP boat labourers 35 23.33

4 Catamaran boat owners 21 14

5 Catamaran boat labourers 6 4

Total 150 100

Source: Primary data

From the examination of the Table 5.9 it is clear that out of 150 sample households 3 members (2%) are mechanized boat owners. (27.18%) 27 members are engaged in catamaran fishing as owners and labourers. Majority of households 120 (80%) are indulged in FRP boats. All 150 sample households are engaged in fishing operation either as owners or as labourers.

145

Table - 5.10 Types of House of the Sample Households S. Tsunami Villages Terraced Tiled Thatched Total No. House 2 8 1 Akkaraipettai - - 10 (25%) (6.56%) 2 8 2 Nambiyar Nagar - - 10 (25%) (6.56%) 10 3 Arkattuthurai - - - 10 (8.20%) 10 4 Kallar - - - 10 (8.20%) 4 6 5 Kameswaram - - 10 (28.56%) (4.92%) 3 1 6 6 Keechankuppam - 10 (21.43%) (16.67%) (4.92%) 10 7 Pushpavanam - - - 10 (8.20%) 10 8 Samanthanpettai - - - 10 (8.20%) 2 1 7 9 Seruthur - 10 (14.29%) (16.67%) (5.74%) 10 10 Vanavan Mahadevi - - - 10 (8.20%) 2 1 7 11 Vellapallam - 10 (14.29%) (16.67%) (5.74%) 2 1 7 12 Velankanni - 10 (14.29%) (16.67%) (5.74%) 1 2 7 13 Vizhunthamavadi - 10 (12.5%) (33.33%) (5.74%) 1 9 14 Pattinachery - - 10 (7.14%) (7.38%) 3 7 15 Kodiyakarai - - 10 (37.5%) (5.74%) Total 8 14 6 122 150 Source : Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Table 5.10 shows that on the whole 122, out of 150 sample households are living in Tsunami houses, because many fishermen were affected by natural disaster Tsunami, 8 members are living in terraced houses. 14 members are living in tiled houses, and 6 members are living in thatched houses.

146

Table - 5.11 Boat Particulars of the Sample Households S. Mechanized Villages FRP Boat Catamaran No Boat Total No. boat 5 1 4 1 Akkaraipettai - 10 (5.9%) (4.76%) (9.75%) 5 1 4 2 Nambiyar Nagar - 10 (5.9%) (4.76%) (9.75%) 4 6 3 Arkattuthurai - - 10 (4.7%) (14.63%) 1 7 1 1 4 Kallar 10 (33.33%) (8.23%) (4.76%) (2.43%) 8 2 5 Kameswaram - - 10 (9.41%) (9.52%) 6 2 2 6 Keechankuppam - 10 (7.05%) (9.52%) (4.87%) 5 2 3 7 Pushpavanam - 10 (5.9%) (9.52%) (7.31%) 3 2 5 8 Samanthanpettai - 10 (3.52%) (9.52%) (12.19%) 5 1 4 9 Seruthur - 10 (5.9%) (4.76%) (9.75%) 4 1 5 10 Vanavan Mahadevi - 10 (4.70%) (4.76%) (12.19%) 6 2 2 11 Vellapallam - 10 (7.05%) (9.52%) (4.87%) 6 1 3 12 Velankanni - 10 (7.05%) (4.76%) (7.31%) 8 1 1 13 Vizhunthamavadi - 10 (9.41%) (4.76%) (2.43%) 1 8 1 14 Pattinachery - 10 (33.33%) (9.41%) (4.76%) 1 5 3 1 15 Kodiyakarai 10 (33.33%) (5.9%) (14.28%) (2.43%) Total 3 85 21 41 150 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represents percentage)

Table 5.11 reveals that, 85 sample households have FRP boats, because three months after the tsunami NGOs helped fishermen in Nagapattinam to get

FRP boats. They returned to the sea to sustain their livelihood. So, these types of boats are many in study area compared to mechanized and catamaran boats.

It is also noted that 41 sample households have no boats of their own.

147

Table - 5.12 Monthly Income of Sample Households

Villages Total Kallar Seruthur Velankanni Vellapallam Kodiyakarai Pattinachery Kameswaram Akkaraipettai Pushpavanam Arkattuthurai Vilundamavadi NambiyarNagar Keechankuppam Samanthanpettai Vizhunthamavadi VanavanMahadevi Monthly(in Income Rs.)

Less than - - - 1 2 2 1 1 1 - 1 - - 2 - 11 20,000

20,001-30,000 2 2 1 2 - 2 2 - - 1 3 2 3 3 2 25

30,001-40,000 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 23

40,001-50,000 1 2 2 1 2 - 2 2 4 1 1 2 3 - 2 25

50,001-60,000 - - 2 1 1 3 - 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 2 20

60,001-70,000 5 4 2 3 3 2 3 4 2 5 2 3 1 1 1 41

More than 1 1 1 1 ------1 5 70,001

Total 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 150

Source: Primary data

Table 5.12 reveals the monthly income range of sample fishermen

households. It ranges between less than Rs.20,001 to Rs.80,000. Out of 150

sample households only eleven earn less than Rs.20,000 and five families earn

more than Rs.70,001.

148

Table - 5.13 Monthly Expenses of Sample Households

Villages Total Total Kallar Kallar Seruthur Seruthur Velankanni Velankanni Vellapallam Vellapallam Kodiyakarai Kodiyakarai Kameswarm Kameswarm Pattinachery Pattinachery Akkaraipettai Akkaraipettai Pushpavanam Pushpavanam Arkattuthurai Arkattuthurai vilunthamavadi vilunthamavadi Nambiyar Nagar Nagar Nambiyar Keechankuppam Keechankuppam Samanthanpettai Samanthanpettai Vizhunthamavadi Vizhunthamavadi Vanavan Mahadevi Mahadevi Vanavan Monthly Income (in Rs.) Rs.) (in Income Monthly

Less than 20,000 1 - - - 1 ------2

20,001-30,000 - - 3 - 3 1 2 3 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 25

30,001-40,000 5 4 - 2 1 3 2 - 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 27

40,001-50,000 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 23

50,001-60,000 - 1 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 3 32

60,001-70,000 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 2 38

More than 70,001 - - - 1 ------1 1 3

Total 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 150

Source: Primary data

The table 5.13 shows the annual expenses range of sample fishermen

households. It ranges between less than Rs.20,001 to Rs.80,000. Out of 150

sample households only two of them have expenditure less than Rs.20,000 and

three families have expenditure more than Rs.70,001.

149

Table - 5.14 Status of Insurance among the Sample Households S. No. Villages Insured Not Insured Total 7 3 1 Akkaraipettai 10 (6.31%) (7.69%) 8 2 2 Nambiyar Nagar 10 (7.21%) (5.13%) 6 4 3 Arkattuthurai 10 (5.41%) (10.26%) 9 1 4 Kallar 10 (8.11%) (2.56%) 10 5 Kameswaram - 10 (9.01%) 6 4 6 Keechankuppam 10 (5.41%) (10.26%) 7 3 7 Pushpavanam 10 (6.31%) (7.69%) 10 8 Samanthanpettai - 10 (9.01%) 6 4 9 Seruthur 10 (5.41%) (10.26%) 10 10 Vanavan Mahadevi - 10 (9.01%) 5 5 11 Vellapallam 10 (4.50%) (12.82%) 5 5 12 Velankanni 10 (4.50%) (12.82%) 10 13 Vizhunthamavadi - 10 (9.01%) 7 3 14 Pattinachery 10 (6.31%) (7.69%) 5 5 15 Kodiyakarai 10 (4.50%) (12.82%) Total 111 39 150 Source : Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages) The table 5.14 explains that out of 150 persons, 111 have insured their lives. Remaining 39 members have not insured their life, because they are not aware of insuring their lives. In Kameswaram, Samanthanpettai and Vizhunthamavadi all 10 sample households have insured their lives without any person left out, which show that they are aware of the importance of insurance.

150

Table - 5.15 Savings of the Sample Households Investment S. Post Chit Liquid Nil Villages Bank in Land and LIC No. Office fund Cash Saving Building 5 2 3 1 Akkaraipettai - - - - (8.33%) (16.67%) (8.82%) 3 3 2 2 2 Nambiyar Nagar - - - (5%) (25%) (16.67%) (5.89%) 4 2 4 3 Arkattuthurai - - - - (6.67%) (16.67%) (11.76%) 6 1 3 4 Kallar - - - - (10%) (7.14%) (8.82%) 5 1 2 2 5 Kameswaram - - - (8.33%) (10%) (14.29%) (5.89%) 2 3 2 1 1 1 6 Keechankuppam - (3.33%) (25%) (16.67%) (7.14%) (12.5%) (2.94%) 5 2 1 2 7 Pushpavanam - - - (8.33%) (20%) (7.14%) (25%) 5 2 1 1 1 8 Samanthanpettai - - (8.33%) (20%) (7.14%) (12.5%) (2.94%) 5 2 3 9 Seruthur - - - - (8.33%) (14.29%) (8.82%) Vanavan 3 2 1 2 2 10 - - Mahadevi (5%) (16.67%) (8.33%) (20%) (5.89%) 4 2 1 2 1 11 Vellapallam - - (6.67%) (16.67%) (7.14%) (25%) (2.94%) 4 1 5 12 Velankanni - - - - (6.67%) (8.33%) (14.71%) 3 1 2 2 1 1 13 Vizhunthamavadi - (5%) (8.33%) (16.67%) (14.29%) (12.5%) (2.94%) 2 1 2 2 1 2 14 Pattinachery - (3.33%) (8.33%) (20%) (14.29%) (12.5%) (5.89%) 4 1 1 4 15 Kodiyakarai - - - (6.67%) (10%) (7.14%) (11.76%) Total 60 12 12 10 14 8 34 Source : Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

As per table 5.15, 60 members of the sample households save in Banks.

Investment in land and building constitute for 12 (8%) members other 12

members save in Post office. The remaining 10 saves in Chit fund. Other

14 (9.3%), and 8 (5.3%), members they kept their saving in LIC and Liquid

cash also. Remaining 34 (22.7%) members of fishermen sample are not having

awareness for saving. Savings in bank is high when compared to other forms

of savings and investments. Because it helps them in times of need.

151

Table - 5.16 Occupational wise Expenses in Sample Households (in Rupees) S. Occupational Food Fuel Social Electricity Medical Total No Status items items Function

(27.80%) (26.11%) (24.81%) (28%) (30%) Mechanized 1 3,26,400 1,02,000 1,18,800 84,000 3,60,000 9,91,200 boat owners (32.93%) (10.29%) (11.99%) (8.47%) (36.32%)

(25.75%) (24.12%) (21.05%) (20%) (25%) FRP boat 2 3,02,400 94,224 1,00,800 60,000 3,00,000 8,57,424 owners (35.27%) (10.99%) (11.76%) (7.00%) (34.99%)

(15.33%) (15.36%) (17.54%) (16%) (20%) FRP boat 3 1,80,000 60,000 84,000 48,000 2,40,000 6,12,000 labourers (29.41%) (9.80%) (13.73%) (7.84%) (39.22%)

(17.83%) (22.12%) (20.30%) (22%) (15%) Catamaran 4 2,09,400 86,400 97,200 66,000 1,80,000 6,39,000 boat owners (32.77%) (13.52%) (15.21%) (10.33%) (28.17%)

(13.29%) (12.29%) (16.29%) (14%) (10%) Catamaran 5 1,56,000 48,000 78,000 42,000 1,20,000 4,44,000 boat labourers (35.14%) (10.81%) (17.57%) (9.46%) (27.03%)

Total 11,74,200 3,90,624 4,78,800 3,00,000 12,00,000 35,43,624 Source : Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.16 shows that average expense on different items of households according to their categories. FRP owners and labourers spent

Rs.14,69,424 of their total expense on where as mechanized owner spent

Rs.9,91,200 and the catamaran owner and labourers spent Rs.10,83,000 respectively on all items. The main expenditure of fishermen is on social function items. The FRP owners spent Rs.3,00,000 of their total expense where as mechanized owner spent Rs.3,60,000 and the catamaran owner and labourers spent have Rs.1,80,000 and Rs1,20,000 respectively on social functions.

152

Table - 5.17 Source wise Debt position of the Sample Households

Mechani Catamar Catamar S. FRP boat FRP boat Source zed boat an boat an boat Total No. owners labourers owners owners labourers

(42.86%) (24.24%) (31.82%) (21.88%) (33.33%) Relatives 1 and 1,80,000 96,000 84.000 84,000 60,000 5,04,000 Friends (35.71%) (19.05%) (16.67%) (16.67%) (11/90%)

(28.57%) (45.45%) (22.73%) (31.25%) (33.33%) Local 2 Money 1,20,000 1,80,000 60,000 1,20,000 60,000 5,40,000 Lenders (22.22%) (33.33%) (11.11%) (22.22%) (11.11%)

(28.57%) (30.30%) (45.45%) (4.69%) (33.33%) Middle 3 1,20,000 1,20,000 1,20,000 1,80,000 60,000 6,00,000 men (20%) (20%) (20%) (30%) (10%)

Total 4,20,000 3,96,000 2,64,000 3,84,000 1,80,000 16,44,000

Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Table 5.17 gives the details of the source wise debt position of the fishermen households in the sample area. Their main source of debt is to borrow from relatives and friends, and also local money lenders and to borrow from middlemen. Out of Rs.16,44,000 they have borrowed Rs.5,04,000 from relatives and friends, Rs.5,40,000 from local money lenders, and the remaining

Rs.6,00,000 from middleman. Fishermen communities have borrowed from various sources to spend for many purposes.

