BarryKosmin Old Questions and New Issues for Organized Secularism in the United States 1Introduction Americansecularism is afeature of American exceptionalism.¹ It is unique in its origins as well as its composition. Ihavesuggested thatAmerican history since 1776 has produced alternations between eras of Christian religious ‘awakenings’ and periods of ‘secular’ or non-religious dominance and so, in effect,acontin- uous ‘culture war’ over the nature and purpose of the American nation (Kosmin 2014a). Recentlynationalsocial trends seem to suggest the country is enteringa new secular phase (Kosmin 2013). The ARIS 2008 findingsshowed that half of U.Shouseholds did not currentlybelong to areligious congregation and on the averageSunday73% of Americans did not go to Church. While 27%ofAmer- icans did not anticipateareligious funeral, 30 %ofAmericans did not believein apersonal biblical style God (Kosmin et al 2009). And more recent surveys have confirmed these data and trends so we maybeatanimportant tipping point in U.S. history.The evidence demonstrates that the Zeitgeist,ifnot the Force, is with the secular and secularizing Nonesand this developmentmakes the analysis and studyofsecularism per se of major relevance for American social science. Religious conservatism, faith-based initiatives, religion-related terrorism, the New Atheist texts,and increasing use of digital and ‘social’ media have ener- gized and emboldened secularist advocates,networks,and organizations at both local and national levels. Accelerated growth in membership has been re- ported in recent years by nationwide organizations with clear secularist agendas includingthe Freedom From Religion Foundation (FFRF), Center for Inquiry (CFI), American Atheists (AA),AmericanHumanist Association (AHA), Secular Student Alliance (SSA)and the Military Association of Atheists and Freethinkers (MAFF). On the intentional side, public advertising campaigns and events have been mounted in major cities. This new secularist surge of activism has been framed, in part,asanidentity politics issue and movement in the United States. Some present themselvesasmembers of amarginalized and maligned minority The termssecular,secularist/secularism, secularize,and secularization here are used in the sense discussed in the Introductiontothis volume; referringrespectively to non-religious,ideol- ogythat endorses non-religion, activities or process of reducingthe influence of religion, and the outcome of that process. OpenAccess. ©2017 BarryKosmin,published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110458657-015 Brought to you by | Sacred Heart University Authenticated Download Date | 1/11/18 4:22 PM 302 BarryKosmin (not unlike gays and lesbians) whose rights have been curtailed or denied (Cra- gunetal. 2012). Such efforts maybehaving an effect.References to atheists (or nonbelievers), even in the American ‘publicsquare’,havebecome noticeably more frequent and prominent – such as, for example, President Barack Obama’s inclusion of nonbelievers in his first inaugural address (Grossman 2009) and ref- erences to ‘agnostic and atheist brothers and sisters’ by speakers at anti-capital- ist rallies(Landsberg2011). Nevertheless,until quiterecentlysociologicalworkonsecularizationvirtually ignoredactiveororganized formsofatheism andthe myriad of othersecularist constructs or thosethatshare criticismorrejection of religious ideas, behavior, or institutions, such as freethought, secularhumanism, skepticism,positivism, andphilosophical materialismornaturalism (Pasquale2007; 2010). ColinCamp- bell noted ‘[t]hefactthatirreligious movementsact as agents of secularization hasstrangely enough been overlooked by sociologists in theircontributionto thecontinuingsecularization debate […]one hastosearchhardtofindexamples of sociologists referringtomaterialabout irreligion in this context’ (1971: 7).As Beckfordsummarizedthe matter: [T]hey have tended to overlook, omit or deliberately ignore the significanceofboth organ- ized and diffuse attacks on religion. It is as if the progress of secularization could be ade- quatelyaccounted for in terms of the effect of abstract culturalforces, such as class struggle or functionaldifferentiation, without consideration of the agents and agencies that actively campaigned for secularism and secular societies.Given that awide rangeofcampaigns, movements and voluntary associationspromoted secularism, rationalism, atheism and hu- manism in Britain and elsewhere, it is important to consider their direct and indirect con- tributionstosecularization and to interpretations of secularization. (2003:36) It could be argued that in the U.S. the paucity of scholarlyattention to organized secularism until recentlywas justified