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The Neue Marx-Lektüre Putting the Critique of Political Economy Back Into the Critique of Society

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The Neue Marx-Lektüre Putting the Critique of Political Economy Back Into the Critique of Society The Neue Marx-Lektüre Putting the critique of political economy back into the critique of society Riccardo Bellofiore and Tommaso Redolfi Riva The project to re-examine Marx’s critique of politi- tries to answer the following questions. Why value? cal economy at the end of the 1960s by pupils of Why is value nothing but an expression of labour? Horkheimer and Adorno is nowadays known as the What are the conditions of possibility of the existence Neue Marx-Lektüre (hereafter NML). This ‘new of value, which is an ‘objective social dimension’, reading of Marx’, initiated principally by Alfred according to which commodities are exchanged? And Schmidt, Hans-Georg Backhaus and Helmut Reichelt, why does the content of value (i.e. labour) take on attempted to free Marx from the petrified schemes the form of a thing – that is, money?1 These ques- of Marxist orthodoxy. In this article we will try to tions, which can be found more or less explicitly in reconstruct the beginnings of this project, tracing Capital and in the preparatory works for Capital (at its roots to Adorno’s critical theory of society. From least from the Grundrisse), were, with very few excep- this perspective we will proceed to examine NML’s tions, not seriously addressed by Marx’s followers and original approach to Marx’s theory of value, its under- interpreters. standing of the ‘logical’ character of this theory, and This changed in the 1960s with the contributions how the contradictions of the commodity form and of Backhaus, Reichelt and Schmidt. Emerging from the double character of labour constitute an autono- the Frankfurt School at the height of its postwar mization of society. Finally, we will outline some influence on the New Left, they contributed deci- problems with NML, where criticism and further sively to the revitalization of the (West) German dialogue would be fruitful. study of Marx. The general issues raised were Marx’s relationship with Hegel, the continuity or not of The birth of the Neue Marx-Lektüre his value theory with political economy, the nature According to many interpretations of Marx, he pro- of his materialism, and so on. But at the heart of posed a labour theory of value which revised that these issues was the radicalization of Marx’s break of Ricardo. These interpretations tend to focus on with classical political economy, especially that of the first two sections of the first chapter of Capital, Ricardo, and the resulting break that this induced leaving the sections about the form of value and the with classical Marxism. A new heterodox reading of fetish character of the commodity to play a sup- Marx emerged.2 plementary role. According to this approach, Marx Backhaus can be considered as the initiator of first looks at the commodity as both ‘use-value’ NML. In 1965 he held a seminar as part of Adorno’s and ‘exchange-value’. Then he argues that behind course at the University of Frankfurt. Under Adorno’s exchange-value there must be something common influence, he elaborated the essential elements of to commodities that are exchanged, which grounds a new interpretation of Marx. Four years later he their commensurability – that is, ‘value’. Finally, he published the best known and most widely translated connects this value to labour. This may appear com- of his essays, ‘On the Dialectics of the Value-form’. plete; however, if we stop here we miss the whole This was the blueprint of the research programme point of Marx’s theory of value. that became NML. Backhaus saw in the established What actually distinguishes Marx’s critique of reception of Marx’s critique of political economy political economy from the economic theories before a collapse of Marx’s theory of value into that of him, as well as those after him, is the theory of the Ricardo, and a consequent misunderstanding of the form of value. Marx’s critique of political economy specifically Marxian approach to political economy. 24 RadicaL PhiLosoPhy 189 (jaN/feb 2015) These misunderstandings included: treating Marx’s Adorno’s legacy dialectical ‘method of presentation’ as mere word- Reichelt has claimed that the discovery of the first play or the logical mirroring of a historical process; edition of Capital would have had no consequences and treating his argument about the form of value if it happened to someone who had not attended as a historical-logical overview of the emergence of Adorno’s lectures on the dialectical theory of society.6 money, or simply ignoring it altogether. As Backhaus The reason is that the uniqueness of Marx’s critique put it: ‘The “economistic” interpretation … is bound of political economy lies in what Adorno termed ‘the to miss the critical intention of Marx’s value theory: anamnesis of the genesis’. Marx’s critique of political the “Critique of Political Economy” is made into one economy represents, in fact, a theory of the constitu- economic theory beside many others.’3 But Backhaus tion of society as a subjective–objective reality.7 