153

Table - 5.18 Purpose wise Debt position of the Sample Households

Mechanized Catamaran Catamaran S. FRP boat FRP boat Purpose boat boat boat Total No. owners labourers owners owners labourers

(45.05%) (40.98%) (46.88%) (57.47%) (58.82%) 1 Marriages 1,00,000 50,000 30,000 50,000 20,000 2,50,000 (40%) (20%) (12%) 20%) (8%)

Repairing (22.52%) (20.49%) (23.44%) (17.24%) (14.71%) 2 building and 50,000 25,000 15,000 15,000 5,000 1,10,000 house (45.45%) (22.73%) (13.64%) (13.64%) (4.55%)

(3.15%) (4.10%) (6.25%) (5.75%) (5.88%) 3 Clothing 7,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 2,000 23,000 (30.43%) (21.74%) (17.39%) (21.74%) (8.70%)

(11.26%) (12.30%) (5.75%) Repairing 4 25,000 15,000 - 5,000 - 45,000 boat and Net (55.56%) (33.33%) (11.11%)

(13.51%) (16.40%) (15.63%) (8.05%) (14.71%) Social 5 30,000 20,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 72,000 Functions (41.67%) (27.78%) (13.89%) (9.72%) (6.94%

(4.50%) (5.74%) (7.81%) (5.75%) (5.88%) Other 6 10,000 7,000 5,000 5,000 2,000 29,000 purchases (34.48%) (24.14%) (17.24%) (17.24%) (6.90%)

Total 2,22,000 1,22,000 64,000 87,000 34,000 5,29,000 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.18 shows clearly the various purposes for which they have

borrowed. The total debt position is Rs.5,29,000 of which for marriages alone

they have borrowed Rs.2,50,000 of which mechanized owner members have

borrowed Rs.1,00,000. Owner group and labour group have borrowed

Rs.1,10,000, Rs.45,000 and Rs.72,000 respectively.

154

For building and repairing house alone they have borrowed Rs.1,10,000 of which Rs.50,000 is borrowed from mechanized owners and remaining

Rs.60,000 from FRP owner and labourers and seller group respectively, also the other purchasing expense is more. The repairing boat and net, FRP groups and Mechanised owner have borrowed Rs.45,000, but catamaran owner and labour not borrowed this purpose. The other purchases alone mechanized have borrowed Rs.10,000. Catamaran owner and labour and FRP owner and labour have borrowed Rs.12,000, and Rs.7,000 respectively. In fact this is the major purpose of debt for the catamaran labour and owner group. All together catamaran (labour) have debt position of only Rs.29,000 which is very less when compared to other group. Because of catamaran (labour) group income is low compared other groups. In fishermen community borrow money according to their repaying capacity.

155

Table - 5.19 Assets of the Sample Households

Catamaran Total S. Mechanized FRP boat FRP boat Catamaran Assets boat (Amount No boat owners owners labourers boat owners labourers in Rs.) (30.79%) (43.35%) (49.6%) (44.76%) (58.82%) 1 House 10,30,000 7,50,000 3.10,000 5,55,000 3,00,000 29,45,000 (34.97%) (25.47%) (10.53%) (18.85%) (10.19%) (23.91%) (37.57%) (32%) (36.29%) (19.61%) 2 Land 8,00,000 6,50,000 2,00,000 4,50,000 1,00,000 22,00,000 (36.36%) (29.55%) (9.09%) (20.45%) (4.55%) (26.909%) (4.34%) (0.81%) Boat and 3 9,00,000 75,000 - 10,000 - 9,85,000 Net (91.37%) (7.61%) (1.02%) (16.44%) (12.72%) (16%) (16.13 %) (19.61%) 4 Jewels 5,50,000 2,20,000 1,00,000 2,00,000 1,00,000 11,70,000 (47.01%) (18.80%) (8.55%) (17.09%) (8.55%) (1.51%) (1.45%) (1.6%) (1.21%) (0.98%) Live 5 50,500 25,000 10,000 15,000 5,000 1,05,500 Stocks (47.87%) (23.70%) (9.48%) (14.22%) (4.74%) Others (0.45%) (0.58%) (0.8%) (0.81%) 0.98%) 6 (Liquid 15,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 5,000 45,000 cash) (33.33%) (22.22%) (11.11%) (22.22%) (11.11%) Total 33,45,500 17,30,000 6,25,000 12,40,000 5,10,000 74,50,500 Source: Primary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.19 reveals that the total assets of sample households of

Rs.74,50,500, mechanized owner assets extents to Rs.29,45,500 which is the

maximum. The first importance is to houses which are having a value of

Rs.29,45,000. The boat and net, jewels and land of fishermen households have

a value of Rs.9,85,000, Rs.11,70,000 and Rs.22,00,000 respectively. The

livestock value Rs.1,05,500 is less in fishermen households, also they have

liquid cash of Rs.45,000 which is very less when compared to the other assets,

as they prefer immovable property and assets. Fishermen households have

many types of assets they possess own house, land, jewels livestock and so on.

156

Table - 5.20 School particulars of the Sample villages

Schools particulars S. Name of the Village No. Primary Middle Higher Total (in nos.) (in nos.) (in nos.)

1 Akkaraipettai 1 0 0 1

2 Nambiyar Nagar 1 0 0 1

3 Arkattuthurai 1 1 1 3

4 Kallar 1 1 0 2

5 Kameswaram 0 1 0 1

6 Keechankuppam 1 0 0 1

7 Pushpavanam 0 1 0 1

8 Samanthanpettai 0 1 0 1

9 Seruthur 1 1 0 2

10 Vanavan Mahadevi 1 1 0 2

11 Velankanni 1 1 1 3

12 Vellapallam 1 1 0 2

13 Vizhunthamavadi 1 0 0 1

14 Pattinachery 1 1 0 2

15 Kodiyakarai 1 1 0 2

Total 12 11 2 25

Source: Primary data

157

The table 5.20 reveals the school particulars of the sample villages of the study area. 25 schools of primary, middle and higher secondary are taken for study. The Primary school total is higher than middle and higher secondary.

The government High school in Arkattuthurai and Velankanni are have in all are three schools located these villages. These villages are situated quite near to the sea shore. In Arkattuthurai is the only school for around 400 children coming from Arkattuthurai, Thoputhurai and nearby hamlets. The entire infrastructure of the school was damaged to a great extent. 11 Government

Middle schools are available with education restored to a very large extent the focus is now on utilizing the opportunity to create better facilities and infrastructure for the future generations not to forget the capacity building of the teachers. The Government is sure to give rise to a robust educational system that prepares the young minds to thrive in the knowledge economy, in total 12 primary schools are located in the study area.

158

Table - 5.21 General particulars of the Sample villages

S. Name of the No. Village Block Temple Hospital Ice-Plant Transport Postoffice Diesel Bunk Ration Shop Nearesttown Policestation Fisheries office Panchayathaar Womens group

Town 1 Akkaraipettai 4 Nagai Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 7 limit 2 Nambiyar Nagar 6 13 Nagai Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 8 3 Arkattuthurai 4 3,4 Vedaranayam Yes Nil Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Yes 6 4 Kallar 4 11,12 Nagai Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 12 5 Kameswaram 8 2,3 Tiruponndi Yes Yes Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 30 Town 6 Keechankuppam 6 Nagai Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 15 limit 7 Pushpavanam 5 2 Vedaranayam Nil Nil Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 8 Town 8 Samanthanpettai 4 Nagore Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes 12 limit 9 Seruthur 6 7 Kizhur Yes Nil Yes Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 25 Vanavan 10 4 1 Nagai Nil Nil Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil Mahadevi 11 Velankanni 4 2,3,4,5 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 12 Vellapallam 4 4 Vedaranayam Nil Nil Nil Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 11 13 Vizhunthamavadi 6 6 Velankanni Nil Nil Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Nil 3 14 Pattinachery 6 5 Nagai Yes Yes Yes Yes Nil Yes Yes Yes Yes 20 15 Kodiyakarai 4 2 Vedaranayam Yes Nil Nil Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3 Source: Primary data

An examination of the table 5.21 shows the general particulars of

sample villages. Village panchayathar is the leader in the hamlet and he is the

decision maker regarding their family and social hitches. Among the villages

Akkaraipettai, Nambiyar Nagar, Keechankuppam and Pattinachery are having

all facilities as they are located nearer to Nagapattinam town. Women Groups

constitute the main focus after Tsunami as they have awareness on all

activities. Almost all hamlets have ice plant which is the essential requirement

for preserving fish which is highly perishable.

159

Table - 5.22 Fully and Partly Damaged Houses of the Sample Villages (After Tsunami)

S. Damage Name of the Village No. Fully % Partly % Total 1 Akkaraipettai 548 93.04 41 6.96 589 2 Nambiyar Nagar 604 51.62 566 48.38 1170 3 Arkattuthurai 108 34.73 203 65.27 311 4 Kallar 126 47.19 141 52.81 267 5 Kameswaram 84 45.65 100 54.35 184 6 Keechankuppam 486 69.73 211 30.27 697 7 Pushpavanam 57 24.46 176 75.54 233 8 Samanthanpettai 135 41.16 193 58.84 328 9 Seruthur 142 42.51 192 57.49 334 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 155 64.05 87 35.95 242 11 Velankanni 264 64.39 146 35.61 410 12 Vellapallam 185 53.16 163 46.84 348 13 Vizhunthamavadi 116 80.56 28 19.44 144 14 Pattinachery 690 81.46 157 18.54 847 15 Kodiyakarai 48 82.76 10 17.24 58 Source: Secondary data

The table 5.22 explains the damages of the dwelling houses in sample area. Among the total villages Nambiyar Nagar is having maximum number of houses followed by Pattinachery, Keechankuppam and Akkaraipettai. In

Arkattuthurai houses 108 have fully and 203 partly damaged respectively.

Where as in Kodiyakarai all 58 houses were damaged either partially or fully,

Kodiyakarai houses have been damaged extent compared to other villages, because of Kodiyakarai village is located the houses long distance from the sea.

160

Table - 5.23 Akkaraipettai Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD North Street 6 226 105 0 0 11 18 118 Middle Street 9 130 65 0 0 5 4 86 South Street 6 123 125 0 4 6 46 CGF 1 0 GGF Residence 11 KKS 2 KKS Tent 2 Temporary Shelter 25 Others 1 Total 21 520 296 0 0 20 28 250 Source: Secondary data ( PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

Table 5.23 explains the level of damage houses in Akkaraipettai

Village. In this village more number of houses were damaged. Houses which

are located >500Km away from the sea were not affected. 21 and 520 Kacha

houses are partially damaged and fully damaged respectively as they are

located with in 200Km from the sea. 546 houses were not damaged. In North

Street 261 houses is fully and partly damaged in Kacha and Pucca, compared to

other streets. 541 houses were fully and partly damaged in Kacha and 48

Pucca houses are partially damaged and fully damaged respectively as they are

located with in 200 Km from the sea. Houses which are located near the sea are

prey to damage than those located in far off from the shore.

161

Table - 5.24 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Akkaraipettai S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 1. Catamaran 0 120 2. Catamaran with net (37.6%) 3. Catamaran net 0 27 4. Vallam net (8.46%) 22 5. Mechanized boat fully damaged (6.89%) 87 6. Mechanized boat partly damaged (27.27%) 9 7. Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) (2.82%) 8. Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0 27 9. Vallam partly damaged (8.46%) 27 10. OBM engine partly damaged (8.46%) Total 319

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Damage of fishing instrument particulars after Tsunami shown in the table 5.24 that Tsunami hit fishfolks main livelihoods like fishing instruments, boats and nets. Altogether 319 boats and nets were damaged in Akkaraipettai village. In Akkaraipettai maximum loss of damage was to 120 (37.6%) catamarans with their nets. 87 mechanised boats were partly damaged and 22 mechanized bots were fully damaged.

