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Information to Users INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMI* Conservation of the Dugong {Dugong dugon) along the Andaman Coast of Thailand; An Example of the Integration of Conservation and Biology in Endangered Species Research By Ellen Marie Hines B.A., Mills College, 1974 M.A., San Diego State University, 1997 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Geography We accept this dissertation as conforming to the required standard (DepartmënT&^eoCTaphv) Member (Department of Geography) Dr. K.O. ^em ann. Departmental Member (Department of Geography) Dr. G.X. Allen, Outside Member (Department of Biology) Dr. S.G. Allen, External Examiner (Department of Biology, Sonoma State University) © Ellen Marie Hines, 2002 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author. 11 Supervisor: Dr. David A. Duffiis ABSTRACT This project investigates the integration of scientific methodology with community and other locally relevant management issues using dugong research on the Andaman coast of Thailand. I examine the role of science, the scientist, government, and the community in wildlife conservation issues. I then make recommendations for an integrated conservation management process for marine mammals and their habitats that are directly endangered by human activities. The dugong {Dugong dugon) is classified as vulnerable by the World Conservation Union (lUCN) based on declines in occurrence and quality o f habitat, as well as human exploitation. The dugong was once common along tropical coasts from East Africa to Australia, but is currently considered rare over most of this range. In Thailand, dugongs are now largely confined to seagrass areas off the Andaman coast. The dugong is close to extinction in Thailand, and has been declared a reserved and protected aquatic species under the Thai Fisheries Act since 1947. Although the overall population consists of small groups scattered along the coast, I observed up to 89 animals in aerial surveys at Muk and Libong Islands in Trang province. In 2000 and 2001,1 carried out aerial surveys using strip transects in areas with known dugong presence based on interviews, as well as previous aerial and seagrass surveys. The estimated minimum abundance in Trang is 123 animals, with a maximum of 13 calves. The largest group seen is 53 dugongs in the seagrass beds southeast of Libong Island. I also completed seagrass surveys at 10 sites along the Andaman coast. Interviews were conducted with 146 villagers along the coast to determine the Ill modem and historical role of the dugong in the areas that border populations. While interviews showed an awareness of conservation issues in the various communities, the dugong is caught in the middle of a conflict between small-scale coastal fishers and commercial trawlers that deplete local fishing resources and destroy seagrass beds. These commercial trawlers are also responsible for a high rate of incidental catch of dugongs. It is estimated that at least 10 dugongs are killed each year by being trapped in various types o f fishing gear. Only a small percentage of these incidents are reported. While sample size and frequency is not sufficient for statistical population trend analysis, it is reasonable to assume that this level of mortality is unsustainable to a population this small. Australian researchers have estimated that dugongs can only afford to lose 1% of adult females per year if they are to survive. If problems of incidental catch, habitat destruction, and the use of dugong body parts as medicine and amulets are not resolved, the extinction of dugongs along the Andaman coast is a strong possibility. This is an example of the imminent need for integrated conservation planning that includes communication and collaboration among scientists, government, management, educators, and the community. In any conservation process, it is necessary to understand the historical and socioeconomic perspective interactions between people and nature. For example, in Thailand, historical conflicts between small-scale and commercial fishers have created a level of desperation and environmental degradation that places the dugong at risk. Local non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) have played an important role in educating communities about the near-shore environment. Focal species concepts and the designation o f marine protected areas can be used as tools in a conservation process. IV Effective use of focal species such as indicator and flagship species can create a structure to combine biological assessment with an awareness of socio-economic context. The use of marine protected areas has been shown to be most effective when based on a foundation of ecological knowledge as well as the support of the surrounding community. Communication between scientists, government, and the community is crucial for effective conservation planning. Scientists can be a catalyst for social change by communicating the importance of the implications of their research, and collaborating with agencies, users, educators, local scientists, and NGO’s. Examiners: Dr. D. A. Duffi ^nt of geography) Dr. P. Member (Department of Geography) Dr. K.O^Niemann, Departmental Member (Department of Geography) Dr. G A. Allen, Outside Member (Department of Biology) Dr. S.G. Allen, External Examiner (Department of Biology, Sonoma State University) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Table of Contents V List of Tables vii List of Figures viii Acknowledgements xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 General Background 1 The Integration of Conservation and Biology in Endangered Species Research: A Literature Review 8 2.1 Nature of the Problem 8 2.2 Conservation Research for Terrestrial Mammals 10 2.3 Conservation Research for Cetaceans 17 2.4 Conservation Research for the Sirenia 22 2.5 Summary 28 3 The Case Study: Dugongs Along the Andaman Coast of Thailand 35 3.1 Objectives 36 3.2 Project Background 36 3.2.1 Coastal degradation, fisheries exploitation, and seagrass beds 36 3.2.2 Dugongs in Thailand 39 3.3 Previous research on the dugong in Thailand 51 3.3.1 Distribution and abundance 51 3.3.2 Other research on dugongs in Thailand 51 3.3.3 Conservation status and relevant legislation 55 3.3.4 Current events 59 3.4 Study area 62 3.5 Research design 68 3.5.1 Aerial surveys 69 3.5.1.1 Helicopter surveys 70 3.5.1.2 Microlite strip transect surveys 71 3.5.2 Habitat assessment 81 3.5.3 Interviews 86 4 Results and Discussion 91 4.1 Aerial surveys 91 4.1.1 Helicopter surveys 91 4.1.2 Microlite surveys 93 VI 4.1.2.1 Trang province 93 4.1.2.2 Krabi province 121 4.1.2.3 Phuket and Phang-nga provinces 121 4.2 Seagrass surveys 125 4.2.1 Seagrass research in 2000 125 4.2.2 Seagrass research in 2001 126 4.3 Interviews 133 4.3.1 History 135 4.3.2 Patterns 137 4.3.3 Threats 145 4.3.4 Conservation 146 4.3.5 Locations and history of strandings 150 4.3.6 Medicinal use 154 4.4 Summary of Results 156 4.5 Discussion 156 4.5.1 Overview 156 4.5.2 Summary of Findings 157 4.5.3 Research needs 174 4.5.4 Summary of Discussion 176 5 The Integration of Conservation and Biology in Marine Mammal 178 Conservation 5.1 Re-examination of the Case Study 181 5.2 Focal Species Theory and its Relevance in the Applied Conservation of Marine Mammals 188 5.3 The Role of Collaborations 196 5.4 Protected Areas for Marine Mammals 201 5.5 Chapter Summary 205 6 Summary 213 7 Literature cited 219 8 Appendices 246 8.1 Interview Forms 246 8.2 Aerial Survey Effort Logs 254 8.3 Aerial Survey Sightings Logs 261 VIU LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. A diagram showing the format of an idealized endangered 34 species conservation process. Figure 2. Dugong distribution in the Indo-Pacific region. 40 Figure 3. Dugong and seagrass habitat areas along the Andaman coast of 42 Thailand. Figure 4. Dugong mural at elementary school on Libong Island, Trang 49 province. Figure 5. Boundaries of Had Chao Mai National Park and the Libong 50 Island Non-Hunting Zone. Figure 6. Dugong population group numbers and sighting areas from 52 Adulyanukosol et al. (1997). Figure 7. Boundaries of restricted fishing (no trawlers, purse seines, or 58 push nets) areas as outlined by the Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives in 1985 and 1998. Figure 8. Seagrass beds and possible survey sites between Ranong and 65 Kuraburi. Figure 9. Seagrass beds and possible survey sites between Thap Lamu 66 and the Three Islands. Figure 10. Seagrass beds and possible survey sites between Lanta Noi 67 Island and Satun.
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