As also made clear that this misunderstanding of Marx’s Backhaus explains: society is ‘objective’ since it is conception of form is not a simple failure to under- ‘abstract universality which subsumes and dominates stand what Marx wrote, since Marx himself was not particulars’.8 At the same time, society is subjective able to develop a definitive exposition of the form ‘because it only exists and reproduces itself by virtue of value. Hence, the only way to understand the of human beings’.9 critical intention of the dialectic of the form of value The concept of society as subjective–objective requires reconstructing it from its partial expression reality was essential for Adorno: a society where in a range of Marx’s texts, following the different exchange is systematically dominant ‘extends nature versions of the argument from 1859 (Contribution to in a heteronomous manner’.10 In an exchange society, the Critique of Political Economy) to the second edition reproduction in the social realm is akin to a natural of CapitaI. necessity; capitalist society is a specific structure in Both Backhaus and Reichelt date the birth of the which individual actions erect an objective realm NML to Backhaus stumbling upon a copy of the that dominates social agents themselves. The capi- first edition of Capital in the library of the Frank- talist mode of production destroys the antithesis furter Walter-Kolb-Studentenheim in 1963: ‘after a between nature and history. The legality to which first look it was possible to notice a categorial dif- social agents are submitted is a social construction, ference in the construction of the concepts and in but this social construction acts on social agents as a the positing of the problems of the theory of value, law of nature: ‘the objectivity of historic life is that of which, in the second edition, were only sketched.’4 natural history’.11 Dialectical social theory must show Backhaus began to examine the text in a private that ‘society – what has been made independent – is, working group with Reichelt, Walter Euchner, G. in turn, no longer intelligible; only the law of becom- Dill, Gisela Kress, Gert Schäfer and Dieter Senghaas. ing independent is intelligible.’12 What they found most interesting was the presence Capitalist society is a whole, a totality, a universal of a dialectical contradiction in the analysis of the according to Adorno: ‘there is nothing socially factual ‘equivalent form’ of value, something that was more which would not have its place in that totality. It difficult to detect in the second edition of Capital. is pre-established for all individual subjects since The Hegelian concept of ‘doubling’ [Verdopplung] – they obey its “contrainte” even in themselves’.13 And in those years analysed by Karl Heinz Haag (an assis- exchange is the synthetic principle that immanently tant of Horkheimer) and used by Marx in the first determines the connection of every social fact.14 edition’s presentation of the form of value – assumed Exchange realizes the ‘objective’ social connection.15 a new logical sense.5 It is the principle of mediation that guarantees the From this perspective, Marx’s dialectics in Capital reproduction of society through a process of abstrac- had to be treated as a logical issue, and not as some tion that ‘implies the reduction of the products to vague philosophical wording empty of theoretical be exchanged to their equivalents, to something consequences. In fact, NML’s point of departure lies abstract, but by no means – as traditional discussion in a critical rediscovery of Marx’s method of pres- would maintain – to something material’.16 entation. The dialectical concepts of contradiction, Adorno maintains that it is possible, starting doubling, semblance, phenomenal manifestation, from the analysis of the exchange, to understand the substance, and so on, were expunged by orthodox autonomization of society that characterizes capital- and/or ‘economistic’ readings. For NML, by contrast, ist society. The abstraction present in every exchange they became the key to understanding Marx’s cri- is not subjective, because it is ‘independent both of tique of political economy. the consciousness of the human beings subjected to 25 it and of the consciousness of the scientists’.17 In the other concepts of the critical theory … are exposed capitalist mode of production there exists a princi- to the accusation of social-theoretical speculation.’24 ple of ‘reduction to unity’ that allows the exchange NML can therefore be understood as a project to between commodities. ‘What makes commodities deepen and even to ground Adorno’s critical theory exchangeable is the unity of socially necessary of society. abstract labour time’. But such a unity is not deter- mined through a subjective process of abstraction Hermeneutical perspectives executed by exchangers; rather, ‘abstract labour time While Western Marxism privileged the early works of abstracts from living opponents’ who are embedded Marx as a key to understanding his later works, NML in a social relationship that has become autono- reads Marx’s critique of political economy as the key mous.18 Money is ‘accepted by naive consciousness to understanding his work as a whole.
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