162

Table - 5.25 Nambiyar Nagar Street Wise Damage of Houses Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Ammankoil 17 18 1 9 3 2 7 Street East Street 1 Meenavar 5 12 11 9 17 10 83 19 Colony Middle/Nadu 51 76 33 25 1 3 Street Nambiar 2 3 1 5 39 2 1 16 Nagar Street North Street 10 125 1 16 24 1 1 South Street 151 142 41 5 2 2 Cooks Street 43 9 14 2 Mariamman 5 South Street Kadambadi 2 New Meenavar 3 Colony Railway Line 1 4 12 Warehouse 2 Opposite Others* 1 8 50 14 2 Total 238 384 1 72 86 39 118 68 4 138 27 Source: Secondary data ( PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Undamaged)

The table 5.25 indicates the damage level of Nambiyar Nagar houses in sample area. In Nambiyar Nagar houses which are located > 500 Km away from the sea were not affected. 5 (0.43%) houses were not damaged. In South Street and North Street, there are maximum 468 houses fully and partly damaged in Kacha and Pucca, compared to other streets. Houses which are located >200km, 200-500km, and >500 away from the sea, totally 1,170 (99.57%) houses were fully and partially damaged in Kacha and Pucca houses.

163

Table - 5.26 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Nambiyar Nagar S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 27 1 Catamaran (6.28%) 97 2 Catamaran with net (22.56%) 27 3 Catamaran net (6.28%) 85 4 Vallam net (19.77%) 9 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (2.09%) 32 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (7.44%)

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

9 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (2.09%) 72 9 Vallam partly damaged (16.74%) 72 10 OBM engine partly damaged (16.74%)

Total 430

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.26 shows in Nambiyar Nagar village damage of fishing crafts after Tsunami shown in the table. Maximum loss of damage was to

97 (22.56%) and 85 (19.77%) catamaran with net and vallam net respectively.

41 (9.5%) mechanized boat were partly and fully damaged. 72 OBM engines were also partly damaged.

164

Table - 5.27 Arkattuthurai Street Wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 Km 200-500 >500 0-200 Km 200-500 >500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Arkattuthurai 124 104 18 61 4

Total 124 104 18 61 4

Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

The table 5.27 explains the damage to houses and distance from the sea

of the Arkattuthurai village. In this village maximum 293 houses which are

located 200-500 km away from the sea were affected much. In total fishermen

houses which were 311 Kacha and Pucca houses are partly and fully damaged,

houses which are located 200-500 km away from the sea. In 185 number of

houses 105 were fully and partly damaged which belong to 34.73 per cent and

65.27 per cent.

165

Table - 5.28 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Arkattuthurai

S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 293 1 Catamaran (37.14%) 4 2 Catamaran with net (0.51%) 293 3 Catamaran net (37.14%) 61 4 Vallam net (7.73%) 3 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (0.38%) 14 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (1.77%) 3 7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) (0.38%) 2 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (0.25%) 58 9 Vallam partly damaged (7.35%) 58 10 OBM engine partly damaged (7.35%)

Total 789

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

As shown in table 5.28 damaged fishing crafts is assessed. In

Arkattuthurai village 293 (37.14%) catamaran with nets have highly damaged in disaster. 58 (7.35%) vallam fully and partially were damaged and

17 (2.15%) mechanized boats were fully and partly damaged.

166

Table - 5.29 Kallar Street Wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD Aryanattu 1 street East Street 2 Middle Street 12 4 1 28 3 1 North 3 1 1 3 Poiganallur North street 5 30 1 27 13 South street 32 6 2 8 3 Akkarapettai 21 UlavurTheru 19 1 Main Road 1 Kallar Theru 3 5 Koviltheru 1 Sangilikuppam 4 1 Pookaratheru 3 Others 17 15 Total 55 64 5 4 4 0 19 64 36 6 2 3 16 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

From the table 5.29, Kallar street wise damaged houses are observed. In

Kallar Street houses which are located 200 km away from the sea were

affected. In Main road, Kovil theru, partly damaged houses is lower than

compared to other street. Out of all streets 273 house Kacha and Pucca houses

are partly and fully damaged respectively as they are located from the sea.

167

Table - 5.30 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kallar S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 110 1 Catamaran (42.47%) 2 Catamaran with net 0

110 3 Catamaran net (42.47%) 12 4 Vallam net (4.63%) 1 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (0.39%) 4 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (1.54%)

7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) 0

2 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (0.77%) 10 9 Vallam partly damaged (3.86%) 10 10 OBM engine partly damaged (3.86%) Total 259 Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.30 explains the damage to fishing crafts of Kallar village. In

Kallar village totally 259 fishing instrument boats and nets are fully and partially damaged. In this village maximum damage was catamaran 110 and catamaran with net 110 respectively.

168

Table - 5.31 Kameswaram Street Wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Anayanthoppu 1 3 Aryanattu theru- 1 velankanni Meenavar Colony 1 40 25 4 3 65 V-Kadu Meenavar 35 1 Colony North Street 1 Middle Street 1 South Street 3 Total 1 77 30 7 1 3 65 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

As shown in the table 5.31, the street wise damage to Kacha and Pucca

houses in Kameswarm Street is analysed. In Kameswaram, 78 Kacha houses

are partly fully damaged as they are located within 200 km from the sea. 38 and

68 Pucca and Kacha houses are partly and fully damaged Pucca and Kacha

houses located from the sea. In Kameswaram Meenavar Colony are having

maximum137 number of houses partly and fully damaged in Pucca and Kacha

houses compared to other streets. In Middle Street, North Street and Aryanattu

theru only one house is fully damaged.

169

Table - 5.32 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kameshwaram Number of S. Fishing Crafts Crafts No. Damaged 77 1 Catamaran (28%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

77 3 Catamaran net (28%) 56 4 Vallam net (20.36%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

17 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (6.18%) 24 9 Vallam partly damaged (8.73%) 24 10 OBM engine partly damaged (8.73%)

Total 275

Source: Secondary data. (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

According to table 5.32 there was severe damage to fishing crafts

Tsunami hit livelihoods in Kameshwaram village. 275 fishing craft totally were fully and partially damaged.

170

Table - 5 .33 Keechankuppam Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

East Street 1

Keechankuppam 9 271 100 10 42 7 42 Street

Middle Street 5 29 1 1 2 5 23

North Street 8 78 3 1 4 22

South Street 7 43 6 3 3 2 10 31

Main Road 14 3 11 2 8

Total 30 435 110 6 25 49 26 126 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

Table 5.33 explains the damages level of Keechankuppam street wise

damage of houses the sample village. In Keechankuppam 30 houses were

partly and 435 houses were fully damaged Kacha house and Pucca house which

are located 0-200 Km away from the sea. 110 houses which is located 0-200

away from the sea, were not damaged. In Keechankuppam Street maximum

339 number of houses are fully and partly damaged, compared to other streets.

171

Table - 5.34 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Keechankuppam Number of S. Fishing Crafts Crafts No. Damaged 1 Catamaran 0

40 2 Catamaran with net (21.05%)

3 Catamaran net 0

38 4 Vallam net (20%) 8 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (4.21%) 20 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (10.53%) 8 7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) (4.21%) 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

38 9 Vallam partly damaged (20%) 38 10 OBM engine partly damaged (20%)

Total 190

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

As shown in the table 5.34 there was no damages was to fishing craft catamaran in Keechankuppam. 28 (14.74%) mechanized boats were partly and fully damaged and 162 (85.26%) non-mechanized boats were fully and partly damaged.

172

Table - 5.35 Pushphavanam Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 200-500 >500 0-200 200-500 >500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Meenavar Street 5 15 24 30 9 79

Kanjamalai Kadu 13 5 4 1 2

Pethakudi Kadu 2 2 7

Meenvar Colony 12

Thumbatchi Kadu 1 11 3

Thumbatchi 6 1 1 Street

Total 5 15 34 31 22 2 30 9 80 5 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

Table 5.35 reveals the damage to houses and the distance of

Pushpavanam village from the sea. In this village maximum number of 176 of

75.54%, is partially damaged and 57 (24.46%) is fully damaged of within

> 500 km distance from the sea.

173

Table - 5.36 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Pushpavanam S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 77 1 Catamaran (27.5%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

77 3 Catamaran net (27.5%) 44 4 Vallam net (15.71%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

4 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (1.43%) 39 9 Vallam partly damaged (13.93%) 39 10 OBM engine partly damaged (13.93%)

Total 280

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.36 reveals the damage of fishing crafts in the above mentioned study area. 280 fishing crafts of mechanized and non-mechanised were partly and fully damaged. The proportion of non-mechanised boats is high than the mechanized.

174

Table - 5.37 Samanthan Pettai Street Wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Colony Street 4 9 18 14 5 1 43 25 East Street 9 34 1 4 1 Middle Street 14 4 6 5 3 North Street 25 19 15 11 7 1 2 Cetti Street 1 South Street 3 4 1 11 4 4 4 West Street 1 7 15 3 Kamatchiyamman 1 Koil Street Kadalkarai Salai 1 Total 56 67 1 56 41 26 2 11 55 25 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

As shown in the table 5.37 shows the Street wise damage of houses the

study area. In Samanthanpettai 135 and 193 houses which are located within

< 200 km, 200-500 km, and > 500 km from the sea were affected fully and

partly, 39.71 per cent and 56.76 per cent respectively. In Samanthanpettai 12

houses 3.33 per cent were not damaged.

175

Table - 5.38 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Samanthan Pettai

S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 87 1 Catamaran (20.62%) 44 2 Catamaran with net (10.43%) 87 3 Catamaran net (20.62%) 179 4 Vallam net (42.43%) 2 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (0.47%) 5 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (1.18%)

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

4 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (0.95%) 7 9 Vallam partly damaged (1.66%) 7 10 OBM engine partly damaged (1.66%)

Total 422

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Table 5.38 gives the details of the fishing craft in Samanthanpettai village, and their main damage of non-mechanized and mechanized fishing craft. 415 (98.34%) non-mechanized fishing crafts were damaged fully and

7 (1.66%) mechanized fishing crafts were damaged fully and partially.

176

Table - 5.39 Seruthur Street wise Damage of Houses Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Ellaiyamman Koil 9 12 3 1 1 3 Street Kaliyamman Koil 4 2 1 3 Street Middle Street 5 4 14 1 1 4 10 North Street 21 54 2 3 12 21 8 South Street 24 24 28 7 1 8 9 23 Colony North Street 1 5 1 Temporary 1 Kudiyuruppu South Colony Street 1 Others 1 Colony Street 12 5 1 33 12 Main Road 1 Thopputheru 3 1 West Street 1 T.R.Puram 2 South Ellaiyamman 1 Koil Street New Colony Street 18 Total 63 98 48 27 13 33 41 69 31 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

The table 5.39 explains that the damage to house and distance from the

sea of the study area. In Seruthur 142 and 192 houses which are located within

< 200 km, 200-500 km, and > 500 km from the sea were affected fully and

partially damaged in 33.57 per cent and 45.39 per cent. 89 (21.04%) houses

were not damaged. In Colony North Street, Temporary Kodiyurpu, West Street

and South Elayamman Kovil Street damage is less compared to other streets.

177

Table - 5.40 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Seruthur S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 95 1 Catamaran (24.48%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

95 3 Catamaran net (24.48%) 198 4 Vallam net (51.03%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) 0

8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

9 Vallam partly damaged 0

10 OBM engine partly damaged 0

Total 388

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

The table 5.40 shows clearly the fishing craft boats and nets damaged.

In Seruthur 388 (100%) catamaran boat, net and vallam net were fully and partly damaged and mechanized boats and nets were not damaged.

178

Table - 5.41 Vanavan Mahadevi Street Wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200Km 200-500 >500 0-200Km 200-500 >500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Meenavar Street 3 116

Meenavar Colony 57 32 30 4

Total 3 57 148 30 4 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

According to the table 5.41 the Street wise houses damage were

analyzed. In Meenavar Street and Meenavar colony 242 Kacha house and

Pucca houses are fully damaged and partially damaged as they are located

within 0-200 km, 200-500 km and > 500 km from the sea.

179

Table - 5.42 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vanavan Mahadevi S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 120 1 Catamaran (42.86%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

120 3 Catamaran net (42.86%) 40 4 Vallam net (14.29%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) 0

8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

9 Vallam partly damaged 0

10 OBM engine partly damaged 0

Total 280

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

An examination of the table 5.42 shows the damage of fishing instruments in Vanavan Mahadevi. Totally 280 catamarans and vallam net were damaged. Mechanised boats were not damaged.

180

Table - 5.43 Vellapallam Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 > 500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Ariyanattu Street 1 18 2 3

Meenavar 34 2 36 3 6 Colony

Meenavar Street 22 67 59 88 5

Pattinam Street 1

Others 1

Total 1 74 71 100 3 6 88 5 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

According to the table 5.43 explains the street wise houses damage in

the study area. Houses which are located > 500 km away from the sea were not

affected. In Vellapallam, 348 (100%) Kacha and Pucca houses are partially and

fully damaged as they are located with in > 200 km and 200-500 km from the

sea.

181

Table - 5.44 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vellapallam S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 192 1 Catamaran (42.67%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

192 3 Catamaran net (42.67%) 66 4 Vallam net (14.67%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

9 Vallam partly damaged 0

10 OBM engine partly damaged 0

Total 450

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Table 5.44 reveals that 192 (42.67%) catamaran and net were damaged in Vellpallam, and 66 (14.67%) vallam net were damaged. There is no loss of mechanized boat, vallam and OBM engines in this village.