because it reflected the societal reality of the lack of institutionalization and divisions that has bedeviled free thinkers and secularistsinthe U.S. for more than acentury. Onlyasmall percentageofthe millions who could be identified as Seculars belong to explicitlysecularist groups.Infact,secularism could be described as aclassic leaderless movement in America (Cragun&Fazzino, this volume). Despiteacceleratinggrowth in re- cent years, numbers of atheist and secularist group affiliates have always been, and remain, extremelysmall—not onlywith respect to the populations of the societies in which they emerge,but with respect to thosepeople who rea- sonablymay be characterized as substantiallyorthoroughly nonreligious (Budd 1977;Campbell 1971). Historicallyevenduringperiods of substantiallydeclining religiosity such as the 1930s and 1960s, secularist organizations failed to capital- ize on their opportunitywith even remotelyproportionate growth rates (Demer- Brought to you by | Sacred Heart University Authenticated Download Date | 1/11/18 4:22 PM Old Questions and New Issues forOrganized Secularism in the United States 303 ath and Thiessen 1966;Warren 1943). As SteveBruce (2002) and John Shook (this volume) have suggested, the natural restingstate of secularitytends to be pas- sive indifference to religion, apatheism, rather than active atheism or irreligion. Secularist organizations (like the American Humanist Association, Council for Secular Humanism, Freedom From Religion Foundation and American Athe- ists) have been advocating secularization in the United States for decades, par- ticularlyaswatchdogsregardinginfringement of constitutional church-state sep- aration. While their activities has triggered skirmishes with religious advocates along the way, incremental increases in the population of Nonesseem more at- tributable to cultural, political, or demographic factors than to organized inten- tional activity.Asurge of religious abandonment in the 1960s and 70s, for exam- ple, was largely attributable to developmental adolescent apostasy in the Baby Boom generation (Putnam and Campbell 2010). Some Baby Boomers returned to organized religion but manydid not,giving waytoincreasing proportions of ‘Nones’ in succeeding cohorts as future generations werenot raised in areli- gion. Hout and Fischer concluded that ‘changeinthe religious preferences of be- lievers in the 1990s contributed more to the increase in no religious preference than disbelief did’ (2002: 178). Much like organized religion, secularism is adiverse and pluralist tradition producing competingvisions and organizations. Or,alternatively and negatively, it can be pictured as aweak worldview movement rent by lack of consensus on definitions and goals from its inception (Rectenwald, Mastiaux, this volume). Secularism has had asectarian quality since its beginningsbecause of the man- ner in which diversityofphilosophicalapproach to “human consciousness” as demonstratedinthe Shook’selaborate taxonomy(this volume) weretranslated into calls for social and political action with regard to religion. This uncertainty has produced avariety of binaries thatcan be described as “soft” and “hard” secularism (Kosmin2007). On one sideisthe “substitutionist” or “accommada- tionist” tradition of Holyoake, Huxley and Dewey,and before them the “soft” thinkers of the Enlightenment,such as John Locke, Adam Smith, and Thomas Jefferson, whose view of humanity led them to doubt that secularization would be sweeping,thorough and total. The SundayAssembly(see chapters by Smith and Frost in this volume) maybeseen as acontemporary illustration of this tradition. On the “hard” side standsthe “eliminationist” and “confronta- tionist” tradition of “out Atheists” likeBradlaugh, Marxist-Leninists and nowa- days the New Atheists (Campbell 1971,54). The Atheist Alliance and the Ameri- can Atheists (see chapters by Mastiaux, and Fazzino&Cragun in this volume) are contemporary examples of this second type. Disagreements over strategyand style reflect these longstanding and deep ideological divisionsamong secularists (Richter and Langston this volume). In Brought to you by | Sacred Heart University Authenticated Download Date | 1/11/18 4:22 PM 304 BarryKosmin the contemporary U.S. the degree to which active atheism, particularlyasadvo- cated by the New Atheism, mayhavecontrary effects – promptingreligious back- lash, promotion, and reactionary adherence – cannot be discounted (Bullivant 2010;Kosmin 2014b). This hostility to atheism as aresult of its radical image, of course, is longstandingand consistent with the teachings of John Lockein ALetter Concerning Toleration (1689). As in the past,this negative reaction prompts debate and disagreementamong