182

Table - 5.45 Velankanni Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Ariyanattu East 1 13 5 1 Street Ariyanattu North 14 85 19 4 2 Street Ariyanattu South 6 68 1 7 Street Ariyanattu Street 4 2 1 3 Main Road 1 Muslim Street 1 2 3 6 10 6 2 Beach Road 1 Keezha Theru 1 Manthan Kadu 1 Uthiramatha Koil 2 5 13 9 Street Sebastian Nagar 1 Thonidurai Road 6 Pookkara Street 6 18 12 Velankanni 2 2 Sivan Keezha Street 1 Others* 12 22 2 5 9 13 Total 39 204 17 44 10 6 42 10 25 13 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

The damage of houses in Velankanni streets is observed from the table

5.45. In Velankanni 410 Kacha houses and Pucca houses are fully and partially

damaged within distance from the sea. In Velankanni houses were not

damaged. In Ariyanattu South Street and Ariyanattu Street more number of

Kacha and Pucca houses were damaged, 124 and 82 respectively.

183

Table - 5.46 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Velankanni S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 71 1 Catamaran (42.01%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

75 3 Catamaran net (44.38%) 23 4 Vallam net (13.61%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

9 Vallam partly damaged 0

10 OBM engine partly damaged 0

Total 169

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

Table 5.46 reveals the damage of fishing crafts in Velankanni. In total

169 catamarans and vallam net, catamaran net was damaged except mechanised boat, vallam and OBM engine.

184

Table - 5.47 Vizhunthamavadi Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Thenpathi, Meenavar 2 24 1 11 12 9 22 1 6 2 Colony Manal Medu 3 North Colony 1 North Street 10 Thenpathi East 2 8 Vadapathi 2 North Street 15 Meenavar Colony South Meenavar 15 Colony Others* 1 Total 2 42 1 11 50 9 22 2 6 2 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

According to the table 5.47 explain the level of damage houses in

Vizhunthamavadi village. In this village 116 Kacha and 28 Pucca houses are

fully and partially damaged as they are located with in < 200 km to > 500 km

from the sea. 3 houses were not damaged.

185

Table - 5.48 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Vizhunthamavadi S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 75 1 Catamaran (34.09%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

75 3 Catamaran net (34.09%) 54 4 Vallam net (24.55%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) 0

2 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (0.91%) 7 9 Vallam partly damaged (3.18%) 7 10 OBM engine partly damaged (3.18%)

Total 220

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

As per table 5.48, 220 non-mechanized fishing crafts were damaged in

Vizhunthamavadi village. Tsunami hit the main livelihood of fishermen.

Catamaran boats and nets, vallam net and boat were fully and partly damaged.

There is no damage to mechanized boats.

186

Table - 5.49 Pattinachery Street wise Damage of Houses Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD Ariyanattu Middle 12 59 7 11 9 5 3 Street Ariyanattu North 5 122 1 8 19 5 12 2 14 5 Street Ariyanattu South 14 55 1 55 93 5 4 13 3 Street Ariyanattu Street 1 22 2 5 1 1 Ariyanattu 1st 1 Santhu Maariyamman 1 Koil Street Ariyanattu Mela 2 157 1 Street Keezha 52 1 1 4 3 1 Pattinacherry Mela Pattinacherry 1 Pudutheru 2 Pudutheru, Railway 39 Keelpuram Thamaraikulam, 2 Thenkarai Therupalli Street 1 West Pattinacherry 8 1 Total 32 314 2 73 339 19 25 3 33 12 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

According to the table 5.49 explains the Street wise damage of houses in

the study area. In this village more number of houses 847 (99.42%) were

partially and fully damaged as they located with in 0-200 km, 200-500 km and

> 500 km from the sea. 5 (0.59%) houses were not damaged. Where in

Ariyanattu North Street 190 houses were damaged either partially or fully

compared to other streets of Pattinachery.

187

Table - 5.50 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Pattinachery S. No. of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged

1 Catamaran 0

316 2 Catamaran with net (50.56%)

3 Catamaran net 0

97 4 Vallam net (15.52%) 1 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged (0.16%) 10 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged (1.6%) 10 7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) (1.6%)

8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 0

96 9 Vallam partly damaged (15.36%) 96 10 OBM engine partly damaged (15.36%)

Total 625

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

From the observation table no 5.50 shows the damaged fishing craft of the sample village Pattinachery. 11 (1.76%) mechanized boats were fully and partly damaged and 614 (98.24%) non-mechanized boats were fully and partly damaged.

188

Table - 5.51 Kodiyakarai Street wise Damage of Houses

Type of House

Kacha House Pucca Houses Street 0-200 km 200-500 > 500 0-200 km 200-500 > 500

PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Chinnur 4 11

Pillayarkoil Street 1 26 5

Gandhariamman 3 Koil

Others 8

Total 5 48 5 Source: Secondary data (PD -Partially damaged, FD -Fully damaged, UD -Un damaged)

The table 5.51 show that the Street wise houses damage of houses of

Kodiyakarai. All 58 houses were damaged either partially or fully. In

Pillaiyarkovil Street 32 houses were damaged fully compared to other streets.

Especially houses which are located far off from the sea were not affected

much.

189

Table - 5.52 Damage of Fishing Crafts in Kodiyakarai S. Number of Crafts Fishing Crafts No. Damaged 4 1 Catamaran (1.16%)

2 Catamaran with net 0

4 3 Catamaran net (1.16%) 118 4 Vallam net (34.20%)

5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 0

6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 0

7 Vallam fully damaged (inclusive net) 0

7 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) (2.03%) 106 9 Vallam partly damaged (30.72%) 106 10 OBM engine partly damaged (30.72%)

Total 345

Source: Secondary data (Figures in brackets represent percentages)

As per the table 5.52 damage of fishing craft in Kodiyakarai is observed.

345 catamaran boats, vallam net, catamaran nets vallam boats were fully and partly, damaged. OBM engine were partly damaged. In Kodiyakarai maximum of the vallam and OBM were damaged.

190

Table - 5.53 Allotment of Permanent Shelters made by NGOs S. Villages Name of the NGOs Houses allotted No. 1 Akkaraipettai TRC 900 2 Nambiyar Nagar World Vision 867 3 Arkattuthurai TMSSS 369 4 Kallar World Vision 255 KARAM 210 5 Kameswaram PCI 50 6 Keechankuppam Seva Bharathi 800 7 Pushpavanam CASA 147 Matha 8 Samanthanpettai 340 Amirtanathamaie 9 Seruthur TMSSS 434 10 Vanavan Mahadevi DPG 200 11 Velankanni TMSSS 443 PDA 200 12 Vellapallam Peace Trust 50 TMSSS 133 13 Vizhunthamavadi DPG 121 Matha 14 Pattinachery 796 Amirtanathamaie 15 Kodiyakarai GGF 19 Total 6134 Source: Secondary data

Table 5.53 exhibits the number of houses allotted by various NGOs for the beneficiaries in the sample area. Out of 6,134 houses 900 have been allotted for Akkaraipettai and a minimum of 19 have been allotted for Kodiyakarai.

TMSSS NGO has given 1,379 houses.

191

Table - 5.54 Boats, Engines and Nets distributed by various NGOs in Sample Villages To whom S. Name of the Name of the No of boats No. of No. of Units No. organization Village Distributed Engines Nets distributed Replacement 1 Ramakrishna Mutt Keechankuppam 75 75 75 of old units Replacement 2 Ramakrishna Mutt Akkaraipettai 86 86 86 of old units 3 Ramakrishna Mutt Kallar 12 12 12 New group 4 Ramakrishna Mutt Nambiyar Nagar 24 24 24 Replacement 5 Ramakrishna Mutt Pushpavanam 11 11 11 Replacement 6 Ramakrishna Mutt Arkattuthurai 11 11 11 Replacement 7 Ramakrishna Mutt Vellapallam 6 6 6 New group 8 Ramakrishna Mutt Vizhunthamavadi 16 16 16 New group Vishwa Hindu 9 Nambiyar Nagar 15 15 15 New Group Parishad Bharathy Women’s 10 Kallar 75 75 75 New group Development Group Group 11 GFT Nambiyar Nagar 10 10 10 ownership 12 Helpage India Arkattuthurai 26 26 26 New group 13 DPG VanavanMahadevi 25 25 25 New 14 DPG Vizhunthamavadi 7 7 7 New 15 CASA Pushpavanam 2 2 2 New 16 Bitsunami Pushpavanam 10 10 10 Replacement 17 EFFICOR Vellapallam New 18 KARAM Kameswaram 17 17 17 New 19 REAL Different Villages Nambiyar Nagar, 20 Avvai Pattinachery Source: Secondary data

The Table 5.54 shows the list of boat engines and nets distributed by

various NGOs in the study area. Total Number of fishing units are FRP,

engines and nets were distributed to the Victims.

192

Table - 5.55 NGO Wise Public Infrastructure and Repair in Damaged Houses of the Sample Villages S. Type of Construction Villages NGOs No. Repair Public Buildings TRC Community Hall Indian Potash School Building World Vision School Building 1 Akkaraipettai Sway am School Building Charitable Trust 331 damaged SNEHA houses repaired 421 damaged SNEHA houses repaired 2 Keechankuppam Water TRC Desalination Plant 30 damaged CMF houses repaired 3 Kameswaram 60 damaged Self Group houses repaired CMF Tuition Centre 70 damaged PCI houses repaired Bit Tsunami School Building 4 Pushpavanam UNICEF Palvadi REEDT-ENN- Fish Marketing

KIND Centre Source: Secondary data

Inclusive of houses, NGOs have engaged themselves in Public

infrastructural development also, as shown in table 5.55. The NGOs wise

public infrastructure and repair in damaged houses are mentioned NGOs have

constructed Public buildings, community hall, school buildings, water

desalination plant, tuition centre, palvadi and fish marketing centre after

Tsunami.

193

Table - 5.56 Distribution of Books Sets / Toys Kits in Sample Villages by ASHA Foundation

School Name Villages Book sets Toy kits

Government Primary School Pattinachery 1 1

Jeeva Rathnam School Akkaraipettai 1 1

Government Primary School Kallar 1 1

Government Primary School Vizhunthamavadi 1 1

Government Middle School Seruthur 1 1

Suyam Library Akkaraipettai 1 1

Suyam Activity Centre Akkaraipettai 1 1

Source: Secondary data

Table 5.56 reveal that Asha foundation distributed book sets / toy kits in

Tsunami affected schools in sample villages. Also various improvement programs conducted for schools in Nagapattinam district.

194

Table - 5.57 Death and Missing list of the Sample villages

Death Missing Village Name Adult Children Adult Children Total Total M F M F M F M F Akkaraipettai 377 286 64 54 781 36 15 4 4 59 Nambiyarnagar 43 23 14 12 92 9 8 3 2 22 Arkattuthurai 8 2 5 0 15 0 0 1 0 1 Kallar 50 40 18 15 123 1 0 0 0 1 Kameshwaram 22 22 11 6 61 1 0 1 1 3 Keechankuppam 229 479 106 92 906 23 26 4 5 58 Pushpavanam 9 4 5 1 19 0 0 0 0 0 Samanthanpettai 14 33 8 14 69 0 2 0 0 2 Seruthur 243 191 124 114 672 14 16 32 33 95 Vanavanmahadevi 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Vellapallam 19 8 9 8 44 1 1 1 3 6 Velankanni 216 188 96 114 614 59 60 28 19 166 Pattinachery 30 97 21 17 165 0 1 0 0 1 Kodiyakarai 4 4 0 2 10 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Secondary data

The table, 5.57 explain the death and missing list of the sample villages in study area. In Keechankuppam and Akkaraipettai total number of deaths is higher than the other villages. In Velankanni total number of death and missing were 614 and 166 respectively. In Vannavan Mahadevi no one was found dead and only one person is missing. Kodiayakari, Pushpavanam and Vanavan

Mahadevi houses are located far off from the sea. So in these villages number of deaths and missing list is comparatively less in number.

195

Table - 5.58 Village wise Damaged fishing Instrument Particulars of after Tsunami (31.03.05) Position

S. Villages

No. Net Vallam net Vallam net Vallam net Catamaran OPM Engines Fully damaged Fully damaged Fully damaged Catamaran net Partly damaged Partly damaged Catamaran with mechanized boat mechanized boat vallam exceptnet Partiallydamaged 1. Akkaraipettai 0 120 0 27 22 87 9 0 27 27 2. Nambiyar Nagar 27 97 25 85 9 32 0 9 72 72 3. Arkattuthurai 293 4 293 61 3 14 3 2 58 58 4. Kallar 110 0 110 12 1 4 0 2 10 10 5. Kameshwaram 77 0 77 56 0 0 0 17 24 24 6. Keechankuppam 0 40 0 38 8 20 8 0 38 38 7. Pushpavanam 77 0 77 44 0 0 0 4 39 39 8. Samanthanpettai 87 44 87 179 2 5 0 4 7 7 9. Seruthur 95 0 95 198 0 0 0 0 0 0 10. Vanavan Mahadevi 120 0 120 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 11. VellaPallam 192 0 192 66 0 0 0 0 0 0 12. Velankanni 71 0 75 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. Vizhunthamavadi 75 0 75 54 0 0 0 2 7 7 14. Pattinachery 0 316 0 97 1 10 10 0 96 96 15. Kodiyakarai 4 0 4 118 0 0 0 7 106 106 Total 1228 621 1230 1098 46 172 30 38 484 484 Source: Secondary data It can be observed from the table 5.58 the village wise damage in fishing

instrument particulars after Tsunami in the study area. Among all villages in

Kodiyakarai 106 vallams and 106 OBM engines, were damaged of followed by

Arkattuthurai with a loss of damage of 293 catamarans with their nets.

Tsunami has affected their livelihood to a greater extent. The Tsunami caused

heavy damage to property as well. The coastal economy was worst with

fisheries sector taking the brunt of the damage. More number of boats of all

kinds, catamarans, vallams, and mechanized boats were smashed by waves and

suffered irreparable damage. Also precious nets of fishermen were washed

away.

196

Table - 5.59 Details of Fishing Unit of the Sample Villages

No. of No. of fishing No. of No. of No. of S. fishing Villages craft fishing fish inland Total craft No. shared labourers vendors fishers owners owners 1 Akkaraipettai 150 12 924 341 25 1452 2 Nambiyar Nagar 107 9 683 189 4 992 3 Arkattuthurai 236 64 332 125 2 759 4 Kallar 44 94 117 15 0 270 5 Kameswaram 66 4 78 18 0 166 6 Keechankuppam 84 8 359 110 0 561 7 Pushpavanam 35 0 14 15 0 64 8 Samanthanpettai 83 3 197 16 1 300 9 Seruthur 148 8 295 60 34 545 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 66 72 133 10 40 321 11 Velankanni 39 2 124 40 0 205 12 Vellapallam 143 101 59 48 5 356 13 Vizhunthamavadi 53 6 48 40 4 151 14 Pattinacherry 137 6 416 87 1 647 15 Kodiyakarai 64 17 127 42 0 250 Total 1455 406 3906 1156 116 7039 Source: Secondary data

From the table 5.59 the details of fishing unit have been noted, 1,455 are individual fishing craft owners, 406 shared fishing craft shared owners, 3,906 fishing labourers, 1,156 are fish vendors, and only 116 are inland fishers. The maximum number of fishing population constitutes labour class and the minimum number constitutes inland fisheries.

197

Table - 5.60 Details of Micro Enterprises of the Sample Villages

Households Households Households S. Households engaged in engaged in engaged in Villages engaged in Agro based Fishing based Other No. Production Trade and Trade and Trade and Services Services Services 1 Akkaraipettai 1 2 367 71 2 Nambiyar Nagar 5 180 28 3 Arkattuthurai 1 210 34 4 Kallar 0 1 12 6 5 Kameswaram 4 36 12 6 Keechankuppam 0 3 161 14 7 Pushpavanam 0 44 1 8 Samanthanpettai 2 34 9 9 Seruthur 6 1 55 20 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 4 1 59 44 11 Velankanni 5 1 2 228 12 Vellapallam 2 87 12 13 Vizhunthamavadi 49 26 49 45 14 Pattinachery 2 87 14 15 Kodiyakarai 2 65 16 Total 83 35 1448 554 Source: Secondary data

As per the table 5.60 shows details of Micro enterprises of the sample villages in study area. In all the villages examined 1,448 numbers of households engaged in fishing based trade and services, minimum 35 numbers of households are having agro based trade and services. As their primary occupation is fishing, they intend to have their activities related only to fishing.

198

Table - 5.61 Number of Boats available in Pre-tsunami and Post-tsunami of the Sample villages

Available boats Available boats S. Name of the village pre-Tsunami Post-Tsunami No. Vallam / OBM Vallam / OBM 1 Akkaraipettai 97 196 2 Nambiyar Nagar 100 158 3 Arkattuthurai 66 252 4 Kallar 15 99 5 Kameswaram 51 100 6 Keechankuppam 85 215 7 Pushpavanam 53 44 8 Samanthanpettai 184 269 9 Seruthur 231 310 10 Vanavanmahadevi 122 107 11 Vellapallam 75 142 12 Velankanni 27 84 13 Vizhunthamavadi 61 94 14 pattinachery 131 197 15 Kodiyakarai 143 129 Total 1,441 2,396 Source: Secondary data

Table 5.61 reveals the number of boats available after Tsunami in study area. Boats available in Pre-tsunami period were 1,441 and in Post-Tsunami it was increased to 2,396 due to the helping hand rendered by various NGOs.

199

Table - 5.62 Bodies recovered of the Sample Villages Total number of bodies Name of habitation Adult Children Total Male Female Male Female Akkaraipettai 377 286 64 54 781 Nambiyarnagar 43 23 14 12 92 Arkattuthurai 8 2 5 0 15 Kallar 50 40 18 15 123 Kameswaram 22 22 11 6 61 Keechankuppam 229 479 106 92 906 Pushpavanam 9 4 5 1 19 Samanthanpettai 14 33 8 14 69 Seruthur 243 191 124 114 672 Vanavanmahadevi 0 0 0 0 0 Vellapallam 19 8 9 8 44 Velankanni 216 188 96 114 614 Pattinachery 30 97 21 17 165 Kodiyakarai 4 4 0 2 10 Total 1,264 1,377 481 449 3,571 Source: website www.relief.nagai.tn.nic.in

From the table 5.62, total numbers of bodies recovered were observed.

3,571 Adults (Male / Female) and Children (Male / Female). Tsunami caused heavy damage to human lives.

200

Table - 5.63 Membership in different Community Based Organizations

S. Villages Fed Fed No. only Federation Membersin Membersin

Federationsonly SHG, Co-op& Fed Membersin Co-o& Members SHG in& Co-operativesociety Membersthreeallin - Members SHG inonly Membersbothin SHG & Co-operativesociety

1 Akkaraipettai 433 1299 5 781 12 6 48 2 Nambiyar Nagar 330 500 2 706 1 1 2 3 Arkattuthurai 263 248 3 848 53 7 343 4 Kallar 74 50 65 8 2 20 7 5 Kameswaram 456 107 2 165 6 Keechankuppam 55 862 1 460 2 7 Pushpavanam 140 2 2 8 Samanthanpettai 246 1 9 Seruthur 36 431 414 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 487 153 229 1 3 25 11 Velankanni 684 1 12 Vellapallam 733 2 13 Vizhunthamavadi 1108 157 3 35 33 14 Pattinachery 253 460 1 301 1 4 15 Kodiyakarai 368 173 53 67 35 8 2 Total 5413 4441 139 4015 139 46 431 Source: Secondary data

The table 5.63 reveals the Community Based Organizations members in

SHGs, Co-operative society and Federations in study area. More members have

involved in SHGs and Co-operative societies. Same persons are members in

more than one organization.

201

Table - 5.64 PDS Card Holding of the Sample Villages

Families Families not S. Villages having PDS having PDS No. card card 1 Akkaraipettai 1312 181 2 Nambiyar Nagar 798 167 3 Arkattuthurai 736 76 4 Kallar 209 44 5 Kameswaram 840 61 6 Keechankuppam 600 82 7 Pushpavanam 184 6 8 Samanthanpettai 304 44 9 Seruthur 366 86 10 Vanavan Mahadevi 717 106 11 Velankanni 937 89 12 Vellapallam 658 35 13 Vizhunthamavadi 1546 97 14 Pattinacherry 80 14 15 Kodiyakarai 468 31 Total 9755 1119 Source: Secondary data

According to the table 5.64 it is clear that the PDS card holders are 9755 families 1,119 families are not holders PDS.

202

Table - 5.65 Distribution of Agricultural land in the Sample Villages Agriculture (unit in acres) -

S. Villages

No. land land Dry land Wet land Total Land Total Land Cultivable wet Cultivable dry Land reclaimed- Land reclaimed- Holding-Dry land Holding-Wet land Tsunami affected- Tsunami affected cultivable wetland cultivable dryland

1 Akkaraipettai ------

2 Nambiyar Nagar 47.6 ------

3 Arkattuthurai 75.78 270.58 56.08 219.75 39.58 166.5 36.25 159.16

4 Kallar 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

5 Kameswaram 421.56 - 338.51 57.65 50.23 8.18 39.89 10.51

6 Keechankuppam ------

7 Pushpavanam - 3 ------

8 Samanthanpettai ------

9 Seruthur ------

10 Vanavan Mahadevi 39.75 276.5 31.75 260.25 21 87.75 25 67.25

11 Velankanni 42.9 4 3 3

12 Vellapallam 48.05 120.99 48 118.99 13 40.99 10.5 25.58

13 Vizhunthamavadi 87.5 691.38 47.25 513.82 37.25 161.25 58 67

14 Pattinachery ------

15 Kodiyakarai 68 24 58 20 - - - -

Total Source: Secondary data

The table 5.65 explains that the agricultural unit dry land and cultivable

land, Tsunami affected wet and cultivable land. Reclaimed wet and dry land

unit in acres are shown. When compared with pre-tsunami study post-tsunami

study seems to be affected to some extent.

203

Table - 5.66 A Sample Worksheet on Relief Materials

Relief materials Relief material Balance as on received disbursed date Unit

S. No. Item Name of Bags / applicable) applicable) applicable) No. of Bags / No. of Bags / No. Items / Packets Items / Packets Items / Packets Weight / Area(If Weight / Area (if Weight / Area (if

Aluminum 327 204 1422 123 1 Numbers 52153 50731 Vessels Bundles Bundles No Bundles 2 Bed Sheet Numbers Number 24670 Number 16322 Nos 8348 3 Biscuits Gms Pkt 59911 Pkt 59334 Pkt 577 4 Mat (New) Numbers Number 37262 Number 26241 Nos 11021 5 New Steel items Numbers Number 52787 Number 52298 Nos 489 6 Rice Bag Kg Kg 1110542 Kg 1000265 Kg 110277 7 Soap Numbers Number 129657 Number 77449 Nos 52208 8 Sugar Kg Kg 40208 Kg 38446 Kg 1762 9 Tooth Brush Numbers Number 8209 Number 3794 Nos 4415 10 Tooth Paste Numbers Number 7606 Number 3231 Nos 4375 11 Water Packet Numbers Number 236820 Number 236820 Nos 0 12 Wheat Kg Kg 39892 Kg 17942 Kg 21950 13 Maida Kg Kg 11003 Kg 11003 Kg 0 14 Onion Kg Kg 68050 Kg 68050 Kg 0 15 Other Groceries Kg Kg 47340 Kg 47140 Kg 200 16 Syntex Tank Numbers Number 510 Number 510 Nos 0 17 Dust pin Numbers Number 1000 Number 674 Nos 326 18 Bleaching Powder Kg Kg 7470 Kg 1970 Kg 5500 19 Solar Lights Numbers Number 1000 Number 100 Nos 0 Source: Secondary data

Table 5.66 reveals the details of relief materials distributed by

Government and NGOs in Nagapattinam district. The relief materials include

vessels and even solar lights. 85 per cent relief materials are being disbursed.

Household materials, groceries, and other basic needs are given by the

Governmental and non-governmental organizations.

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Table - 5.67 Restoration work Carried out in Tsunami affected Habitations in Nagapattinam District Total No. of Description expenditure Total S. habitations No. (in lakhs) Rural Urban R U R U R / U Temporary Temporary 1 32 1 15.55 9.22 24.77 measures measures Permanent Permanent 2 56 3 53.06 75.91 128.97 measures measures Temporary 3 - 34 27.43 - 27.43 shelters Total 122 4 96.04 85.13 181.17 Source: Secondary data

The table 5.67 shows having temporary restoration work done in one habitations and permanent in urban area. In rural areas many habitations were severely affected by Tsunami. So, restoration work is much more important in these areas of Nagapttinam district members in the habitations. In total

Rs.181.19 lakhs have been spent on permanent and temporary restoration works in Tsunami hit Nagapattinam district.

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Table - 5.68 Immunization Activities carried out in Nagapattinam district

S. No. of persons / Nature of Immunization No. Children immunized

1 Tetanus Toxoid 41,945

2 Oral Polio Vaccine 19,073

3 Measles 18,371

4 Vitamin A drops 17,364

Total 96.753

Source: Secondary data

The table 5.68 explains the immunization activities carried after

Tsunami period in Nagapattinam district. In total 96.753 were immunized after

Tsunami for protection against chronic diseases. Even though these relief packages have been sanctioned to the affected families, it will make about three months for all of them to get back to their livelihood fully and to return to normalcy. It is necessary until then to provide relief package for their daily sustenance. Accordingly, sanction is hereby accorded for a relief packages consisting of the following items to each of the families affected by Tsunami.

206

Table - 5.69 Relief packages disbursed in Government in Nagapattinam District

S. Packages kg / gms / lit No.

1 Rice 30 kg

2 Kerosene 3 liters

3 Palm oil 2 liters

4 Toor Dhal 2 kg

5 Turmeric Powder 100 gm

6 Tamarind 1 kg

7 Iodized Salt 1 kg

8 Sugar 2 kg

9 Tea dust 200 gms

10 Dry chillies 500 gms

11 Sambar Powder 300 gms

Source: Secondary data

According to table 5.69 relief, packages have been disbursed by

Government in Nagapattinam district. People are given essential households materials for cooking after Tsunami devastation.

207

Table - 5.70 Details of relief to differently abled in Government

S. Government Total Number of Beneficiaries No.

1 Tri-cycle 112

2 Wheel Chair 9

3 Walker 20

4 Auxiliary Crutches 250

5 Elbow Crutches 50

6 Hearing Aid 110

7 Solar Battery 110

Total 661

Source: Secondary data

Table 5.70 shows the details of livelihood infrastructure supplied by

Government for differently abled persons affected by Tsunami. Tricycles and livelihood assets for the differently abled, the by Tsunami have been provided special livelihood support by dovetailing existing schemes. Government and

NGOs distributed relief to differently abled in Nagapattinam district.

208

Table - 5.71 Details of relief to differently abled in NGOs

S. NGOs Total No. of Beneficiaries No.

1 Sewing Machine 50

2 Bunk Stall 73

3 Iron Box 3

4 Bi-cycle 5

5 Push cart 2

6 Vessels(Idli pot) 10

7 Tea Cane 3

8 Cabler Equipments and Box 2

9 Grocery shop 5

Total 153

Source: Secondary data

Table 5.71 shows the details of materials supplied by NGOs for differently abled persons affected by Tsunami. Many differently abled are benefited by the NGOs. They are paved, way to set their livelihood without the concern of other by earning and standing on their own. 153 are benefited by various relief measures.

209

Table - 5.72 Skill Training for new SHGs S. No. of Amount Name of the Training No. SHGs (Rs. in lakhs) 1 Crop fattening 25 3.50 2 Lobster rearing 25 3.50 3 Sea weed cultivation 10 2.50 4 Mussel Culture 10 2.50 Fish pickle and Marine added sea food 5 10 2.50 products 6 Fisheries-Fresh water fish cultivation 35 3.50 7 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln 10 3.00 8 Dairy Farming and Vermicompost 260 1.28 9 Dairy Processing 260 5.10 10 Eco-friendly hand made paper products 10 6.00 11 Food processing 5 1.50 12 Palm leaf products 30 7.50 13 Plastic products 10 4.00 14 Building Materials 20 3.00 15 Masala powder Manufacturing 20 5.00 16 Organic Manure production 5 2.50 17 Manufacturing of fishnet 10 5.00 18 Glazed pottery and Terracotta products 10 4.50 19 Perfumed Gel Candle 10 2.50 20 Fiber Glass reinforced plastic 5 1.80 21 Cattle feed manufacturing 10 2.50 Total 800 73.18 Source: Secondary Data

The table 5.72 shows the various training programs arranged by the new SHGs on vocational skills taken in Tsunami affected areas of Nagapattinam district. The coastal habitations of the district had a large number of SHGs involved in various micro-enterprise development initiatives. SHGs trained rural women enable themselves in new skills so as to revive their lost livelihood. So, one of the major challenges is to provide livelihood opportunities for Self Help Groups to rehabilitate the Tsunami affected in fisheries sector.

210

STATISTICAL INFERENCES

Simple regression model is adopted and tested its significance for the following model is

(i) Expenditure on Food = f (Occupational wise income)

(ii) Expenditure on Fuel = f (Occupational wise Income)

(iii) Expenditure on Medical = f (Occupational wise Income)

(iv) Expenditure on Social function = f (Occupational wise Income)

(v) Occupational wise Income = f (Number of FRP boats involved in

fishing)

(vi) Total Expenditure = f (Total Income)

H0: Expenditure on food is independent among the respondent occupational

wise income.

Simple regression model is adopted for testing the above hypothesis.

Expenditure on Food = f (Occupational wise income)

Y= β0 + β1X + µ t

Dependent Variable (Y): Expenditure on Food

Independent variable (X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = 95880 6.873 0.006 X : Occupational wise Income β1 = 46320*

Fc = 47.240* 0.006 *1% level of significant.

211

R – Value 0.970 R2 0.940 Adjusted 0.920 Standard Error 21311.405

Result

F-test is adopted for the significance of independent variable, and it is significant at 1% level.

t-test is applied and the model is also highly significant at 1% level.

Scaling technique * Occupational wise income ranking score based on capacity, at a confidence level of (1-0.006) = 99.4%. R square value is also calculated. The result indicates that the independent variable occupational wise income explains the variations of 94% in the dependent variable expenditure on

Food. Therefore, occupational wise income is highly influencing the factor expenditure on food.

212

H0: Expenditure on fuel is independent of the respondent’s occupational

wise income through different methods of fish catching.

To test the above hypothesis simple regression model is fitted and tested.

Y (Expenditure on fuel) = f (Occupational wise Income)

Y = β0 + β1X + µ t

Estimated regression model is,

Expenditure on fuel =35457.6 + 14222.4 X Occupational wise Income

Dependent variable (Y): Expenditure on fuel

Independent variable (X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = 35457.600 7.396 0.005 X : Occupational wise Income β1 = 14222.400*

Fc = 54.702* 0.005 *1% level of significant

R R2 Adjusted R 2 S.E 0.974 0.948 0.931 6080.945

Result

(i) The above result shows that the independent variable i.e., Occupational

wise income is highly significant at 1% level.

(ii) Value of R-square shows that 94.8% variation in Expenditure on fuel is

influenced by the occupational wise income.

(iii) t-test is applied for the model and it reveals that occupational wise

income is highly significant. F-test is also significant at 1% level, with

the confidence level of 99.5%.

213

Ho: Expenditure on medical is independent among the respondents

occupational wise income.

To test the above hypothesis simple regression model is entrusted.

Y (Expenditure on Medical) = f (Occupational wise Income)

Y = β0 + β1X + µ t

The fitted model is Y = 31200 + 9600 X

Dependent variable (y): Expenditure on Medical

Independent variable (X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = 31200 4.178 0.25 X : Occupational wise Income β1 = 9600

Fc = 17.455 0.25

R – Value 0.924 R2 0.853 Adjusted 0.804 Standard Error 7266.361

Result

(i) There is no significant difference between Expenditure on Medical and

the Income

(ii) The result shows that occupational wise income is not statistically

significant on medical expenditure.

214

Ho : Expenditure on social function is independent among the respondents

occupational wise Income.

To test this hypothesis simple regression model is adopted and tested its significance.

Y (Expenditure on social function) = f (Occupational wise Income)

Y = β0 + β1X + µ t

The fitted model is,

Expenditure on social function 78000 + 54000 X Occupational wise Income

Dependent variable (Y): Expenditure on Social Function.

Independent variable (X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = 78000 3.576 0.037 X : Occupational wise Income β1 = 54000**

Fc = 12.789** 0.037

** 5% level of significant.

R – Value 0.900 R2 0.810 Adjusted R 2 0.747 Standard Error 47749.346

Result

The fitted simple regression model identifying the factors determining the occupational wise income of the respondent in Nagapattinam district, expenditure on social function is significant at 5% level by t-test as well as

F-test with confidence level of 96.3%.

215

H0: Number of FRP (Fiber Reinforced plastic) boats and Income of the

respondents are independent in study area.

Simple regression model is adopted and tested for the above hypothesis

Occupational wise income = f (Number of FRP boats involved in fishing)

Y = β0 + β1X + µ t

Dependent Variable (Y): Occupational Income

Independent variable(X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = 693600 13.521 0.000 X : No. of FRP boats involved in fishing β1 = 989600*

Fc = 182.825* 0.000

*Significant at 1% level

t-test and F-test were applied for the above hypothesis in both the tests highly significant with confidence level of 99.9%.

R – Value 0.966 R2 0.934 Adjusted 0.929 S. E 422553.410

Result reveals that number of FRP boats is highly influencing factor on income with R square value 0.93.

216

Ho: Income and Expenditure are independent among the respondents.

Simple regression model is adopted for testing the above hypothesis.

Total Expenditure = f (Total Income)

Y = β0 + β1X + µ t

Y = -950227 + 0.848 X

Dependent Variable (Y): Total Expenditure

Independent variable(X) Parameter t P value

Constant: β0 = - 950227 9.780 0.000 X : Total Income β1 = 0.848*

Fc = 95.642* 0.000 * Significant at 1% level.

R – Value 0.938 R2 0.880 Adjusted 0.871 S.E 512442.479

Result

From the result analysis of variance technique and t-test. Income is highly statistically significant on expenditure by ninety nine percent level of confidence.

217

H0: Occupational, status and Amount of Saving among the respondents are

independent.

2 To test the above hypothesis χ C model is fitted and tested.

2 2 4 (O - E ) 2 ij ij χ C = ∑∑ i=1 j=1 Eij

χ2-distribution with (R – 4) (C – 1) d.f. at 5% level

(R – 1) (C – 1) = (2 – 1) (4 – 1)

= 1(3) = 3 d.f.

(R – 1) (C – 1) = (1) (3) = 3 d.f. at 5% level of significance.

2 χ C = 18.4906

2 χ 0.05 = 7.81

2 2 Since χ C > χ 0.05 reject H 0.

∴ They are dependent.

218

Ho: Number of fish catchers by Craft-wise fish catch before and after

Tsunami are independent.

P value

Mean 3003.75

S.D 13018.256

S.E 6509.128 0.676

tc 0.461

df 3

Here t c = 0.461 and P-Value = 0.676 – Not Significant.

Result

From the result it indicates that Tsunami is not the significant factor of craft-wise fish catch.

Because, nearly 60% of the respondents using mechanized boat, so, they not affected mentally and prepared their mind in fishing is as usual, after the

Tsunami Various NGOs have sponsored FRP boats.

To know the psychological change among the respondents by the impact of Tsunami the following hypothesis is framed

219

H0: Number of fish catchers in Catamaran is influenced by Tsunami.

To test the above hypothesis Paired t-test was applied.

P value

Mean 14.07

Std. Deviation 29.171

Std. Error 7.532 0.083 tc 1.868***

df 14

Correlation 0.948

*** Significant at 10% level

Result

The result shows that Tsunami is influenced the occupation of fishing by catamaran at 10% level of significant. So catamaran fishermen are affected by

Tsunami as they have to row the boat physically.

To know the fishing attitude by Vallam is changed or not by Tsunami the following hypothesis is framed.

220

Ho: Number of Fish catchers by Vallam before and after Tsunami is same.

To test the above hypothesis Paired t-test was applied.

P value

Mean -63.67

Std. Deviation 53.764

Std. Error 13.882 0.000 tc -4.586*

df 14

Correlation 0.003

Significant at 1% level

The result indicates that the Tsunami influences the occupation of fishing by Vallam at 1% level of significance. So, the Tsunami is highly statistically significant in catching the fish by Vallam with ninety-nine percent confidence level.

221

Correlations

To test its significance t-test is applied. Regarding Food, relationship with fuel, Electricity and Social function is significant at 5% level.

Expenditure on different categories among the respondents Correlation analysis is used and tested.

The model is,

The above result also shows expenditure on medical is highly related with expenditure on food, expenditure on fuel and expenditure on electricity.

But relatively less correlation with expenditure on social function 5% level of significance with expenditure on fuel and expenditure on electricity only.

Chapter – VI

Findings, Conclusion and Suggestions 222

CHAPTER – VI

FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

India has a significant marine fisheries sector that has long been an important source of occupation and livelihood for the coastal communities of the country. It is estimated that at least 3 million people derive their livelihood from marine capture fisheries in over 3,600 fishing villages situated along the

Indian coastline. Other estimates put the number of people dependent on marine fisheries as much higher. The majority of those in the sector are small-scale and artisanal fish workers, who derive their livelihoods from fishing, cleaning, artisanal processing and small-scale trading activities. Marine fisheries resources of our country, being dynamic and self renewing in nature, are subject to fluctuations due to fishery-dependent and fishery-independent factors. Therefore, it becomes necessary to review periodically the status of exploited resources and make critical assessment of the fishery potential as more and more data are gathered and new knowledge based on exploratory surveys and researches emerges. Such vital information on the potential resources of the country is an essential prerequisite for proper planning of development strategies with regard to the marine fisheries sector.

As far as the socio-economic status of the fishermen in Nagapattinam district, they earn considerable income from marine fishing and they very well manage their spending on food and other items within their income. However,

223 there are in such condition that they are unable to meet the expenses on social obligations like marriages and other functions their regular income sources, and rather they depend on borrowed funds to fulfill such obligations. More than half of the fishermen could not adopt saving habit due to insufficient money left over income. It is found that the fishermen in the group with saving habit save money primarily for repaying loans. The saving habit is found to be significantly related to family size and monthly income. That, is fishermen in the small family with higher income tend to save more. Majority of the fishermen in Nagapattinam district rely on money borrowed from others to meet their expenses during natural calamities.

6.1. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

From inferences of the analysis many findings are emerged as given hereunder.

It is found that out of 150 households 129 (86%) house holds comprise less than 6 members which shows that they have awareness on family planning programmes. 432 member of sample study belong to age group between 11 and

40 years. Working population is more compared to children and aged people.

138 of the sample households are male headed families and the remaining 12 of them are female headed households. 452 are married in the sample and 247 are unmarried.

In the sample households 148 belong to Hindu religion and 2 of them follow Muslim religion. 120 households in the sample of 150 belong to meenva chettiar community which is followed by meeenva padayachi and pattinavar.

224

Scheduled caste and Ravuthar family have also been included in the sample.

Panchayataar is the leader who makes the decision in family as well as social hitches. The member of Panchyataar vary from 4 to 8 according to the size of the villages.

107 respondents are illiterate. 43 respondents have completed school education. Psychologically fishermen community children in the age group of

12 to 14 go for fishing instead of schooling for two reasons. One is to earn income and the other is to get experience in the art of their traditional work.

But after Tsunami in many cases parents are compelling them to stop fishing and to go for schooling, because of their Tsunami fear. They also have the awareness to educate their children to get better job opportunities and for bright future. The dependency ratio is higher in fishermen families due to lack of education and awareness. There are 12 Primary schools, 11 Middle schools and

2 Higher secondary schools in the study area. There is a demand of voluntary transfer by local teachers in coastal areas. Asha foundation a specific NGO distributed books sets and toy kits for school in the Tsunami hit villages.

Fishermen community people are engaged only in fishing and fish related activities and not in other occupations in the sample study.

Fishing is the main source of their income. In all sample villages their main sources of their income was partly or fully damaged. Arucattuthurai had maximum loss of boats (mechanized and non-mechanised) and Kodiyakarai had minimum loss in the sample area.

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In Akkaraipettai, Nambiyar Nagar, Arkattuthurai, Kallar, Kameswaram,

Keechankuppam, Pushpavanam, Samanthanpettai, Seruthur, Vanavan

Mahadevi, Velankanni, Vellapallam, Vizhunthanmavadi, Pattinacherry and

Kodiyakarai villages, houses which are located for off from the sea are not damaged and the houses nearer to sea are fully and partly damaged.

All the 15 villages have negative impact on their dwelling houses due to

Tsunami. Nambiyar Nagar village is affected much as it is located closer to the sea and Kodiyakarai villages is comparatively affected less as the location of the hamlet is long distance from the sea.

NGOs allotted permanent shelter to the Tsunami hit villages.

Akkaraipettai, received a maximum number of 900 houses and Kodiyakarai received a minimum of 18 houses according to their damaged level. Boats, engines and nets were also distributed to the Tsunami victims by various

NGOs. Other than houses construction and distribution of boats and nets for the livelihood, NGOs have also helped the Tsunami hit villages in the development of infrastructural facilities like construction of community halls and school buildings.

Among the sample villages Akkaraipettai, Keechankuppam villages have more number of deaths and missing list compared to Kodiayakarai,

Pushpavanam, Vanavan Mahadevi due to their geographical location.

Catamaran, particularly motorized catamaran is the major fishing vehicle followed by FRP boats. Most of the nets used are Gillnets followed by

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Trawl nets and Shore seines. Less than an estimate 40 per cent of all available boats venture out into the sea in Tsunami affected Nagapattinam district.

The increased number of FRP boats will reflect in the increasing tension for fishing space and landing space. The increased concentration of FRP boats in a specified fishing ground may cause fights among fishermen for space to cast their nets in sea. Their nets may more frequently fall into each other causing damage. They also require enough space on the beach to land the craft, repair the nets and keep other equipments. There is significant difference in fishing hours for catamaran craft with all type of gears except hook and line across places in Nagapattinam district. Many fishermen have been heard complaining that their boats are hitting each other while landing, which shows per unit space they had earlier has come down and they have no other way but to adjust with the situation.

In the study villages 3,906 are fishing labourers, 106 are inland fishers and 406 people share their boat ownership. 1,448 Micro enterprises are located in the study area, which are related to fishing trade and services. Among the 15 villages only two are not having ice-plant all the other required facilities are located in the villages including women’s group in each village.

NGOs and Government have distributed relief materials inclusive of vessels, rice, bed sheet, solar lights also. Restoration work carried on to an extent of 181.19 lakhs in rural and urban areas of Nagapattinam on temporary and permanent basis. Immunization was carried on as an essential requirement

227 in the Tsunami hit Nagapattinam district for protecting the victims against disease. Essential packages have been distributed for 3 months consecutively for the Tsunami hit families.

Sample households have an income range between Rs.20,000 and

Rs.70,000. 122 households in the sample study are living in Tsunami houses, which was constructed and donated by various NGOs and Government. 85 households have FRP boats because they were donated by NGOs to the beneficiaries. The supply of boats goes to an extent of 2,396 as various NGOs took relief measures in post-tsunami compared 1,441 boats in pre-tsunami in the study area.

The majority of the fishermen in traditional sector tried to reduce the actual number of fishing trips by not venturing into the sea, majority of the mechanized units shifted from single day fishing to multi-day fishing and stay- fishing to cope up with the dwindling catch phenomenon. Number of FRP units also have increasingly shifting to multi-day fishing. Constantly increasing fuel diesel price also forces them to opt for this strategy.

The unbalanced asset distribution will retune the existing pressure exerted on various fishing grounds. There was a more or less clear fishing domain for each type of fishing unit before Tsunami, which in a way distributed the fishing pressure over various regions. But after Tsunami as the number of FRP boats has increased, there will certainly be a pressure upon the area where FRP operations are going on. On the other hand, there is a chance for a fall in the fishing pressure in catamaran operation area.

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The heavy pressure on a particular region will lead to dwindling fish catch per unit and nurture unhealthy competition among the FRP fishermen. On the other hand, this may tempt the FRP boats to increasingly join hands with mechanized boats. This will ultimately increase the existing conflict between the Indian fishermen and Sri Lankan fishermen.

Fishermen’s main sources of borrowing are relatives and friends and the other sources of local money lenders and middlemen. Their main purpose of borrowing is for conducting marriages and social functions. Fishermen borrow according to their repaying capacity because compare to labour fishermen, owner fishermen and fish exporter borrow more.

The fishermen along the Indian coasts were very particular about their self-dependency. Nagapattinam fishermen community was not an exception to this peculiar culture. They never used to look to others for help. Traditionally they were not even meticulous about accumulating wealth. Unfortunately, this unique tradition was totally uprooted with the unscrupulous pouring of aid in the form of fishing assets.

After Tsunami the majority of the fishermen among those who have savings are found to repay the loans from their savings. It is found that there is no saving habit among more than half of the fishermen respondents in the sample, as they are not willing to save and probably not aware of savings. In the sample villages Kameshwaram, Samanthnpettai and Vizhunthanmavadi sample households have insured their lives without any exceptions. 40 per cent

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(60) households have their savings in banks followed by chit fund and LIC. 34 sample fishermen have no savings.

Fishermen have membership in various community organizations like

SHGs Co-operative societies and Federation. 9,755 families in the study area having PDS card and 1,119 families are not having PDS card.

Livelihood infrastructures were supplied by Government for differently abled persons affected by Tsunami and NGOs have also helped the differently abled persons by supplying livelihood materials. SHG women in coastal areas have been given training on various activities to improve their skills and to increase their quantum of income and developed their standard of living. There was lack of proper co-ordination among NGOs, duplication activities and projects among NGOs. The vulnerable groups like members belong to

Scheduled castes and others who were living close to the seashore just abutting fishermen colony were not covered by the same quantum of relief materials.

6.2. SUGGESTIONS

The researcher wishes to make the following suggestions with a view to improve certain aspects of the fisheries sector in the study area.

The provision of fishing boats and gear has impact on its natural resources and fishing grounds damage mitigation plans; safety at sea and sustainable fisheries development. It also enunciated three principles for rehabilitation: an integrated rehabilitation plan, management for sustainable development and human resource development. The community needs to

230 restart the livelihood as soon as possible as they are worried when the relief phase is going to end. As the livelihood restoration is not an one-time activity, it needs vision, long term plans and longer-term commitments from the supporting agencies. Any plans to restore the coastal livelihoods would need at all stages of their development has to be done in consultation with the primary stakeholders, the community. It should be gender-sensitive and made so by incorporating suggestions from the women in the community. It should be seen as an opportunity to improve the social capital of the society. Investments should be aimed at improving the capacities of the community and collective actions. The livelihood restoration has to be with a developmental angle rather than disaster management. The opportunity should be utilized for development of the over all industry in the region and set developmental standards for others to follow. The plans need to be done using “ecosystem planning” methodologies, realizing that any undesired changes in the pattern of fishing and marine operations will have a negative impact on the marine and coastal ecosystem. Care should be taken at all times to reduce such scenarios at any cost.

Discrimination and exclusion in the distribution of disaster benefits violates the human rights of survivors and undermines the ability of vulnerable groups to re-establish their livelihoods. A comprehensive survey of the affected area should be subjected to measure the scope of the problem as well as to identify patterns. Allegations and incidents of discrimination in disaster

231 benefits need to be investigated by an impartial body which would recommend any needed compensation measures. A new accountability mechanism may be necessary to administer and redress violations.

• There are a number of proven technologies available with central scientific

institutions for mari culture like lobster fattening, mussel culture, pearl

oyster culture, the fisheries department should develop a detailed site

specific plain consultation with the Central institutions for the promotion of

suitable technologies, taking into account economic viability and social

feasibility.

• There is a need to improve the post harvest and processing technologies.

Training is another supporting activity to encourage women to use the low

cost and appropriate technologies available with the central scientific

institutions may be taken up by NGOs and the Department of Fisheries. The

Department of Fisheries and the NGO Coordination Centre may organize a

separate programme for this.

• The Tsunami has exposed the various limitations in the fisheries

management system of the state. A good fisheries management system

based on sound principles and participation of the fishing communities

needs to be developed in the state at the earliest. The Department of

Fisheries and NGOs with the relevant expertise should collaborate in

creating such a system.

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• Upgrade existing seismic networks to include real-time instruments that

provide more accurate earthquake magnitudes.

• Implement a plan to coordinate the exchange of data among existing

seismic networks.

• Implement 24 hr/day in-office operations at two Tsunami warning centers.

• Install network of deep water Tsunami gauges and modify existing coastal

network to survive large Tsunamis.

• Develop procedures that incorporate water level data for forecasting local

Tsunami impacts.

• Counseling to fishermen to properly utilize the vacation time in fishing

profession.

• The special concerns of women must be met, and relief and rehabilitation

must be gender-sensitive. While keeping in tune with the local culture,

agencies should not perpetuate discrimination against women and other

vulnerable groups such as minorities and migrants.

• Language must be given due attention. All information must be made

available in the local language and through media that will reach the largest

number of people.

• Equal access to aid must be ensured by registering men, women and

children individually. Women should be able to collect food and other aid

independently from male heads of household.

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• Healthcare facilities and protocols that ensure privacy, safety and

confidentiality must be provided. Women healthcare providers should be

present where ever possible, and women or gender-sensitive interpreters

should accompany doctors and nurses who do not speak the local language.

• Trained psychological counsellors must visit all temporary housing sites on

a regular basis.

• All resettlement sites should be located not more than 2 km away from a

primary school and should be connected by subsidized public transport to

local schools and colleges.

• Efforts must be made to ensure that members of fishing communities are

able to live close enough to the sea to be able to continue their livelihood

and to have access to their boats and nets.

• Since most of the post-tsunami resettlement will take place on state land, it

is imperative that the state takes urgent steps to amend outdated patriarchal

land laws and the administrative practices carried out under them, so that

women can have equal access to land ownership. Women must be granted

joint ownership for state land allocated and state land must not be allocated

only to the head of household (currently defined as the male). If the land

was in a man’s name before the tsunami, new property rights must be given

in joint ownership.

• Security of social support systems should be restored to enable people to

work collectively as communities.

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• Instead of penalizing the poorer villagers and settlements close to seashores,

governments should protect all coastline populations by establishing

reliable early warning systems using the most recent technologies and

communications systems

• Fishing communities should have free access to the coast and be able to

leave their equipment on the beach.

• Rehabilitation and resourcing of local boat builders should be emphasized.

• Bicycles should be provided to families living in remote sites where there is

no public transportation, and to women to facilitate their fish sales.

A combination of fishing implements comprising equally of motorized and non-motorized catamarans, and motorized FRP boats, was the normal scenario in almost all the fishing hamlets along the Nagapattinam coast before tsunami. Along with this, there were a number of mechanized boats in some hamlets. The catamarans and FRP boats used to operate in different fishing grounds and often for different fish varieties and thus played complementary role. However, as most of the catamarans were replaced with FRP boats, the earlier scenario witnessed rapid changes. Today there are only a few

Catamarans here and there in the hamlets and the rest of the fishery is highly dominated by the FRP boats. Motorized FRP boats that require high operating cost compared to the Catamarans are not suitable during the off season.

As literacy in the coastal areas is low, the results of research reach the fishers very slowly. The Government should organize awareness programs at

235 important fishing centers to educate the fishers about the importance of resource conservation and the methods suitable for this purpose. For the organized fishing sector, the government should enact and enforce suitable legislation. Implementation can be monitored with the help of organizations like the coast guard. Government organizations like the Central Institute of

Fisheries Technology (CIFT) should be entrusted with the task of licensing the design of fishing gear used by commercial vessels to curtail the use of totally destructive gears. Conservation and management measures for the sustainable exploitation of marine resources are attracting worldwide attention due to the poor conditions prevailing in many commercially important fisheries.

Appropriate governmental regulations have brought about positive changes in many parts of the world and they should be introduced and enforced wherever possible in the best interests of conservation and management of marine fishery resources.

The Government and NGOs give more awareness and training program about the Tsunami. Price offered for fishing should be increased. Hospital facilities can be improved with latest technology to treat to the affected person.

Proper measures should be undertaken by the government to provide good dirking water facilities. Government can implement more devices to detect the occurrence of tsunami in advance. Further under the Prime Minister’s Relief

Fund it is proposed to start 50 Trauma Care Centres which will be used for counseling as well. The concept of rehabilitation in the livelihood sector has

236 been on changing lives better by focusing on not only restoring what they had but also bringing the concept of value addition, infrastructure development and providing variety in employment to reduce overdependence on any one category of livelihood. Hence the model of new economy needs to be tried to bring greater development opportunities to this otherwise underdeveloped district.

6.3. CONCLUSION

There is an urgent need for all agencies, the government, non- government, international, local or faith-based to adhere to internationally accepted human rights standards and develop a strong rights-based approach to relief and rehabilitation work. The right to humanitarian relief must also be recognized and upheld as a basic human right. Post-tsunami rehabilitation efforts need to be focused urgently on the provision of adequate permanent housing and on comprehensive livelihood restoration. Holistic and long-term solutions must be integral to all rehabilitation packages. Furthermore, Tsunami survivors should not be merely viewed as helpless victims but should be actively included in all decision-making processes that concern them. Concerted efforts must be made to ensure that their needs are met, that their human rights are protected and fulfilled, and their dignity is upheld.

The basic business of Nagapttinam people are fishing. Nagapattinam is surrounded by sea and the fishermen families made it as their main occupation.

Majority of fishermen families in Nagapattinam is directly (or) indirectly

237 depend on fishing industry for their livings. The life style of fishermen has changed their standard of living, the climate has been drastically changed.

New diseases were occurred and the health of people was affected. Nowadays the sea is occupying the land area slowly. It is gradually increasing the ground areas are affected. There is no biogenic water supply. The remedial measures taken by the Government is not effective.

6.4. POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Formal education may equip people with certain skills or knowledge which can have protective benefits during acute disasters and should be a consideration for long-term development policies. Disaster Management seminars and Workshops may be widely conducted. Policy Decisions from political front is necessary.

Clearly, the Tsunami disaster generated extraordinary financial generosity and a political willingness to move forward on effective disaster preparedness and preventing interventions. The international community should therefore capitalize on this opportunity to implement sustainable and appropriate mechanisms to reduce the human impact of future disasters in developing and developed countries alike. It is however, only through ongoing systematic research that stronger evidence base of individual risk factors for death and injury, and therefore a better foundation for informed policy decisions will be achieved.

238

6.5. SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

• In essence, further research is required to unpack the influence of education

on individual risk factors during extreme events, the current data suggests

that the people who had received at least one year of education were at

lower risk of both death and injury due to the tsunami than those with no

history of education.

• Publishing research and analyses of the impact of Tsunami on women.

Experience of natural disasters in a wide range of contexts shows that

events of this type can weaken the status of women and girls and their

ability to negotiate both within and outside the family. The loss of assets,

homes, and family members all contribute to increased gender inequality.

• A study can be made on a wide range of direct support for education. The

researcher can also focus primarily on children’s physical, psychosocial and

educational well being.

• A study can be made on the Psychological Trauma of Tsunami affected

people. The long-term psychological effect of the Tsunami with the hope of

developing effective interventions for people can be analyzed.

• Research can be made on enhanced social life on various grounds:

community, economy, lifestyle and education.

• An analysis can be done on the impact of Tsunami on local ecosystem. The

physical structure has been damaged by the force of the wave itself,

physical removal of flora and fauna and increased sediment load which

would have killed sediment sensitive corals and sea grasses by smothering.

The extent of this damage depending on the local topography and

hydrology can be assessed.

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Websites ❈ [email protected]. ❈ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. ❈ http://www.asianfisheriessociety.org. ❈ http://www1.american.edu. ❈ http://www.chikyu.ac.jp ❈ http://www.daveberger.net ❈ http://www.law.berkeley.edu ❈ http://linkinghub.elsevier.com ❈ [email protected] ❈ [email protected] ❈ [email protected]. ❈ http://www.policyinnovations.org ❈ http://redalyc.uaemex.mx ❈ http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com. ❈ https://www.ideals.illinois.edu. ❈ www.elsevier.com ❈ http://www.unisdr.org ❈ http://pdfcast.org. ❈ http://www.gwob.net/issues/pdf/tlp_full-report.pdf. ❈ http://www.cised.org/wp-content/uploads/j-human-ecology ❈ http://aquaticcommons.org. ❈ http://connection.ebscohost.com. ❈ [email protected] ❈ http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/kamakshithesis.pdf. ❈ http://www.chikyu.ac. ❈ http://www.chikyu.ac. ❈ http://www.icar.org.in/files/fishn.pdf ❈ www.traumavidya.org.

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❈ http://www.wsws.org. ❈ http://ezinearticles.com/?Safety-Tips-When-Tsunami-Strikes ❈ http://www.mssrf.org/ecotech/ebook/et-pub-02.pdf. ❈ http://www.disasterwatch.net ❈ [email protected]. ❈ [email protected] ❈ http://dx.doi.org ❈ http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx ❈ http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Steven_Milbrandt ❈ http://ezinearticles.com http://sez-india.blogspot.com ❈ http://www.dakshin.org. ❈ [email protected] ❈ [email protected] ❈ http://www.mssrf.org/ecotech/ebook/et-pub-02.pdf. ❈ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ❈ http://www.tatnews.org ❈ [email protected] ❈ www.pnas.org/DCSupplemental. ❈ [email protected] ❈ http://www.springerlink.com

Appendices

Questionnaire A 1

QUESTIONNAIRE

I. GENERAL INFORMATION OF THE RESPONDENTS

1.1. Name of the respondent

1.2. Age

1.3. Religion and caste

1.4. Community

1.5. Nativity : Own village/Other villages

1.5. Panchayat

1.6. Village/Hamlet

1.7. Block

1.8. Nearest town

1.9. Telephone connection : Available/ Not available

1.10. Type of family

1.10.1. at present : Nucleus/Joint

1.10.2. at the time of purchasing the first boat : Nucleus/Joint

1.11. House Hold Particulars

Name of Marital S. the Sex Educational Economic Occupational Relationship Age Status Income No. members Male/Female Status Status Status M/S/W in family 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A 2

Educational: 1. Illitreate 2. Upto 5 th Std. 3. 10 th 4. Higher Sec. 5. Graduate and above

Marital Status : M. Married S. Single W. Windowed

1.12. Housing Facilities

S. Government Type of house Rented Owned Purambokku No. and NGOs 1 Thatched 2 Tiled 3 Terraced 4 House Plot 5 Tsunami house

II. LOSS OF LIVES AND LIABILITIES

No. of deaths in your family Economic loss

2.1. Earth quake Response

2.1.1. Did you feel the earthquake?

[ ] No [ ] Weak [ ] Mild [ ] Moderate [ ] Strong [ ] Violent

2.1.2. If yes, how many seconds did the shaking last? _____seconds

2.1.3. Did others around you feel the earthquake?

[ ] None [ ] Some [ ] Most [ ] Almost Everyone

2.1.4. How did you respond?

Took no Action : Y/N

Moved to Doorway : Y/N

Dropped and covered : Y/N

Ran outside : Y/N

Moved towards others : Y/N

A 3

2.1.5. Position of building in relation to the sea

Approx : Miles/ Meters / Yards

3.1. Damages of House

Type of House Kacha House Pucca Houses 0-200 200-500 >500 0-200 200-500 >500 PD FD UD PD FD PD FD PD FD UD PD FD PD FD

Kacha House/Pucca House: 1 .PD. partly damaged 2.FD. Fully Damaged

3.UD. Undamaged

4.1 Damages of Fishing Crafts

Number of S. Fishing Crafts Crafts No. Damaged 1 Catamaran 2 Catamaran with net 3 Catamaran net 4 Vallam net 5 Mechanized boat fully damaged 6 Mechanized boat partly damaged 7 Vallam fully damaged(inclusive net) 8 Vallam fully damaged (exclusive net) 9 Vallam partly damaged 10 OBM engine partly damaged

A 4

III. INFRASTRUCTURE/FISH CATCH BEFORE AND AFTER TSUNAMI

3.1. What boat maximum used before/after Tsunami

If yes, mention the type of boat used

S. Category of boats If yes, boat Used No. 1 Catamaran 2 FRP / Vallam boats 3 Mechanized boats

3.2. What type of net you own?

If yes, mention the type of net and fishing hours

S. Owned Type of Net If yes, Fishing Hours No. Yes No 1 Catamaran 2 Hook/Line 3 Drift Net 4 Sardine Net 5 Disco Net 6 Gil-Netters 7 Prawn Net

3.3. What type of fish maximum catches per Trip?

If yes, mention the type of fish catch

S. Variety of Fish Catch / Trip(Kg) Catch/Annum(60 Trips/Year No. 1 Prawns 2 Cuttlefish 3 Rays 4 Croakers 5 Ribbon Fishes

A 5

3.4. How many seasons you go for fishing? (Season –Wise)

3.5. What will you do if you did not go for fishing and in season days?

3.6. How many days you go for fishing in a month? (Average-Days)

3.7. How many days you go for other work in a month? (Average-Days)

IV. FAMILY LIFE OF FISHERMEN

4.1. To what extent Tsunami has changed your livelihood patterns

Are you Joint family or Single family? Yes/No

Who is Responsibility for family maintenance? (Husband/Wife)

Is your relationship good with your children? Yes/No

Are the women in your family given education? Yes/No

Do you prefer staying at home or going out and doing new activities? Yes/No

Are you satisfied with this retrieved life? Yes/No

V. DETAILS OF RELIEF TO DIFFERENTLY ABLED IN GOVERNMENT / NGOS

5.1. Did you get Houses built by the Government/ NGOs Yes/No

5.2. Have you Fiber received boat from government/ NGOs Yes/No

5.3. Did you receive Suzuki boat from government/ NGOs Yes/No

5.4. Did you receive Maruthi boat from government/ NGOs Yes/No

VI. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF FISHERMEN 5.1. Sources of income S. Particulars Amount in Rs. No. 1. Agriculture 2. Net Making 3. Basket Making 4. Live Stock 5. Poultry 6. Business Other if any(Specify) Sub Total

A 6

5.2. Expense of the respondents S. Expenses Below 10,000 Above 20,000 No. 1 Food 2 Clothing 3 Medical 4 Fuel 5 Social function

5.3. What are the sources of finance for the purchase of wood, nylon, catamaran boat, repairing house?

i. Fishermen Cooperative Society ii. Commercial Bank iii. Private Money Lender iv. Relative and Friends 5.4. Do have savings? : Yes/No 5.5. If yes, the method of saving S. Source of Saving Amount in Rs. No. 1. Bank 2. Investment in land 3. Post office saving 4. Investment in Business 5. Chit fund 6. Keeping liquid cash Others if any(specify) 7. Sub total

How do you meet your expenses in times of natural calamities, when there is no possibility? i. Using Savings ii. Borrow from others Are you insured (Insurance Policy) : Yes/No Do you want to change your profession from fishing: Yes/No What are the suggestions for the development of fishermen community?

Photos A 7

Tsunami water intrusion inside hamlets

Thatched houses destructed by Tsunami

A 8

Gushing of violent Tsunami waves inside towns few kilometers far from sea

Volunteers exposing a Tsunami victim dead body from the affected area

A 9

Researcher interacting with dryfish vendor

Researcher along with SHG women in the field work

A 10

Researcher collecting data from fishermen folks

Researcher gathering information about fishing nets

A 11

Fishermen in sea while fishing

Researcher with fishermen and their FRP boats

A 12

Researcher interacting with fishermen folks

Fishermen with their crafts before going to sea

A 13

Entrance of Tsunami Houses constructed by Matha Amirthananthamayi Mutt

Houses built by Government

A 14

Entrance of Tsunami Houses constructed by world vision

Tsunami houses built by NGOs near Akkaraipettai

Publications Reprint A 15

A 16

A 17

A 18

A 19

A 20

A 21

A 22

A 23

A 24

A 25

A 26

A 27

A 28

A 29

A 30

A 31

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A 33